Geotechnical and Geological Engineering 19: 333-355, 2001.

333
© 2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Geotechnical engineering practice for collapsible soils

SANDRA L. HOUSTON, WILLIAM N. HOUSTON, CLAUDIA E. ZAPATA and

CHRIS LAWRENCE
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe,
Arizona, 85287-5306, USA
(Received 3 August 2000; revised 12 April 2001; accepted 23 May 2001)

Abstract. Conditions in arid and semi-arid climates favor the formation of the most problematic
collapsible soils. The mechanisms that account for almost all naturally occurring collapsible soil
deposits are debris flows, rapid alluvial depositions, and wind-blown deposits (loess). Collapsible
soils are moisture sensitive in that increase in moisture content is the primary triggering mech-
anism for the volume reduction of these soils. One result of urbanization in arid regions is
an increase in soil moisture content. Therefore, the impact of development-induced changes
in surface and groundwater regimes on the engineering performance of moisture sensitive arid
soils, including collapsible soils, becomes a critical issue for continued sustainable population
expansion into arid regions.
In practicing collapsible soils engineering, geotechnical engineers are faced with (1) identifi.-
cation and characterization of collapsible soil sites, (2) estimation of the extent and degree of
wetting, (3) estimation of collapse strains and collapse settlements, and (4) selection of
design/ mitigation alternatives. Estimation of the extent and degree of wetting is the most difficult
of these tasks, followed by selection of the best mitigation alternative.

Key words. arid soils, collapsible soils, identification, mitigation, wetting,

Introduction
Moisture-sensitive soils earn their name by swelling, collapsing, or losing strength
when wetted. Wetting may arise from a variety of sources, most of which are a result
of urbanization. Thus, the aspect of urbanization that is the most relevant to engin-
eering performance is the change in surface and groundwater regimes resulting
in wetting to water contents well above the natural water content. The effects of
wetting include loss of apparent cementation, volume change, and loss of shear
strength. Volume change upon wetting is either swell (if the material is plastic,
initially dry, and lightly confined) or collapse (if the material is non-plastic or slightly
plastic, initially dry, and heavily confined). In this paper emphasis will be placed on
moisture-sensitive soils exhibiting collapse upon wetting.
For natural arid region conditions in undeveloped areas, rainfall either runs off
surface soils or infiltrates a relatively shallow depth into the soil and then evaporates
to the surface. However, there are numerous potential sources of water that arise
from urbanization/ development processes. These sources of added soil water
include landscape irrigation, broken water or sewer lines, roof runoff, poor surface
334 S. L. HOUSTON ET AL.

drainage, intentional and unintentional groundwater recharge, damming due to

cut/fill construction, groundwater rise, and moisture increase due to capillary rise
and soil surface protection from the sun by paved surfaces. In several cases the
groundwater table has risen after building occupation due to cessation of pumping
in a near-by region or due to localized groundwater table mounding resulting from
recharge or irrigation. Perched water can easily develop in irrigated regions where
clay lenses are extensive. Thus, one effect of urbanization is a general increase
in soil water contents. Localized areas may experience a minor increase in water
content, a decrease in water content (e.g. from drawdown due to pumping), or
thorough wetting from groundwater table rise. It is this change from the natural
moisture state that results in most of the negative impacts of urbanization on arid
soil performance.
Collapsible soils are not confined to arid regions and have been encountered in
most parts of the world. The conditions in arid environments, however, tend to favor
the formation of collapsible soils. Almost all naturally occurring collapsible soil
deposits are either debris flows deposits or wind deposits (loess). Debris flows
are at low density, but are relatively stiff and strong in their natural dry state.
Cementation consists of dried clay and other chemical precipitates that may have
been added after deposition. Wetting under load weakens the cementation, reduces
the soil suction, and causes densification or collapse.
Loessial deposits comprise a relatively narrow size range of particles, usually silt
to fine sand, with coatings of small amounts of clay being common (Fookes and
Parry, 1994). Cementing materials are often added after deposition or dissolved
andre-precipitated at particle contacts. Loess exhibits low density, moderately high
shear strength and stiffness when dry, and is subject to densification and collapse
upon wetting under load.
In addition to naturally deposited collapsible soils, engineered compacted fills may
exhibit volume moisture sensitivity if compaction specifications and quality control
are not appropriate. Compaction to low density and dry of optimum produces
the greatest susceptibility to densification upon wetting, but almost any compacted
soil can exhibit collapse if the confining pressure is sufficiently high. For clayey soils
with significant plasticity the response to wetting may be swelling if the confining
pressure is low.
An overview of collapsible soil behavior and methods for identification, testing,
analysis, and mitigation for collapsible soil sites are presented herein. The
detrimental volume change for these soils is almost always triggered by increased
soil water content, and increased soil water content is expected in developed and
urban regions.

Characterization of collapsible soil sites

The greatest problems with collapsible soils arise when the existence and extent of the
collapse potential are not recognized prior to construction. Therefore, the identifi-