Abstract:

Background: Time perspective, or an individual’s subjective temporal orientation, has been

researched in the recent years concerning academic achievement, life success,
psychopathology and other related constructs. University students’ individual time
perspective can have a significant impact on their academic career.
Aims: The aim of this study is to determine if a) the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory
can be used to explain the variance in academic performance of third year psychology
students at the University of Johannesburg and b) scoring highly on the future time
perspective is associated with higher academic performance.
Sample: All of the participants included in this study are third year psychology students at
the University of Johannesburg for the year 2012. This sample consists of 404 participants.
Method: Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were conducted and a multiple linear
regression model was constructed along with an analysis of variance.
Results and Conclusions: Through the multiple linear regression, it was found that 6.2% of
the variance in the students’ performance was accounted for by the ZTPI. The analysis of
variance showed that the null hypothesis that scoring highly on the Future-Time perspective
is not significantly associated with higher academic performance can be rejected with a t-
value of 3.641. Therefore, the conclusions were made that the ZTPI can successfully be used
to predict a portion of the students’ academic performance and the future time perspective is
associated with higher academic performance and academic performance in general.

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 Chapter 1:

Predicting Academic Performance Using the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory and the
Temporal Self-Regulation Theory:

1.1 Introduction:

The five orientations identified in the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) function
collectively and at the same time independently as individual-differences variables (Zimbardo
& Boyd, 1999). In this section, the reliability and validity of the ZTPI will be taken into
account without delving into too much detail and current literature concerning time
perspective and the related variables will be identified and analysed. Thereafter, six of the
studied variables will be narrowed down and elaborated on in more detail. These variables
are the past-negative, past-positive, present-hedonistic, present-fatalistic, future-orientation
time perspectives and academic performance. Following the elaborated review of the
aforementioned variables, the balanced time perspective will also be discussed briefly to
supplement the review of the different time perspectives. In addition, a review concerning the
theory temporal self-regulation and its related constructs and overlapping theories will be
discussed in order to incorporate the various time perspectives into a unified perspective and
account for the differences in behavioural outcomes related to the different time perspectives
and academic performance.

The predictive ability of the ZTPI is of considerable importance in this particular instance.
Zimbardo and Boyd found that the time perspective adopted by students was related to
behaviours and dispositions such as grades, wearing a wristwatch, choice of food, sexual
experiences, goal focus, risk taking, how long individuals want to live, time spent with
friends, stress, perceived time pressures, parental marital state, shyness and spirituality
(Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Apostolidis and his colleagues also found that the ZTPI
successfully predicted cannabis use among French adolescents using the future time
perspective (Apostolidis, Fieulaine, & Soule, 2006). Other research has found associations
with certain demographic characteristics and high future time perspective scores, namely
being male, increased age, income and education (Padawer, Jacobs-Lawson, Hershey &
Thomas, 2007).

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This could point to a valuable association between life success and scoring highly on the
future time perspective. Contrary to these findings, a study conducted by Zimbardo and his
colleagues found that men are more present-orientated than females when researching the
present perspective as a predictor of risky driving (Zimbardo, Keough & Boyd, 1997). In the
aforementioned study, the present time perspective was able to predict risky driving of
participants (Zimbardo et al., 1997). Regardless of the results concerning demographic
characteristics, which could be accounted for by the manner in which the populations were
sampled, the present time perspective is seen to be associated with risky behaviour.
Therefore, it is probable that an individual with a present-fatalistic or present-hedonistic time
perspective might engage in risky behaviours that might put their academic performance at a
disadvantage. Numerous other behaviours and dispositions were also found to be associated
with the five time perspectives. The six variables selected will be magnified in the
forthcoming sections. Each of the five time perspectives and academic performance will be
reviewed and along with their related constructs to determine if the ZTPI can actually be used
to make predictions in the academic field. Furthermore, current research is also focusing on a
balanced time perspective as a healthier alternative to the five time perspectives mentioned in
the ZTPI. The balanced time perspective will be discussed along with the six central variables
in order to give a more perspicuous description of what time perspectives actually are and
how they can be practically utilized.

1.2 The Past-Negative Time Perspective:

If one were to interpret the time perspective theory using a hermeneutic philosophical stance,
one would regard an individual’s entire essence of being as a result of his or her own past
experiences and how that person makes sense of those experiences through the formulation of
a narrative (Thompson, 2003). An individual that adopts a past negative time perspective
when formulating their narrative tends to predominantly hold a negative attitude towards past
life experiences.

Time is an entity that can be perceived subjectively and objectively using three dimensions,
namely past, present and future (Moore, Hofer, McGee & Ring, 2005). The past negative
time perspective places more weight on events interpreted negatively, emotions, and
memories that have occurred in the past. These psychological variables along with biological

3
variables such as neurotransmitters, receptors and other aspects of brain functioning form
internal sources of motivation; external sources such as environmental variables combine
with internal sources to motivate behaviour (Deckers, 2010). With regards to the academic
performance of university students, the past experiences of positive and negative affect can
influence whether or not a student even attempts to succeed in his or her tertiary studies. To
explain this, affect theories seem quite suitable. An underlying assumption of affect theories
is that people approach things that provide them with the experience of positive affect and
avoid certain things in order to guard against the experience of negative affect (Franken,
2007). Therefore, if a student that predominantly adopts a past negative time perspective has
experienced negative emotions associated with academia, that person might not be motivated
to perform well in the tertiary educational setting or might not even try to succeed altogether
because he or she already expects the worse outcome for their actions based on past
experiences. In addition, certain behaviours, traits and psychopathologies are known to be
associated with the past negative time perspective.

For example, behaviours and traits such as depression (r = .69), anxiety(r = .73), self-reported
unhappiness(r = .41), low self-esteem(r = -.56) and aggression (r = .57) were associated with
the past-negative time perspective (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). The pathology of depression
has clear associations with decreased academic performance when left untreated
(Hysenbegasi, Haas & Rowland, 2005). One might be able to make the inference that holding
a past negative time perspective might be associated with the increased likelihood of
university failure. Furthermore, high levels of anxiety has been shown to be negatively
associated with intelligence; aptitude; academic achievement in reading, English,
mathematics, natural sciences, additional languages; psychology, problem solving;
mechanical knowledge and grades (Cassady & Johnson, 2002). One of the main aspects of
anxiety that might influence academic performance is cognitive test anxiety, which is the term
used for the broad cognitive processes associated with anxiety in an evaluation situation
(Cassady & Johnson, 2002). According to Cassady and Johnson (2002), the factors of
cognitive test anxiety that might influence academic performance are self-comparison to
peers; considering the consequences of failure; excessive worry over evaluation; causing
sorrow for parents; feeling unprepared for tests; a loss of self-worth and low levels of
confidence in performance. If an individual generally adopts a past negative time perspective,
they may worry excessively about failure and letting their loved ones down, based on past
experiences that moulded their cognitive style. This doom and gloom perspective about the

4
past can influence how an individual sculpts the present and moulds the future. Low levels of
confidence in test performance can have a negative effect on academic performance which
can be the result of a self-fulfilling prophecy. For instance, an individual adopting a
predominantly past-negative time perspective might follow a cognitive path such as this:

Things went badly in academia in the past → I’m still me → I’m going to do badly again

Anxiety can have its benefits in small quantities, but too much anxiety can be detrimental and
reduce test performance (Murphy & Davidshofer, 2005). A cognitive path such the one
mentioned above can result in heightened anxiety, ultimately resulting in impaired cognitive
performance and low test results. Although time perspective can be used to make predictions
about academic performance, one needs to remember that an individual’s time perspective is
but one aspect that may influence behaviour. If one were to identify the role of an
individual’s time perspective in the teaching learning system, it becomes clear that the time
perspective predominantly adopted by an individual is not cast in stone. The 3P model of
teaching and learning can be used to explain this. The 3P model makes sense of the teaching-
learning system by emphasising three factors that influence the teaching-learning experience,
these factors are presage (factors already functioning before teaching takes place); process
(during teaching) and outcome (the outcome of teaching) (Sternberg & Zhang, 2001).
Sternberg and Zhang (2001) also distinguish between hard (not easily changed by teaching)
and soft (relatively docile) student presage factors that may influence academic performance.
Time perspectives are relatively soft student presage factors as most undergraduate students
find out after leaving high school. Time management workshops and other similar training
programs offered by the University of Johannesburg to first year students try to shift their
time perspectives to a more future orientated one which, as will be elaborated on in more
detail in the upcoming sections, seems to be associated with higher academic performance.
Furthermore, psychological factors such as trauma can also affect what time perspective an
individual adopts.

