Bases for Propositional Logic - Law of Identity or “Logical Identity”, Law of Excluded

Middle, Law of Non-Contradiction

Proposition - It is a declarative sentence that is either false or true (NOT both).

Propositional Game –

Compound Proposition - it is a new proposition constructed by combining one (1) or more

existing propositions.

*Negation ( or!)

*Logical Conjunction ( )

*Logical Disjunction ( )

*Implication ( or )
*Bi-conditional ( or )

*XOR or exclusive OR ( )

Precedence of Logical Operators

Tautology – It is any statement that is TRUE regardless of the truth values of the constituent parts.
Contradiction– It is any statement that is FALSE regardless of the truth values of the
constituent parts.

Contingency–It is any statement that is NEITHER a tautology NOR a contradiction.

Logical Equivalence -These are two (2) different compound propositions that have EXACTLY
the SAME/IDENTICAL truth value in every mode.

Set - It is a well-defined and an unordered collection/aggregate of objects of any kind; the

objects are referred as elements, or members of the set

Universal Set - is the set that contains all elements relevant to a particular discussion or problem.

Notation –
Infinite Set - The number of elements in a set are NOT COUNTABLE.
Finite Set - The number of elements in a set are COUNTABLE.
Define/Represent a Set - Roster Method, Descriptive or Set Builder Method.
Set Equality - It states that the two (2) given sets are identical, if and only if they contain EXACTLY
THE SAME elements.

Subset - It is a set contained in a larger set or in an equal set.

Proper Subset - It is a subset that is not equal to the set it belongs to

Number of Subset - The number of subsets of a set with n elements is 2n.

Number of Proper Subset - The number of proper subsets of a set with n elements is 2n– 1.
Venn diagram - It is a way of visually representing sets of items or numbers by using their logical
relationships to decide how they should be grouped together.

Set Complement –

Set Intersection ( )–

Set Union ( )
Set Difference (-)

Symmetric Difference ( )

Predicate Logic - It is also known as the propositional function or open sentence, it is a

proposition who’s TRUTH VALUE depends on the VALUE of the SUBJECT of a statement, It is expressed
as P(x).

Domain/Universe of Discourse - It is the set from which the value of the subject x may be
chosen for a given P(x).

Quantification - It expresses the extent to which a predicate P is TRUE (or FALSE) for ALL possible
values in the universe of discourse or for SOME value(s) in the universe of discourse.

Universal Quantification - It is represented by ( ), which means “FOR ALL”.

Counterexample - It is an element/object for which P(x) is FALSE.

Existential Quantification - It is represented by ( ), which means “THERE EXISTS”

Rules of Quantification Denial (QD) - It states that when a universe of discourse is

defined for the variable x, then for any propositional function P(x).

Nested Quantifier - It is a quantifier that appears within the scope of another quantifier.
Quantifications of Two (2) Variables

Example - Let P (x,y) be the statement “x + y = 1”, where the domain for x is {2} and {3} for y. Express
the quantification ( x, y)P(x,y) in English sentence and determine its truth value.

Example - Let P (x,y) be the statement “xy = 6” , where the domain of x and y is the set of all integers.
Express the quantification the quantification ( x, y) P(x,y) in English sentence.

Example - Let P (x,y) be the statement “x + y = 10”, where the domain of all variables consists of all real
numbers. Express the quantification ( x, y) P(x,y) in English sentence and determine its truth value.
Number Theory - It is a branch of mathematics concerned with integers and their
properties.

Divisibility - It means dividing a number evenly. (d divides n if there is no

remainder on the division), (d does not divide n).
Divisibility Rules –
 2 divides n if the last digit of the number is even (e. g. 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8).
Example –

 3 divides n if the sum of the digits is divisible by 3.

Example –

 4 divides n if the number formed by the last two (2) digits is divisible by 4.
Example –

 5 divides n if the last digit is either 0 or 5.

Example –

 6 divides n if it is divisible by 2 and it is divisible by 3.

Example –

 To find out if 7 divides n, take the last digit, double it, and subtract it from
the rest of the number.
 If you get an answer divisible by 7 (including zero), then the original
number is divisible by seven; if you don't know the new number's
divisibility, you can apply the rule again.
Example –

 8 divides n if the number formed by the last three digits is divisible by 8

Example –

 9 divides n if the sum of the digits is divisible by 9.

Example –

 10 divides n if the last digit is 0.

Example –
  11 divides n if the difference between the sum of one set of alternate digits
(from left to right) and the sum of the other set of alternate digits (from left
to right) is 0 or divisible by 11
Example –

 12 divides n, if the number is divisible by both 3 and 4 (it passes both the 3
rule and 4 rule above).
Example-

Prime Numbers - These are positive integer’s p (greater than 1) that cannot be divided by
any number except themselves and 1.

Procedures on finding out the prime number

 Write the numbers from 1 to 100 in 10 rows of 10.
 Cross off number 1 because all primes are greater than 1
 Number 2 is a prime, so we can keep it, but we need to cross off the multiples of 2 (i.e.
even numbers).
 Number 3 is also a prime, so again, we keep it and cross off the multiples of 3.
 The next number left is 5 (because four has been crossed off), so we keep it and cross
of the multiples of this number.
 The final number left in the first row is number 7, so cross off its multiples. You have
finished; All of the “surviving" numbers on your grid are prime numbers.

Composite Numbers - These are positive integers that is greater than 1 and is
not prime, it can be divided by at least one (1) other number (a factor) other than
itself.

Greatest Common Divisor - It is the largest non-zero integer d that is a

common divisor of all the given integers if d | a and d | b, It is denoted by
gcd (a, b).
Example: Find the greatest common divisor of 375 and 525·
 Find the prime factorization of the given integer.
Prime Factorization– It is a way to find which prime numbers multiply together to make the
original number.
How to Do Prime Factorization Using a Factor Tree·
 Write any pair of factors of the given number.
 Find factors of these factors.
 Write the numbers from least to greatest and count how many numbers are the same
and write exponents for them.
  List the common prime divisors (factors) with the least power of all the given integers.
 Multiply the common prime divisors (factors) to find the greatest common divisor (factor)

Least Common Multiple - It is the smallest integer that is a common multiple

(denominator) of all the given integers. It is denoted by LCM (a, b).

Steps in Obtaining the LCM of Two (2) or More Integers

Example:
o Find the least common multiple of 18 and 20
o Find the prime factorization of the given integer
o List the prime divisors (factors) with the greatest power of all
the given integers
o Multiply the prime divisors (factors) to find the least common
multiple (denominator)

Number System in Computer - Theorem. Let k be a positive integer greater than 1.

Then if n is a positive integer, it can be expressed uniquely in the form. (

Breakdown of the Decimal Number 3854

Breakdown of the Binary Number 101101

Breakdown of the Hexadecimal Number BF4