Unit Impulse Function

Lesson #2
2CT.2,4,
3CT.2
Appendix A

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 Complex Numbers Imaginary
axis
•  Constants: Complex
s = a + jb Rectangular Form Plane b

a is called the Real part of s tan-1(b/a)

b is called the Imaginary part of s a

Real axis
−1
j tan ( b )
= a 2 + b2 e a

= a 2 + b 2 ∠ tan −1 ( b ) Polar Form Imaginary

a axis
Rotating
•  Functions: Unit Vector
at rate w

jω t
Example : e = cos ω t + j sin ω t
jθ
(recall: e = cosθ + j sin θ )
Real axis

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 Complex Exponential Function as a function of
time
j 2π (1) t j 2πt
•  Let’s look at this z (t ) = 1e = e = cos 2πt + j sin 2πt
t=8/8 seconds
t=2/8 seconds
arg(z(t))=2π x8/8 = 2π ; z(t)= 1+ j0
t=3/8 seconds arg(z(t))=2π x2/8= π /2; z(t)= 0 + j1
Im{z} t=1/8 seconds
arg(z(t))=2π x3/8 = 3 π /4;
arg(z(t))=2π x1/8=π/4; z(t)=0.707+j 0.707
z(t)= -0.707+ j0.707 t=0 seconds
t=4/8 seconds 45o
arg(z(t))=2π x0=0; z(t)=1+ j0
arg(z(t))=2π x4/8 = π; z(t)= -1+ j0 Re{z}
t=5/8 seconds t=7/8 seconds
arg(z(t))=2π x5/8 = 5π /4; arg(z(t))=2π x7/8= 7π /4;
z(t)= -0.707 - j0.707 t=6/8 seconds z(t) = 0 .707- j0.707
arg(z(t))=2π x6/8 = 3π /2; z(t) = 0 - j
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 Phasor Representation of a Complex Exponential
Signal
•  Using the multiplication rule, we can rewrite
the complex exponential signal as
z (t ) = Ae j (ωot +φ ) = Ae jωot e jφ = Ae jφ e jωot = Xe jωot = Xe j 2π Fot
where X is a complex number equal to
X = Ae jφ

•  X is complex amplitude of the complex

exponential signal and is also called a phasor

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 Phasors
•  Note that the real sinusoidal function
f(t)=Acos (ωt+ϕ)
can be represented by a complex function
f(t)=A cos (ωt+ϕ) = Re[Ae j(ωt+ϕ)]
•  Let’s represent this function by a phasor which is
its magnitude and phase angle:
f (t ) = A cos(ωt + φ ) = Re[ Ae j (ωt +φ ) ] = Re[ Ae jφ e jωt ] ⇒ A∠φ

•  Therefore, we can use phasors to represent

complex functions which makes it easy to solve
and calculate system solutions
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 Example Using ODE with Trigonometry
•  Let’s calculate the current I(t) assuming V(t)= A cos ωt
dI (t )
RI (t ) + L = V (t ) = A cos ωt
dt
Use Trigonometric functions
R
dI (t )
Let I (t ) = I cos(ωt + θ ); = − I ω sin(ωt + θ )
dt
RI cos(ωt + θ ) − I ω L sin(ωt + θ ) = A cos ωt V(t) I(t) L
To solve for I and θ , use the identities:
cos( A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B; sin( A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B 0

RI [cos ωt cos θ − sin ωt sin θ ] − I ω L[sin ωt cos θ + cos ωt sin θ ] = A cos ωt

sin θ −ω L −ω L
RI [− sin θ ] − I ω L cos θ = 0 ⇒ R[sin θ ] = −ω L cos θ ⇒ = tan θ = ⇒ θ = tan −1 ( )
cos θ R R R
A A
RI cos θ − I ω L sin θ = A ⇒ I = = θ
R cos θ − ω L sin θ R R −ω L
− ω L( )
R + (ω L)
2 2
R + (ω L)
2 2
-ωL
A A
I= = R2 + (ω L)2
R + (ω L) 2
2
R + (ω L)
2 2