If an individual has experienced a severe trauma in the past, that person might be conditioned
to perceive the past through a negative lens. In severe cases, an individual might even
experience post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD is an anxiety disorder characterised
by involuntary and intrusive cognitive phenomena such as mentally re-experiencing the
trauma and is also associated with deficits in memory, concentration, attention and other
information-processing disruptions that can impair academic performance (Buckley,

5
Blanchard, & Neill, 2000). Severe traumas experienced in life that are not contained can
affect other areas of life. Some research also suggests that that the symptoms of PTSD might
be a reflection of a specific cognitive pattern (Vasterling, Brailey, Constans, & Sutker, 1998).
This pattern could be the reason why the past-negative time perspective is associated with
anxiety and depression. As mentioned above, the effects of high anxiety levels and
depression can decrease academic performance.

1.3 The Past-Positive Time Perspective:

With the past-positive time perspective, an individual tends to predominantly hold positive
attitude towards past life experiences (Zimbardo & Boyd, 2008). In one study conducted by
Phillip Zimbardo and John Boyed (1999), the past-positive time perspective showed
significant negative correlations with aggression (r = -.19), depression (r = -.20) and anxiety
(r = -.30), as well as a valuable positive correlation with self-esteem (r = .33). Therefore, one
can induce that, compared to the past-negative time perspective, the past-positive time
perspective appears to be more beneficial or at least less detrimental than the past-negative
time perspective.

Our past experiences need not only be a source of dread and anxiety, what occurred in the
past can also be a source of motivation and power. Current research has established that
subjective well-being and life success are associated with one another (Stones, Worobetz, &
Brink. 2011). However, the direction of this association is debatable. Subjective well-being is
a psychological construct consisting of several components, namely life satisfaction (overall
judgements about one’s life); satisfaction with important domains such as work or academic
satisfaction; the experience of many pleasant emotions and moods (positive affect); and
experiencing few unpleasant emotions and moods (negative affect) (Diener, 2000). In one
study, researchers concluded that positive affect and subjective well-being actually precedes
success, this conclusion was reached using longitudinal, cross-sectional and experimental
evidence (Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005). It is plausible to assume that the positive
attitude toward past experiences associated with the past-positive time perspective could
contribute to academic performance and overall academic success.

Although both the past-negative and past-positive time perspectives show low correlations
with life satisfaction, the past-positive time perspective tends to show a higher positive

6
correlation than the past-negative time perspective (past-positive – r = .21; past-negative – r =
-.45) (Boniwell, Osin, Linley, & Ivanchenko, 2010). If one adopts the conceptual model that
positive affect and SWB precedes success, then it would be safe to assume that individuals
with a past-positive time perspective would perform better academically than those with a
past-negative time perspective.

1.4 The Present-Fatalistic Time Perspective:

An individual that predominantly adopts a present-fatalistic time perspective is an individual

that generally takes a pessimistic outlook on life (Zimbardo & Boyd, 2008). The present-
fatalistic time perspective showed valuable correlations with aggression (r = .48), anxiety (r =
.47), depression (r = .45) and a significant negative correlation for a consideration for future
consequences (r = -.72) (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999).

Using students’ grade point average along with self-report measures, Hysenbegasi and her
colleagues found that diagnosed depression was associated with .49 points or almost half a
letter grade decrease in grade point average (GPA) (Hysenbegasi, Hass, & Rowland, 2005).
In addition, it also appears that the high negative correlation for a consideration for future
events seems to place the present-fatalistic time perspective at the opposite end of the
spectrum compared to the future time perspective, which will be discussed in more detail in
the upcoming section. Moreover, the doom and gloom pessimistic outlook on life associated
with the present-fatalistic time perspective does serve certain functions. For instance,
defensive pessimism, which is a cognitive strategy involving setting unrealistically low
expectations for oneself in an achievement situation in order to protect one’s self-esteem if
failure does occur can have its benefits (Elliot & Church, 2003). For example, a defensive
pessimist can channel his or her anxiety about the future and motivate themselves to avoid
their perceived future failure (Elliot & Church, 2003). Therefore, all is not lost for the
individual with a predominant present-fatalistic time perspective, academic achievement is
still a real possibility.

However, the self-handicapping associated with pessimism is an obstacle in the way of the
present-fatalist’s road to academic success. Elliot and Church (2003) define self-

7
handicapping as constructing obstacles to success so that if failure does occur, it is attributed
to these external factors, rather than to aspects of the individual’s personality, hence
protecting the individual’s self-esteem. One may induce that if the self-handicapping is
removed from the equation and future events are taken into consideration, it might be
possible for the individual to uplift their academic performance to higher levels. This brings
us to the discussion on the future time perspective.

1.5 The Future Time Perspective:

When an individual predominantly holds a future time perspective, we say that the individual
is future orientated. According to Zimbardo and Boyd (2008), this means that the mentioned
individual measures highly on the future time perspective scale as measured by the ZTPI and
that the individual also weighs the long-term outcomes of immediate gratification and is able
to postpone gratification for a greater reward. Furthermore, in his review of the future time
perspective and three of its measures, Jackson (2006) describes the future time perspective as
a relatively stable personality trait that influences behaviour in the present.

The individual that primarily adopts the future time perspective generally operates according
to the reality principle. The reality principle (also called the rational principle) is in contrast
with the pleasure principle that will be mentioned in the discussion about the present-
hedonistic time perspective; operating according to the reality principle accounts for an
individual’s ability to postpone immediate gratification for greater reward (Zimbardo and
Boyd, 2008; Hoffman & Hayes, 2004). From a psycho-analytic perspective, an individual
that operates according to the reality principle would be said to have good ego control
(Hoffman & Hayes, 2004). This could account for the positive associations between the
future time perspective and academic performance. For instance, the future time perspective
showed correlations with conscientiousness (r = .73), consideration for future consequences
(r = .67), preference for consistency (r = .59), hours spent studying per week (r = .28),
novelty seeking (r = -.53), sensation seeking (r = -.40), anxiety (r = -.17), depression (r = -
.24) and was unrelated to aggression (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). As mentioned in the
previous sections, cognitive test anxiety and depression are associated lower academic
performance. The negative correlations between these constructs and scoring highly on the

8
future time perspective could possibly point to a more rewarding association between the
future time perspective and academic performance.

To illustrate this association, De Volder and Lens (1982) integrated the future time
perspective with cognitive theories of motivation and found that the cognitive component of
the future time perspective is developed through the proclivity to anticipate the long-term
consequences of actual behaviour. In this classic study, the authors also found that the
students who placed a higher valence on goals in the distant future (future time perspective)
and perceived studying hard as an instrumental means to achieve this goal achieved higher
grade point averages and were more persistent in their studies (De Volder & Lens, 1982).
The future time perspective also shows more indirect associations with higher academic
performance. For instance, O’Connor and Paunonen (2007) found conscientiousness to be
consistently associated with academic performance. The high positive correlations between
conscientiousness and the future time perspective could be one of the contributing factors to
academic success. In the upcoming sections, academic performance and other related
constructs will be taken into account in association with their relationship to the five time
perspectives measured in the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory. Preceding the review of
academic performance is the present-hedonistic time perspective, which appears in contrast to
the future time perspective regarding self-regulation and ego under-control (impulsivity).

1.6 The Present-Hedonistic Time Perspective:

It was mentioned earlier that time can be perceived along the three dimensions of past,
present and future. The present-hedonistic time perspective expresses itself when an
individual seeks immediate gratification in one’s life. Hedonism can be defined as a
subjective theory that states that the well-being of an individual is constituted of pleasant
states of consciousness and that something has to be pleasurable in order for it to make a
contribution to well-being (Tiberius & Hall, 2010). According to Zimbardo and Boyd (2008),
the present-hedonistic time perspective operates on the pleasure principle. Many authors have
written about the pleasure principle from Aristotle and John Watson to Sigmund Freud. The
underlying assumption of the pleasure principle is that humans direct their behaviour to seek
pleasure and avoid pain (Hoffman & Hayes, 2004). The present-hedonistic time perspective
has been shown to be associated with other psychological constructs.

9
For instance, the present-hedonistic time perspective showed significant correlations with ego
under-control (impulsivity) (r = .75) and sensation seeking (r = .72) and also correlated
negatively with a preference for consistency (r = -.51) (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Taking the
five time perspectives, academic performance and the related constructs into consideration,
Whittmann and Paulus (in press) found that impulsive individuals place a high cost on time
and therefore weight time much higher when making decisions than the outcomes of delayed
gratification. Such individuals might possibly measure highly on the present-hedonistic time
perspective and would rather go out partying than study for an upcoming test. A person’s
time perspective is also associated with affect intensity and how one experiences the passage
of time.

