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Such highly social species form aggregations composed of both males and females.
These aggregations usually are either migratory, as the individuals of the aggregate search
for food, or territorial, in areas of abundant food supply. Aggregation can be defined as a
grouping of members of a species for mutual protection and acquisition of resources. Social
aggregation is thus designed to find food for the sustenance of the group, to reproduce, and
to protect the group members from predators. Single individuals or very small groups
generally have more difficulty in finding food and in defending themselves than do large
groups. This easily can be seen in birds or cattle, which flock or herd, respectively, at the
approach of a predator.
Dominance Hierarchies
Within such aggregates or societies, male and female associations develop; both
associations are based on dominance hierarchies. Association can be defined as an accepted
social organization into which individuals affiliate based on common interests for the
attainment of the society’s cultural goals.
The affiliation motive behind an individual’s joining a particular group lies within all
these factors. Nevertheless, lurking beneath these factors are some very basic socio-
biological principles. It is to the individual’s advantage to affiliate with other individuals.
Through interactions with others, one can assert one’s position within the existing
dominance hierarchy, thereby gaining recognition for oneself not only in terms of
dominance relationships but also in terms of meeting the society’s views of acceptable
behaviour. Outcasts and other individuals who fail to affiliate within the accepted social
institutions are frowned on by their peers and are subject to prejudicial treatment and
perhaps social exclusion. Antisocial behaviour is strongly discouraged and is punished in
many societies.
The dominance hierarchy is, without question, a major evolutionary adaptation for
the survival of social animal species. In every association of individuals, the dominance
hierarchy is expressed in the power structure of the group, as well as in peer pressure aimed
at forcing all societal members to conform. Conformity means affiliation with acceptable
societal groups and submission to the dominance hierarchy.
Social Motives
Human social groups include organizations such as elitist country clubs, social clubs,
sport-related clubs, special-interest groups (gem clubs, astronomy clubs), professionally
related organizations, women’s clubs, men’s clubs, teen groups, elderly groups, churches,
volunteer rescue squads and fire departments, and sports teams. Even youth gangs,
mobsters, and hate groups fall within such categories. Affiliation is a social behaviour in
which practically everyone participates in some way, either willingly or unwillingly.
Study of Affiliation
Social and cultural anthropologists have studied the structure and organization of
hundreds of different societies throughout the world. These societies exhibit many of the
same social processes and patterns of organized behaviour. They all exhibit dominance
hierarchies, acceptable rules of individual and group behaviour, and strong orderliness
based on kinship. Some such societies (Hindu, for example) relegate their members to
separate castes, permanent divisions based on genetic inheritance and particular trades. In
advanced technological societies, large populations, fast-paced lifestyles, and high regional
mobility result in social structures based less on kinship and more on other factors, such as
mutual interests, age, gender, and race.
The study of social groups and affiliation motives for such groups provides an
informative analysis of human social evolution within the context of rapidly changing
societies. The psychological impact of such changes on the individual and on the group as a
whole can provide an understanding of societal problems such as crime, social inequality,
and intergroup tensions. Underlying all these situations is the natural biological tendency for
individuals to aggregate for the common good of all members, thereby reducing the chance
of danger to individual members. Humans, like all animals, have a need to interact and
associate with other members of their own species. The drive to affiliate is related to the
need for acceptance and the subsequent goals of recognition, power, protection, and
mating.
Motivational Theories
Societal pressures to conform and to affiliate are great. Numerous
psychologists have propounded theories describing the psychological
bases behind an individual’s motives to affiliate with other individuals.
These theories are in agreement as to the goals of affiliation—
objectives such as friendship, mutual interests, mating, acquiring food,
and ensuring protection. These theories differ, however, in the
psychological mechanisms behind the affiliation motive.