R + (ω L)
2 2

A −ω L
I (t ) = cos(ωt + tan −1 ( )) MESSY !!!!
R 2 + (ω L) 2 R
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Example Using ODE with Complex Exponentials
•  Let’s calculate the current I(t) assuming
V(t)= A cos ωt R

dI (t)
RI (t) + L = V (t) = Acos ω t V(t) I(t) L
dt
Use complex exponent functions
Let I (t) = I cos(ω t + θ ) = ℜe{Ie jθ e jω t };Let V (t) = Acos(ω t) = ℜe{Ae jω t };
0

dI (t)
= jω Ie jθ e jω t
dt
RIe jθ e jω t + jω LIe jθ e jω t = Ae jω t
RIe jθ + jω LIe jθ = A
ωL
jθ A A − j tan −1
Ie = = e R
R + jω L R + (ω L)
2 2

ωL
A − j tan −1 A ωL
I (t) = ℜe{ e R
e jω t } = cos(ω t − tan −1 )
R 2 + (ω L) 2 R 2 + (ω L) 2 R
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A Special Function – Unit Impulse Function

•  The unit impulse function, δ(t), also known as the

Dirac delta function, is defined as:
δ(t)
δ(t) = 0 for t ≠ 0;
= undefined for t = 0 0
-100 -50 -25 -1 0 1 25 50 100

and has the following special property:

∞
∫ f (t)δ (t −τ )dt = f (τ )
−∞
∞
∴ ∫ δ (t)dt =1
−∞
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 Unit Impulse Function Continued

•  A consequence of the delta function is that

it can be approximated by a narrow pulse
as the width of the pulse approaches zero
while the area under the curve = 1
δ(t)

lim δ (t) ≈1/ε for -ε / 2 < t < ε / 2; = 0 otherwise.

10

ε →0 1

0.5

-1 -.5 -.05 .05 .5 1

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 Unit Impulse Function Continued
∞

∫
−∞
f (t)δ (t − τ ) dt

1
Let's approximate δ (t − τ ) with a pulse of height and width ε 1/ ε
ε
∞ τ +ε 2
1
∫
−∞
f (t)δ (t − τ ) dt ≈ ∫
τ −ε 2
f (t) dt
ε

τ τ
If we take the limit of this integral as ε → 0, τ - ε /2 τ + ε/2

the approximation integral approaches the original integral

∞ τ +ε 2
1 1
∫
−∞
f (t)δ (t − τ ) dt = lim ∫
ε →0 τ −ε 2
f (t) dt → lim f (τ ) ε = f (τ ),
ε ε →0 ε
since as ε → 0, the integral is zero except at t = τ
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 Uses of Delta Function

•  Modeling of electrical, mechanical, physical

phenomenon:
–  point charge,
–  impulsive force,
–  point mass
–  point light

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 Another Special Function – Unit Step
Function
•  The unit step function, u(t) is defined as:
u(t) = 1 for t ≥ 0;
1
= 0 for t < 0.
t
and is related to the delta function as
follows:
t
u(t ) = ∫−∞ δ (τ )dτ

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 Integration of the Delta Function

•  δ(t) u(t)
•  u(t) tu(t) 1st order
•  tu(t) t 2 u(t) 2nd order
2!
.
.
.
•  t n u(t) nth order
n!

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 Signal Representations using the Unit Step
Function
1.2

•  x(t) = e-σt cos(ωt)u(t) 1

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.5 -0.2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8

•  x(t) = t u(t) – 2 (t-1)u(t-1) + (t-2) u(t-2)

6
tu(t)
4

2 (t-2)u(t-2)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-2
x(t)
-4
-2(t-1)u(t-1)
-6

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 Homework
•  Complex numbers
–  Convert 1+j1 to its magnitude/angle representation (phasor)
–  Convert 1/(1+j1) to a phasor
–  Draw ejωt and ej(ωt+α) in the complex plane
–  For the series R-L circuit in class, calculate the voltage across the
inductor.
–  Appendix A.4, A.7
•  Unit Impulse and Unit Step Functions
–  Using unit step functions, construct a single pulse of magnitude
10 starting at t=5 and ending at t=10.
–  Repeat problem 1) with 2 pulses where the second is of
magnitude 5 starting at t=15 and ending at t=25.
–  Is the unit step function a bounded function?
–  Is the unit impulse function a bounded function?
–  2CT.2.4a,b

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