There are extensive research findings indicative of a relationship between emotions, risky
behaviour and time perception. One study found that participants judged the duration of high
arousal negative emotional stimuli as being longer than high arousal positive emotional
stimuli (Angrilli, Cherubini, Pavese & Manfredini, 1997). Another study relevant to the
present-hedonistic time perspective was conducted by Zimbardo and his colleagues and they
found that men are more present-orientated than females when researching the present
perspective as a predictor of risky driving (Zimbardo, Keough & Boyd, 1997). In the
aforesaid study, the present time perspective was identified as the independent predictor of
risky driving when analysed alongside other related variables such as sensation-seeking,
impulsivity and aggression (Zimbardo et al., 1997). Regardless of the results concerning
demographic characteristics, which could be attributed to the samples used in the two studies,
the present time perspective is seen to be associated with risky behaviour. Therefore, it is
probable that an individual with a present-hedonistic time perspective might take the risk of
using drugs before an examination or even cheating on an examination. Both of these
hypothetical scenarios can impact academic performance as well as academic success. It
could be that the impulsivity and risky behaviours associated with the present time
perspectives are due to experiencing negative events as being much longer than they really
are. For example, a student with a present time perspective might perceive the agony of
studying as taking much longer than it actually is and decide to head for recreation and then
may perceive the recreation time as being much shorter than it really is, decreasing the time
spent studying, resulting in decreased academic performance. In addition, a longitudinal
study conducted on students found that self-discipline accounted for more than twice the
amount of variance in academic performance compared to I.Q. scores (Duckworth &

10
Seligman, 2005). Therefore one can make an educated inference and induce that less
impulsivity might be associated with higher academic performance.

1.7 Academic Performance:

In today’s world, especially within the post-apartheid South African context, it is of

paramount importance that we establish what exactly contributes to successful academic
performance in order to ensure the country’s prosperity and overall development. In this
section, the various literatures concerning the contributors to academic performance will be
reviewed and discussed. Thereafter, their relationship to the Zimbardo Time Perspective
Inventory and the five time perspectives included in this study will be overviewed.

As was mentioned in the preceding sections, time perspective is a relatively stable personality
trait that adds to the individual differences that make each human being unique. However,
there are other factors that also contribute to individual differences such as academic
performance. For instance, in a three year longitudinal study, Chamorro-Premuzic and
Furnham (2003), used factor analysis and found that three super-factors, namely
conscientiousness, neuroticism and psychoticism accounted for up to 17% of the total
variance in final exam marks of students, with psychoticism and neuroticism being associated
with lower academic performance and conscientiousness with higher academic performance.
Once again, the consistent relationship between conscientiousness and academic shows itself.
In one study, conscientious individuals are described as achievement, detail and planning
orientated (Perry, Rubino, & Witt, 2011). In another study, conscientiousness is defined as
the degree of organisation, persistence and motivation manifested in an individual’s
purposeful behaviour; the author goes on to describe conscientiousness as the trait that
separates the scrupulous and reliable people from the apathetic and unreliable people (Kairys,
2010). It seems to be that conscientiousness is generally associated with performance. In
addition, Perry, Rubino and Witt (2011) also found that highly conscientious individuals
tended to display better job performance in general than those that measured low on the trait.
It was also mentioned in the earlier section that the future time perspective and
conscientiousness correlated significantly highly with one another (Zimbardo & Boyd,
1999).Therefore one may make the educated inference that the future time perspective might
be significantly associated with higher academic performance. Furthermore, other factors

11
such as students’ approaches to learning and their relation to academic performance were also
reviewed.

For instance, Duff and his colleagues found that the three fundamental approaches to learning
(deep approach – searching for meaning in what is being studied and finding relations
between what is being processed and existing knowledge; surface approach – relies on rote
learning and the strategic approach – emphasises organisation, study skills and a desire to
achieve the highest grades) were poor predictors of academic performance (Duff, Boyle,
Dunleavy, & Ferguson, 2004). Another study attempted to find out what factors between
personality, cognitive ability and beliefs about intelligence best predicted academic
performance. Personality (measured using the Big Five personality traits of openness to
experience; conscientiousness; extraversion; agreeableness and neuroticism), cognitive ability
(measured using general intelligence) and beliefs about intelligence (described as favouring a
more incremental view – intelligence can increase over time or describing beliefs about
intelligence using the entity factor – believing intelligence is unchangeable) were analysed
and it was found that Big Five personality traits, namely conscientiousness and not cognitive
ability or beliefs about intelligence was the best predictor of academic performance
(Furnham, Chamorro-Premuzic, & McDougall, 2003).

The available literature concerning the six variables included in this study has now been
reviewed. The five time perspectives included in the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory
(past-negative; past-positive; present-hedonistic; present-fatalistic and future time
perspective) and academic performance were individually discussed along with how the
separate time perspectives might influence academic performance. It now seems to be
slightly clearer that the personality trait of conscientiousness makes the most significant
positive contribution to academic performance and performance in general. The future time
perspective showed the highest correlations with factors that contribute to academic success
such as the time students spent studying and, most notably, conscientiousness (Zimbardo &
Boyd, 1999). In the upcoming section, an additional time perspective will be mentioned and
discussed in order to give a more in depth and clearer understanding of time perspectives.
This time perspective is relatively new in the literature as compared to the time perspectives
measured in the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory. The balanced time perspective will
now be briefly discussed.

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1.8 The Balanced Time Perspective:

The balanced time perspective time perspective has received a fair amount of attention from
researchers investigating time perspectives. The balanced time perspective can be defined as
the ability to blend and to adaptably engage in the past, present and future time perspectives
according to the demands of a particular situation and the individual’s needs and values
(Zimbardo, 2002).

The balanced time perspective (BTP) is composed of a combination of scores on the five time
perspectives measured in the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI). An individual
with a balanced time perspective theoretically scores high on the past-positive, present-
hedonistic and future time perspective subscales and low on the past-negative and present-
fatalistic time perspective subscales (Bonniwell & Zimbardo, 2004). Although research
supports the notion that thinking about the future might bring academic success, other
research shows that emphasising any one of the time perspectives too much can have its
drawbacks and if one time perspective begins to dominate the others, it can become
dysfunctional (Boniwell, Osin, Linley, & Ivanchenko, 2010). In other studies, the balanced
time perspective showed significant associations with life satisfaction. For instance, Gao
(2011) found negative correlations between the past-negative and present-fatalistic time
perspectives and life satisfaction (r = -.428, p < .01; r = -.168, p < .01, respectively) and
positive correlations between the past-positive, present-hedonistic and future time
perspectives and life satisfaction (r = .419, p < .01; r = .120, p < .05; r = .263, p < .01,
respectively).

Having a balanced time perspective implies that an individual is capable of shifting time
perspectives according to the environment and the demands of the situation (Boniwell, 2005).
For example, an individual with a balanced time perspective will be able to adopt a present-
hedonistic temporal orientation when spending time with loved ones and then shift to the
future temporal orientation when studying or working on an important task. The practical
implications of training ourselves to adopt a balanced time perspective are vast. After all,
human beings have many facets in life that require different approaches. Being able to switch
time perspectives will be beneficial in keeping every sphere such as family, work and
recreation functioning optimally.

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Bearing all this in mind, there must be some rational explanation that accounts for the
individual differences in behaviour that goes along with the various time perspectives. To
facilitate the task of explanation, a brief recap will be covered concerning the individual time
perspectives and their associated behavioural products. As it was previously shown, the
different time perspectives adopted by different individuals are associated with different
behavioural outcomes. For instance it was mentioned in the section on the past-negative time
perspective that this temporal orientation is significantly associated with behavioural
outcomes such as depression (r = .69), anxiety(r = .73), self-reported unhappiness(r = .41),
low self-esteem(r = -.56) and aggression (r = .57) (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). In addition,
obtaining a low score on the past-negative time perspective is incorporated into the
psychologically healthy balanced time perspective (Bonniwell & Zimbardo, 2004).
Moreover, the past-positive time perspective showed significant negative correlations with
aggression (r = -.19), depression (r = -.20) and anxiety (r = -.30) and a noteworthy positive
correlation with self-esteem (r = .33) (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Scoring highly on the past-
positive time perspective is also incorporated into the psychologically fit balanced time
perspective (Bonniwell & Zimbardo, 2004). With regards to the present-fatalistic time
perspective, Zimbardo and Boyd (1999) found significant correlations with aggression,
anxiety, depression (r = .48; r=.47 and r = .45 respectively) as well as a negative correlation
for a consideration for future consequences (r = -.72). Scoring low on the present-fatalistic
time perspective is also integrated into the psychologically sound balanced time perspective
(Bonniwell & Zimbardo, 2004). The results of the past-negative time perspective and the
present-fatalistic time perspective are comparable in the sense that both the constructs
correlated positively with behavioural outcomes such as aggression, depression and anxiety.
Concerning the present-hedonistic time perspective, Zimbardo and Boyd (1999)
demonstrated that this variable displays interesting positive correlations with behavioural
outcomes such as ego under-control (impulsivity) (r = .75) and sensation seeking (r = .72)
and also correlated negatively with a preference for consistency (r = -.51). Bonniwell and
Zimbardo (2004) also incorporate a high score on this pleasure-governed time perspective
into the psychologically stable balanced time perspective. Finally, the last remaining time
perspective that will be subjected to statistical analysis in this study, the future time
perspective, showed substantial associations with behavioural outcomes such as
conscientious behaviour (r = .73), a consideration for future consequences (r = .67), a
preference for consistency (r = .59), the hours spent studying per week (r = .28), novelty
seeking (r = -.53), sensation seeking (r = -.40), anxiety (r = -.17), depression (r = -.24) and

14
was unrelated to aggression (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). A high score on the future time
perspective is also assimilated into the adaptive balanced time perspective (Bonniwell &
Zimbardo, 2004).

Following this brief reflection on the five time perspectives included in the Zimbardo Time
Perspective Inventory and their associated behavioural products, I now return to the question
of what accounts for the differences in behavioural outcomes connected to the
aforementioned time perspectives. The theory of temporal self-regulation put forward by
Peter A. Hall and Geoffrey T. Fong appears to account for these differences at the individual
and population levels.

1.9 The Temporal Self-Regulation Theory:

Echoing the thoughts of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, human beings are rational
animals (Stich, 1985). However, for some reason, much of human behaviour appears to be
irrational, maladaptive and even dysfunctional. Either human beings are mindless, irrational
beasts driven purely by instinctual urges or there is some form of rationality underlying all
behaviour. Over the years of human progression, advancements in technology, medicine,
humanitarianism and so on indicate that the former is not the case. Therefore, there has to be
some form of rationality that accounts for all forms of human behaviour, even those that
appear to be maladaptive. The temporal self-regulation theory (TST) neatly accounts for all
forms of human behaviour in relation to a person’s perspective of time.

According to Hall and Fong (2007), the temporal self-regulation theory explains behaviour
according to a biological self-regulatory capacity (the executive frontal lobe function of
regulating one’s own behaviour) and cognitive and social components (beliefs about the
connectedness of present behaviour to future outcomes and values given to different
temporally dispersed aftermaths). This theory also holds that any behaviour is motivated by
its most likely outcome and the value that is placed on this outcome and the strength of that
motivation is moderated by two factors, namely (1) behavioural prepotency; and (2) self-
regulatory capacity (Hall & Fong, 2007). Behavioural prepotency is the measurable value
indicating the frequency of past performance and/or the presence of environmental cues that
may cause an individual to act in a certain way (Hall & Fong, 2007). This basically means
that the more frequently a situation occurs (e.g. a stressful exam) along with specific

15
 environmental cues (people smoking outside the exam room), the more likely a specific
behavioural outcome is to emerge (smoking). In addition, self-regulatory capacity is a trait-
like factor that influences an individual’s ability to purposefully regulate their own behaviour,
for example, executive brain functioning and arousal level (Hall & Fong, 2007). The
following diagram is presented to offer further elaboration of the TST:

Figure 1.1: Diagrammatic Representation of Hall and Fong’s Temporal Self-Regulation

Theory.

Behavioural prepotency

Connected
beliefs
Behavioural
outcome
Intentions

Temporal
values/time
perspective

Self-regulatory capacity

What remains to be said is how the temporal self-regulation theory accounts for the different
behaviours associated with the five time perspectives in the Zimbardo Time Perspective
Inventory. Pertaining to the past-negative time perspective, the behavioural outcomes of
depression, anxiety, self-reported unhappiness and low self-esteem are results of the negative
valence placed on the pessimistic connected belief that present behaviour will result in a
negative future outcome due to the predominantly gloomy preoccupation with bad past life
experiences. This is reinforced by the behavioural prepotency of frequent failure along with a
lack of self-regulatory capacity, resulting in the abovementioned behavioural outcomes.
Moving on to the past-positive time perspective, the temporal self-regulation theory accounts
for the negative correlations between this temporal orientation and depression, anxiety and

16
aggression as results of the positive valence given to connected belief that good things can
result in the future from present behaviour along with the predominantly positive value of the
past associated with this temporal orientation. These factors are then either positively or
negatively reinforced by the behavioural prepotency of frequent success or failure coupled
with either a high or low self-regulatory capacity which results in the behavioural outcomes
associated with this time perspective. Concerning the present-fatalistic time perspective, the
temporal self-regulation theory accounts for the behavioural outcomes of depression, anxiety
and a disregard for future consequences associated with this time perspective with a negative
valence placed on the connected belief that present behaviour does not (or negatively)
influences future outcomes along with the predominantly pessimistic outlook of the present
time which is negatively reinforced by the behavioural prepotency of frequent failure and a
low self-regulatory capacity, resulting in its associated behavioural outcomes. The temporal
self-regulation theory will account for the behavioural outcomes of impulsivity, sensation-
seeking and not seeking consistency associated with the present-hedonistic time perspective
slightly differently. The temporal self-regulation theory will explain these behavioural
outcomes as the result of a disregard of the individual’s connected beliefs, regardless of the
valence ascribed to it along with the high temporal value given to immediate gratification
(pleasure principle) associated with this time perspective which is reinforced by the
behavioural prepotency of frequent and immediate pleasurable experiences coupled with a
low capacity for self-regulation. Concerning the behavioural outcomes of being
conscientious, studying, searching for consistency and not seeking sensation and novelty
associated with the future time perspective, the temporal theory of self-regulation will
account for these behaviours by considering them as results of the positive valance placed on
the connected belief that present behaviour can positively result in future outcomes along
with the temporal value of considering the future which is reinforced by the behavioural
prepotency of frequent success and a high self-regulatory capacity. The temporal self-
regulation theory of motivation also accounts for behaviour at the level of the population. For
instance, in populations of low socioeconomic status, there is a reduced consideration for the
future and there is a general present orientation resulting from the negative valence placed on
the connected belief that present behaviour influences the future (Hall & Fong, 2007). The
temporal self-regulation theory is also concurrent with other theories of behaviour, such as
the theory of self-determination.

17
The self-determination theory states that behaviour is self-determined when the individual
perceives an internal locus of control (Deci, Vallerand, & Ryan, 1991). In other words, the
individual holds the connected belief that their present behaviour influences what happens in
the future. This is precisely the connected belief held by individuals that predominantly hold
a future time perspective/temporal orientation. In one study, Deci, Vallerand and Ryan (1991)
mention that more self-determined students were more likely to stay in school and be more
intrinsically motivated, the authors also linked positive academic performance to intrinsic
motivation and self-determination. The ability to regulate or control one’s behaviour seems to
be one of the central factors for life success and well-being. For instance, research indicates
that good self-control is associated with a higher grade point average, better psychological
adjustment (fewer cases of psychopathology and the individuals had higher self-esteem), less
binge eating and alcohol abuse, better relationships and interpersonal skills, secure
attachment styles, and more optimal emotional responses (Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone,
2004). Other research also indicates that the ability to self-regulate one’s behaviour can be
developed in early childhood (Kochanska, Coy, & Murray, 2001). This finding indicates that
if children are coached and educated from a young age, it is possible to equip them with at
least one of the adaptive tools needed for success. Further research on the construct of self-
regulation demonstrated that social exclusion or rejection is detrimental to self-regulation.
Baumeister, DeWall, Ciarocco and Twenge (2005) conducted six experiments that showed
that self-regulation is impaired by social rejection or exclusion. The participants were led to
believe that they were being socially excluded or rejected which resulted in the impaired
ability to regulate their eating habits, they also tended to quit more quickly on frustrating
tasks and they showed impairment for attention regulation as measured by using a dichotic
listening task (Baumeister, DeWall, Ciarocco, & Twenge, 2005). The factors of quitting and
impaired attention regulation can impair academic performance in the sense that students
might quit when faced with challenges in academia or they may not be able to maintain their
concentration during studying sessions. The effects of social exclusion and rejection might
also make a contribution to academic success. This is indicative of the fact that there are
other factors aside from an individual’s temporal orientation at work with regards to
academic performance. Therefore, it is always beneficial to adopt an eclectic, holistic
paradigm when dealing with this particular psychological matter. With regards to using the
Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory as a tool for predicting academic performance, it is
now slightly clearer that the future time perspective shows a close association with higher
academic performance.

18
1.10 Overview:

This literature review pertaining to the five time perspectives (the past-negative; past-
positive; present-fatalistic; present-hedonistic and future time perspectives), academic
performance and the temporal self-regulation theory has also covered theories and constructs
related to the above mentioned variables. Constructs such as motivation, conscientiousness,
beliefs about intelligence and other factors of personality were found to be associated with
higher academic performance, either through associations with the future time perspective or
directly in studies researching predictors of academic performance. It is also of great
importance that these findings be interpreted in the light of what was not clearly discernible.
For instance, it is a possibility that the time perspectives not incorporated into the formulation
of the Balanced Time Perspective might be associated with other factors concerning life-
below-zero. For instance, it is possible that the past-negative time perspective or the present-
fatalistic time perspective might be significantly associated with detrimental constructs such
as psychopathology and academic failure. Therefore, there is still ample room for future
research relating to time perspective.

In addition, it has been discovered that the previous research has unearthed a relationship
between the future time perspective and higher academic performance. If this particular study
is capable of replicating these findings, it could strengthen the reliability of the hypothesis
that the future time perspective, as measured by the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory, is
associated with higher academic performance. This study has funnelled down all the
variables taken into consideration and focuses its attention on time perspective (as measured
using the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory) and academic performance. The various
outcomes in behaviour that have been found to be associated with the various temporal
orientations are also explained using the Temporal Self-regulation Theory.

Moreover, the correlates and related constructs of the future time perspective have been
shown in other research to be either directly or indirectly associated with higher academic
performance. However, statistical analysis has to be conducted on the five time perspectives
included in the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory and academic performance in order to
determine whether all of the time perspectives are in fact associated with academic
performance and to what extent if this is actually the case. Albeit, one is able to make the
educated inference that the Future time perspective might be associated with higher academic

19
performance. In the upcoming section on the methodology of this study, the statistical
analysis of the six variables will reviewed. The aim of the following section is to conduct a
statistical analysis on the six aforementioned variables to test the hypotheses that a) the
Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory can be used to explain the variance in academic
performance of third year students at the University of Johannesburg and b) scoring high on
the future-time perspective is associated with higher academic performance. To achieve this
goal, the size of the variance in academic performance and the five time perspectives will be
analysed using inferential and descriptive statistical analyses to determine whether the
variance can be attributed to the time perspectives measured in the ZTPI.

Chapter 2:

Methodology:

2.1 Introduction:

In order to test the alternate hypotheses (HA) that a) the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory
can be used to explain the variance in academic performance of third year psychology
students at the University of Johannesburg and b) scoring highly on the future time
perspective is associated with higher academic performance, descriptive and inferential
statistical analyses will be conducted in order to determine whether or not the null hypotheses
can or cannot be rejected. The null-hypotheses (Ho) are identified as the following: a) the
Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory cannot be used to explain the variance in academic
performance of third year psychology students at the University of Johannesburg and b)
scoring highly on the Future-Time perspective is not significantly associated with higher
academic performance. This particular study is quantitative in nature and analyzes archival
data. The following sections on the methodology, results and discussion of the study are
concerned with ascertaining whether or not the alternate hypotheses are true and if the null
hypothesis can be disregarded with significant reason. This section will cover the specific
aims of this research as well as the procedure undertaken concerning this study and will also
provide a description of the participants utilized and the instruments used to assess these

20
participants. Furthermore, the statistical analysis of the study will also be discussed in this
section as well as the ethical considerations pertaining to the acquirement of the data used.
Firstly, the research aims of the study will be identified and discussed.

2.2 Research Aims:

The initial aim of this study was to answer the research problem of whether or not the
Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory can be used to explain the variance in final exam
marks of third year psychology students studying at the University of Johannesburg. To do
this, six variables were taken into consideration. These are the past-negative time perspective,
the past-positive time perspective, the present-hedonistic time perspective, the present-
fatalistic time perspective, the future time perspective and academic performance measured
as the final examination marks of the third year psychology students. The five time
perspectives were measured using the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory and academic
performance was indicated by the students’ examination marks in percentage form.

Thereafter, the next aim was to explain the variance in terms of Hall and Fong’s (2007)
temporal self-regulation theory. Following the review of literature covering the five
aforementioned time perspectives and academic performance (which included factors which
influence this construct), two alternate hypotheses were formulated (HA (a) and HA (b)). The
next aim of this study is to test HA (a) (the Zimbardo time perspective Inventory can be used
to explain the variance in academic performance of third year psychology students at the
University of Johannesburg) and HA (b) (the future time perspective is associated with higher
academic performance). If this is the case, then Ho (a) (the Zimbardo Time Perspective
Inventory cannot be used to explain the variance in academic performance of third year
psychology students at the University of Johannesburg) and Ho (b) (scoring highly on the
Future-Time perspective is not significantly associated with higher academic performance)
can be rejected. In the upcoming sub-section, a description of the research procedure will be
put forward to provide information on how this research unfolds.

21
2.3 Procedures:

This study is based on data obtained from third year psychology students at the University of
Johannesburg. All of the data included in this study are archival. Therefore, all data gathering
and sampling were conducted prior to the completion of this study. The data that has been
analyzed has been provided by the University of Johannesburg. All authorization and
permissions were obtained from the University of Johannesburg to conduct research based on
the archival data provided. The study began by analyzing the archival data that is concerned
with the individual final examination marks in percentage form and individual scores on the
Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory. Scores for each of the five time perspectives (past-
negative, past-positive, present-fatalistic, present-hedonistic and future time perspectives)
were analyzed for each of the students. Thereafter, the data were subjected to descriptive and
inferential statistical analysis. The statistical analysis will be covered in more detail shortly.

2.4 Participants:

All of the participants included in this study are third year psychology students at the
University of Johannesburg for the year 2012. This sample consists of 404 participants. The
students had all voluntarily completed the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory and their
efforts were scored accordingly. Totals for the past-negative, past-positive, present-fatalistic,
present-hedonistic and future time perspectives were given for each individual student.
Because of a concern for confidentiality, each student is represented as a student number.
This sample of participants is representative of the population in the sense that this study
aims to determine whether the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory can be used to explain
the variance in academic performance of third year psychology students at the University of
Johannesburg. The use of university students as a sample is justified by the fact that this
homogeneous sample (in the sense that they are all third year psychology students at the
University of Johannesburg with relatively similar prior academic performance in that they
all meet the minimum requirement for university entrance) does not present the same
problems as sampling from a non-student population (Lance & Vanderberg, 2009). This is a
representative sample that is purposive and convenient to work with because the essence of

22
this study is centred on the academic performance of the third year university students
studying psychology. This homogeneous student sample also minimizes potential extraneous
variation which will strengthen the outcome of testing the above mentioned hypotheses
(external validity) (Lance & Vanderberg, 2009). Because the Zimbardo Time Perspective
Inventory is central to this study, it is important to explain and make clear how this and any
other instruments utilized in this study measure and analyze the variables that inform the
hypotheses of the study.

2.5 Instruments:

The aim of this section is to justify the use of the instruments utilized in the study. This
section will explain and clarify how the use of the selected instruments measure the variables
included in this study and how the use of these instruments facilitates the aims of the two
hypotheses.

There is one main instrument used in this study. This instrument is the Zimbardo time
Perspective inventory. The Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory measures the five time
perspectives included in this study (the past-negative, past-positive, present-fatalistic,
present-hedonistic and future time perspectives) individually. As mentioned earlier, each of
the five time perspectives function individually, they are unrelated. This inventory requires
participants to respond to a fifty-six item questionnaire using a five-point Likert scale (1 =
very uncharacteristic and 5 = very characteristic) (Worrel & Mello, 2007; Zimbardo & Boyd,
1999). Before scoring the Zimbardo Time Perspective inventory, scores for items 9, 24, 25
and 56 have to be reversed. This means that a score of 1 becomes a 5; 2 becomes a 4; 3
remains a 3; 4 becomes a 2 and 5 becomes a 1 (Zimbardo & Boyd; 1999). Scoring of the
inventory requires the adding of scores for each of the five time perspectives (separate
factors) separately and then dividing the total score by the number of questions that comprise
each factor (Zimbardo & Boyd; 1999). The past-negative time perspective is comprised of ten
items (4, 5, 16, 22, 27, 33, 34, 36, 50 and 54); the present-hedonistic time perspective is
comprised of fifteen items (1, 8, 12, 17, 19, 23, 26, 28, 31, 32, 42, 44, 46, 48 and 55); the
future time perspective is comprised of 13 items (6, 9, 10, 13, 18, 21, 24, 30, 40, 43, 45, 51
and 56); the past-positive time perspective is comprised of 9 items (2, 7, 11, 15, 20, 25, 29,

23
41 and 49) and the present-fatalistic time perspective is comprised of 9 items (3, 14, 35, 37,
38, 39, 47, 52 and 53) (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). In addition, this inventory appears to be
psychometrically valid and reliable for measuring the constructs included in this study.
Worrell and Mello (2007) investigated the structural validity, concurrent validity and
reliability of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory scores in academically talented
learners. They found through confirmatory factor analysis an indication of the five-factor
model put forward by Zimbardo and Boyd (1999) which increases the instrument’s construct
validity and factorial validity (Worrell & Mello, 2007). Worrell and Mello (2007) measured
convergent and discriminant validity of the ZTPI subscales using the State Hope Scale, The
Measure of Perceived Life Chances, and Grade Point Average scores. The past-positive and
future subscales showed modest positive relationships with hope, perceived life chances,
academic achievement, and the seriousness of academic cheating (in the .25 to .45 range); in
addition, the past-negative and present-fatalistic subscales showed negative relationships
(−.45 to −.25) with hope and perceived life chances and the present-hedonistic subscale
showed a negative relationship with the seriousness of academic cheating (−.45 to −.25)
(Worrell & Mello, 2007). These correlations were low (possibly due to the differences in the
samples), however, in the expected direction, which strengthens the inventory’s convergent
and discriminant validity. Zimbardo and Boyd also looked into the psychometric properties
of their instrument during its development. They established the reliability and validity of the
ZTPI using confirmatory factor analyses and test-retest measures. Zimbardo and Boyd (1999)
found test-retest reliability coefficients ranging from .70 to .80 for the five time perspectives.
The reliability coefficients for the time perspectives in the ZTPI were all above the acceptable
threshold of .70. The items in the ZTPI were also found to measure the five time orientations
adequately as confirmed using confirmatory factor analysis; this strengthens the internal
validity of the ZTPI (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Moreover, this study subjects the six main
variables of this study to statistical analyses. The purpose of this will be discussed in the next
section.

2.6 Statistical Analyses:

In order to test HA (a) (the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory can be used to explain the
variance in academic performance of third year psychology students at the University of

24
Johannesburg) and HA (b) (scoring highly on the future time perspective is associated with
higher academic performance), the archival data obtained for the six variables included in this
study (past-negative, past-positive, present-fatalistic, present-hedonistic and future time
perspectives and academic performance) will be subjected to quantitative inferential and
descriptive statistical analyses. The mean, mode and median will be computed separately for
each of the time perspectives as well as the grades. Thereafter, the size of the variance
between each of the time perspectives and the academic performance (measured in actual
grade percentage) of the students will be determined using a multiple linear regression. In
addition, the results obtained from the multiple linear regression will be interpreted to
determine whether or not the future time perspective is in fact associated with higher
academic performance.

2.7 Ethical considerations:

According to Creswell (2003), researchers have to anticipate the ethical issues associated
with data collection and have to respect all participants involved in the study. Because this
study deals with archival data, informed consent of the participants does not present itself as
an ethical issue. However, consent from the institution is a necessity and has been obtained
and confidentiality of the data analysed must be upheld. This study will also aim to interpret
and analyse the data in an ethically justifiable manner. It is of paramount importance that the
rights of the participants are defended and upheld at all times (Creswell, 2003). This study
has conformed to the University of Johannesburg’s ethical standards research protocol with
dignity, respect, consideration and honour to the best of the researcher’s abilities.

25
 Chapter 3:

Results:

3.1 Introduction:

In this section, the outcomes obtained from the statistical analyses (multiple linear regression)
that were conducted will be presented and interpreted. All findings will be related to the
alternative hypotheses (HA (a) and HA (b)) previously generated. Descriptive statistics
pertaining to the six variables examined in this study will be put forward. This will include
the means, medians, modes, skewness and kurtosis of these six variables to name a few. In
addition, the findings pertaining to the inferential statistical analyses will be put forward as
well. This will include a correlation table of all six variables, a tabulated model summary, a
table consisting of a summary of all coefficients and an ANOVA table. These tabulated
statistical findings will be elaborated and explained in depth.

3.2 Descriptive Statistics:

3.2.1 Academic Performance:

For the academic performance variable, a mean value of 63.69 was obtained for the final
marks (academic performance) of all students with a minimum and maximum of 12 and 92
respectively, and a standard deviation of 13.40 which indicates that the mean represents the
data for this variable well (Field, 2006). A median score of 63 was found for this variable
along with a mode value of 58. A negatively skewed distribution value of -.526 deviated from
the norm but only slightly. Moreover, this variable’s displayed a slight leptokurtic
distribution with a kurtosis value of .883 (indicating heavy tails and peakedness relative to
the normal distribution) (DeCarlo, 1997).

26
3.2.2 The Future Time Perspective:

A mean value of 3.60 was obtained for the future time perspective variable, along with an
equal median and mode value of 4. Minimum and maximum values were also obtained of 2
and 5 respectively. This variable displayed a slight negative skew with a skewness value of
-.494 and displayed a slight platykurtic distribution with a kurtosis value of -.362 (indicating
slim tails and flatness relative to a normal distribution) (DeCarlo, 1997; Field, 2006). The
standard deviation for this variable was .557, indicating that the mean represents the data for
this variable well (Field, 2006).

3.2.3 Past-Negative Time Perspective:

A mean value of 3.22 was obtained for the past-negative time perspective variable, along
with an equal value of 3 for its mode and median. This variable showed a minute negative
skew (-.108) and a slight platykurtic distribution with a kurtosis value of -.506 (indicating
slim tails and flatness relative to a normal distribution) (DeCarlo, 1997; Field, 2006). The
standard deviation for this variable was .676, signifying that the mean represents the data for
this variable well (Field, 2006).

3.2.4 Past-Positive Time Perspective:

The past-positive time perspective variable displayed a mean of 3.48 and an equal median
and mode value of 3. A slight negative skew was found with a value of -.122. This variable
also displayed a slight platykurtic distribution with a kurtosis value of -.411 (indicating slim
tails and flatness relative to a normal distribution) (DeCarlo, 1997; Field, 2006). A standard
deviation value of .599 was obtained, indicating that the mean represents this variable well
(Field, 2006).

27
3.2.5 Present-Fatalistic Time Perspective:

This variable displayed a mean value of 2.51 with an equal median and mode value of 2. The
present-fatalistic time perspective showed a slight positive skew with a skewness value of
.361. This variable displayed a slight platykurtic distribution similar to the past time
perspectives with a kurtosis value of -.435 (indicating slim tails and flatness relative to a
normal distribution) (DeCarlo, 1997; Field, 2006) and a standard deviation of .596, indicating
that the mean represents the data for this variable well (Field, 2006).

3.2.6 Present-Hedonistic Time Perspective:

The present-hedonistic time perspective variable showed a mean value of 3.40 with a
standard deviation of .516 which indicates that the mean represents the data for this variable
well (Field, 2006). This variable was slightly positively skewed with a skewness value
of.121. The data for this variable displayed a slight platykurtic distribution with a kurtosis
value of -1.358 (indicating slim tails and flatness relative to a normal distribution) (DeCarlo,
1997; Field, 2006) which is the largest deviation from the norm relative to the other variables
included in this study. This indicates that the data are distributed flatly with more scores
along the tails of the curve which means that students scored either quite low or quite high on
this time perspective relative to the mean.

28
 Table 3.1: Table of Descriptive Statistics.

Statistics

Final Future Present Present Past Past

Marks Fatalistic Hedonistic Positive Negative

Valid 404 404 404 404 404 404

N
Missing 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mean 63.69 3.60 2.51 3.40 3.48 3.22

Std. Error of
.667 .028 .030 .026 .030 .034
Mean

Median 63.00 4.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 3.00

Mode 58 4 2 3 3a 3
Std. Deviation 13.404 .557 .596 .516 .599 .676
Variance 179.678 .310 .355 .266 .359 .456
Skewness -.526 -.494 .361 .121 -.122 -.108

Std. Error of
.121 .121 .121 .121 .121 .121
Skewness

Kurtosis .883 -.362 -.435 -1.358 -.411 -.506

Std. Error of
.242 .242 .242 .242 .242 .242
Kurtosis

Range 80 3 3 2 3 3
Minimum 12 2 1 2 2 2
Maximum 92 5 4 4 5 5
Sum 25731 1455 1013 1375 1405 1302
a. Multiple modes exist. The smallest value is shown

29
 3.3 Descriptive Statistical Histograms of Variables with Normal Curves:

Figure 3.2: Descriptive Histogram –

Present Hedonistic Time Perspective
Figure 3.1: Descriptive Histogram –
Final Marks.

Figure 3.3: Descriptive Histogram – Figure 3.4: Descriptive Histogram – Past

Future Time Perspective.
Positive Time Perspective.

Figure 3.5: Descriptive Histogram –

Present Fatalistic Time Perspective. Figure 3.6: Descriptive Histogram – Past
Negative Time Perspective.

30
 3.4 Inferential Statistics:

In order to test HA (a) (the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory can be used to explain the
variance in academic performance of third year psychology students at the University of
Johannesburg) and HA (b) (scoring highly on the future time perspective is associated with
higher academic performance), a multiple linear regression was conducted on the six
variables included in this study.

The dependent variable in this study was identified as the academic performance of students
measured in actual grade percentage. The independent variables were identified as the past-
negative, past-positive, present-fatalistic, present-hedonistic and future time perspectives.
Residuals in the study showed a lack of autocorrelation (Durbin-Watson = 1.993) (Field,
2006). Moreover, there were no non-zero variance between variables and no sign of perfect
multicolinearity. The homoscedasticity of this model was determined by analysing the normal
probability plot (P-P) of regression standardised residual and the scatterplot. It was found that
points lie in a reasonably straight diagonal line from left bottom to top right on this graph
representing the model which indicates homoscedasticity (Pallant, 2010).

The sample size of this study is also sufficient for the regression model with roughly 80 cases
of data per predictor in the model (Field, 2006). An analysis of variance indicated that
improvement in prediction (in comparison to using the mean of academic performance to
predict academic performance) due to this model is relatively large (greater than 1) (Field,
2006) with an F-ratio of 6.284 at p < 0.001. This tells us that there is less than 0.1% chance
that this F-ratio is due to chance alone. Therefore, the ZTPI appears to be a better predictor of
academic performance than the mean of academic performance alone. Overall, the time
perspectives included in this model accounted for 6.2% of the variation in academic
performance (adjusted R² = .062) with a R² value of .073 (the model had been derived from
the population from which the sample was taken) (Field, 2006). This means that 93.8% of the
variation in academic performance cannot be accounted for by time perspective alone.

There also appeared to be two individual variables significantly associated with academic
performance, the future time perspective and the present-fatalistic time perspective. A t-
value of 3.641 was obtained for the future time perspective at the level of significance of
p < 0.01 for the two-tailed hypothesis that scoring highly on the future time perspective is
associated with higher academic performance with degrees of freedom calculated to be 403.

31
Therefore, Ho (b) that scoring highly on the Future-Time perspective is not significantly
associated with higher academic performance can be rejected. This conclusion was reached
due to the fact that the t-value obtained for this variable is larger than the value of 2.58 for p
< 0.01 for a two-tailed hypothesis (Field, 2006). Tabulated and graphical representations of
the results are provided below.

Table 3.2: Correlation Table of All Variables.

Final Future Present Present Past Past

Marks Fatalistic Hedonistic Positive Negative

Final Marks 1.000 .227 -.170 -.081 .097 -.116

Future .227 1.000 -.234 -.165 .126 -.139

Pearson Present Fatalistic -.170 -.234 1.000 .172 -.062 .273

Correlation Present Hedonistic -.081 -.165 .172 1.000 .065 .190

Past Positive .097 .126 -.062 .065 1.000 -.190

Past Negative -.116 -.139 .273 .190 -.190 1.000

Final Marks . .000 .000 .052 .026 .010

Future .000 . .000 .000 .006 .002

Present Fatalistic .000 .000 . .000 .107 .000

Sig. (1-tailed)
Present Hedonistic .052 .000 .000 . .095 .000

Past Positive .026 .006 .107 .095 . .000

Past Negative .010 .002 .000 .000 .000 .

Final Marks 404 404 404 404 404 404

Future 404 404 404 404 404 404

Present Fatalistic 404 404 404 404 404 404

N
Present Hedonistic 404 404 404 404 404 404

Past Positive 404 404 404 404 404 404

Past Negative 404 404 404 404 404 404

32
 Table 3.3: Model Summary.

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Change Statistics

Estimate
R Square Change F Change

a
1 .270 .073 .062 12.986 .073 6.284

Model Change Statistics Durbin-Watson

df1 df2 Sig. F Change

a
1 5 398 .000 1.993

Table 3.4: Colinearity Diagnostics.

Collinearity Diagnosticsa

Model Dimension Eigenvalue Condition Index Variance Proportions

(Constant) Future Present Fatalistic

1 5.860 1.000 .00 .00 .00

2 .058 10.084 .00 .08 .34

3 .035 12.861 .00 .01 .46

1
4 .024 15.771 .00 .42 .12

5 .019 17.616 .00 .06 .00

6 .005 34.882 .99 .44 .08

Collinearity Diagnosticsa

Model Dimension
Variance Proportions

Present Hedonistic Past Positive Past Negative

1 .00 .00 .00

2 .00 .09 .10

3 .00 .08 .55

1
4 .30 .15 .00

5 .48 .53 .26

6 .22 .14 .09

33
 Table 3.5: Coefficient Summary.

Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized t Sig.

Coefficients

B Std. Error Beta

(Constant) 54.343 8.361 6.499 .000

Future 4.429 1.216 .184 3.641 .000

Present Fatalistic -2.394 1.160 -.106 -2.065 .040

1
Present Hedonistic -.725 1.307 -.028 -.555 .579

Past Positive 1.354 1.113 .061 1.216 .225

Past Negative -.881 1.027 -.044 -.858 .391

Model 95.0% Confidence Interval for B Correlations

Lower Bound Upper Bound Zero-order Partial Part

(Constant) 37.906 70.781

Future 2.038 6.820 .227 .180 .176

Present Fatalistic -4.674 -.114 -.170 -.103 -.100

1
Present Hedonistic -3.294 1.844 -.081 -.028 -.027

Past Positive -.835 3.542 .097 .061 .059

Past Negative -2.901 1.138 -.116 -.043 -.041

Model Collinearity Statistics

Tolerance VIF

(Constant)

Future .913 1.095

Present Fatalistic .877 1.140

1
Present Hedonistic .921 1.086

Past Positive .940 1.064

Past Negative .869 1.151

34
Figure 3.7: Normal P-P Plot of Regression Standardized Residual (Dependent Variable:
Final Marks).

35
 Chapter 4:

Discussion:

4.1 Introduction:

This section will aim to explain the significance of the quantitative results obtained in this
study. The goal of this section is to state the study’s major findings concerning HA (a) and
HA (b) and to explain the meaning and importance of these findings along with its practical
relevance in relation to the findings of other similar studies. Moreover, the results of this
study will be highlighted to illuminate the contributions of the study, namely, how the
findings of this study support, contradict or extend the existing knowledge available
regarding time perspective and its related constructs. In addition, alternative explanations of
the findings unearthed in this study will also be considered and stated. Moreover, in addition
to the strengths of this study, the limitations of this study will also be acknowledged and
suggestions for further research will be made.

4.2 Meaning and Importance of the Major Research Findings:

In this subsection, the statistical results obtained in the previous section will be discussed in
more detail. The results will be considered in relation to the research hypotheses that a) the
Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory can be used to explain the variance in academic
performance of third year psychology students at the University of Johannesburg and b)
scoring highly on the future time perspective is associated with higher academic
performance.

It was found in the statistical analysis of the variables included in this study that 6.2%
(determined used the adjusted R² value) of the variance in academic performance of third
year psychology students can be accounted for by an individual’s perspective of time as
measured by the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory. The statistical results that were
obtained also supported the rejection of Ho (b) (the future-time perspective is not significantly

36
associated with higher academic performance). This was based on the fact that the t-value
obtained for the future time perspective is larger than the critical value of the t-distribution of
2.58 for p < 0.01 for the two-tailed hypothesis (Field, 2006; Greene & D’Oliveira, 2006) that
scoring highly on the future time perspective is associated with higher academic performance
with degrees of freedom calculated to be 403. By analyzing the descriptive statistical results
obtained, it is seen that the data concerned are more or less normally distributed. The normal
distribution is of importance because its characteristic bell-shaped curve implies that majority
of the scores lie around the center of the distribution and as scores deviate from the center,
the frequency of these scores decreases (Field, 2006). Therefore, the normal distribution of
scores implies predictability. The multiple linear regression model that was constructed also
appeared to represent the data quite well with no sign of severe autocorrelation,
heteroscedasticity or perfect multicolinearity. A lack of autocorrelation (determined using the
Durbin-Watson test) is of importance because it indicates that the residuals in the study are
uncorrelated (Field, 2006). Correlated residuals could potentially confound the results of the
study. The homoscedasticity of the model (determined by analyzing the normal probability
plot of regression standardised residual and the scatterplot) is of importance because it
indicates that the variance of residual terms remains constant (Field, 2006). If this model was
heteroscedastic, it would fail to fit the data well and would misperceive the results obtained.
The lack of perfect multicolinearity (determined by analyzing the correlations between
predictors and colinearity diagnostics) is of importance because it indicates that no perfect
linear relationship exists between two or more predictors (Field, 2006). If this were the case,
it would indicate that two or more of the predictors are in fact the same construct measuring
the same phenomenon which would confound the study.

Therefore, the conclusions that this model adequately represents the data obtained and validly
depicts the predictive power of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory and that the future
time perspective is in fact associated with higher academic performance (and academic
performance in general) relative to the other time perspectives included in this study have
been made and are soundly justified. In the upcoming subsection, the real-world relevance of
this research will be mentioned with bearing in mind the confirmation of the alternative
hypotheses.

37
4.3 Practical Relevance of The Research:

This subsection will address the practical usefulness of the findings unearthed in this study.
This will be accomplished by expanding on the statistical result obtained regarding the size of
variance in academic performance that can be successfully accounted for using the Zimbardo
Time Perspective Inventory in relation to real-life dilemmas that tertiary students face.

The fact that the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory is able to account for 6.2% of the
variance in academic performance is important because a student’s time perspective could
mean the difference between passing or failing a tertiary course or even achieving an A grade
symbol instead of a B grade symbol. For instance, if student x achieved 75% (an A grade
symbol) for a tertiary course, that means that almost 5% of their total mark can be accounted
for by the student’s time perspective (assuming all other variables remain constant) as
measured using the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (75 multiplied by 6.2 divided by
100 is equal to 4.65 percent). However, it is imperative to keep in mind that majority of the
variance in academic performance cannot be accounted for by time perspective alone.
Environmental factors such as type of schooling, social environment and the availability of
resources; biological factors such as temperament, physical health and executive frontal lobe
brain functioning and psychological factors such as motivation, mental health and personality
all come into play when determining academic performance. This study also identified that
the future time perspective is associated with higher academic performance and academic
performance in general relative to the other four time perspectives included in this study. This
is of practical relevance in the sense that, because of this study’s inclusion of all the time
perspectives included in the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory, it opens up the doors for
further research and highlights recent instruments that may be applied in research pertaining
to the assessment of an individual’s temporal orientation. This is best illustrated by
comparing this study to other similar studies.

In the following subsection, this study will be likened to the work of other researchers in
order to encourage further research into the topic of temporal orientation. By placing this
study alongside similar work, the strengths of this study and significant contributions made
will be highlighted.

38
4.4 Comparison with Similar Studies:

In this subsection, this study will be compared to a related study conducted in the year 1982
by De Volder and Lens. Their study investigated academic achievement and future time
perspective as cognitive-motivational concepts.

In the similar study directed by De Volder and Lens (1982), the authors also found that
students that were more future-orientated received higher grade point averages and placed a
higher valence on goals in the future. Without assuming the bully pulpit (Hess, 2004), in
comparison to De Volder and Lens’ study, this study not only measures the future time
perspective’s relation to academic performance but also takes the other four time perspectives
included in the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (the past-negative, past-positive,
preset-fatalistic and present-hedonistic time perspectives) into account. In addition, De
Volder and Lens (1982) utilized the Inventory of Motivational Objects to assess the future
time perspective. This study, in comparison to De Volder and Lens’, utilizes a valid and
reliable instrument specifically designed and developed to assess an individual’s temporal
orientation which was not available at the time De Volder and Lens published their findings.

Even though this study appears to account for the short comings of similar studies that take
only one time perspective into account, there are alternative explanations for its findings. In
the next subsection, alternative explanations for the results obtained in this study will be
discussed in more detail in order to make possible further contributions to the topic of
temporal orientation and academic performance.

4.5 Alternative Explanations of Research Findings and Suggestions for Future Research:

An alternative explanation for the findings in this study could be that the personality factors
associated with the future time perspective could be the significant contributor to academic
performance. This subsection aims to provide further elaboration on alternative explanations
for the results unearthed concerning temporal orientation and academic performance.

39
For instance, Zimbardo and Boyd found that the personality trait of conscientiousness
showed a valuable positive correlation with the future time perspective (r = .73) (1999).
Conscientiousness has been known to be associated academic performance and academic
success. Chamorro-Premuzic and Furnham’s (2003) exploratory factor analytic work
pertaining to determining academic performance considered conscientiousness as a “Super
Factor”, which accounted for 17% of the variance in academic performance, along with
another Big Five personality factor (neuroticism) and psychoticism. In a later study, the same
authors found that conscientiousness, openness (another Big Five personality factor), ability,
achieving and deep learning approaches collectively accounted for 40% of the variance in
academic performance (Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2008). The High positive
correlation between the future time perspective and conscientiousness shows that these two
factors are related. It could be that conscientiousness and other factors, perhaps good ego
control and the ability to regulate one’s behaviour might cluster together and form a
constitutive factor (diligence, for example) of the future time perspective which might be
more accountable for the variance in academic performance. One way to go about
determining the constitutive factors of the future time perspective that contribute to academic
performance is to research the relevant literature and conduct an exploratory factor analysis
to determine which factors of the future time perspective can explain the most amount of
variance in academic performance. This suggestion for further future research is significant in
the sense that it will aid in determining exactly what it is about considering future events of
one’s life that leads to success. From a more practical viewpoint, this could help people to
cope more effectively in their everyday challenges and might improve overall subjective
well-being by educating people about what factors concerning an individual’s temporal
orientation need to be developed and which ones need to be pruned.

Moreover, this study is not without its own weaknesses and limitations. In the next
subsection, the flaws of this study will be discussed in more detail in order to highlight its
short-comings and open the doors for future research. Researchers are encouraged to
scrutinize these weaknesses and provide the topic with superior methods, instruments,
literature, results and so on to improve the quality of understanding regarding temporal
orientation or time perspective.

40
4.6 Limitations of The Study:

Even though this study validly accounts for the variance in academic performance by using
the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory and the Temporal Self-Regulation Theory, the
amount of variance accounted for when testing the hypothesis that the Zimbardo Time
Perspective Inventory can be used to explain the variance in academic performance of third
year psychology students at the University of Johannesburg is quite small.

In comparison to other similar studies which utilized factor analytic approaches to testing
their hypotheses, this study utilizes a multiple linear regression model to test its two
hypotheses. For example, Chamorro-Premuzic and Furnham (2003; 2008) were able to
account for 17% of the variance in academic performance in a study comparing two
longitudinal samples and up to 40% of the variance in academic performance in a later study.
With regards to the hypothesis that scoring highly on the future time perspective is associated
with higher academic performance (HA (b)), the data does support this hypothesis, however, it
is two tailed. HA (b) merely states that there is an association between these variables. This is
because scoring highly on the future time perspective merely indicates a proclivity to be more
future-orientated compared to the other four time perspectives included in the Zimbardo Time
Perspective Inventory. However, had the hypothesis stated that scoring highly on the future
time perspective increases academic performance, this would be a one-tailed hypothesis that
would indicate direction as well as cause-and-effect. The testing of a one-tailed hypothesis
such as this is another possible avenue open for further research. Moreover, had this study
conducted a stepwise multiple linear regression where the order in which the predictors are
entered into the model is based on a mathematical criterion using a computer program (Field,
2006), the validity of the study would increase. Had this been done, an adjusted R2 value of
6.1 would be obtained after correction. The difference is small but the internal validity of the
study would be strengthened.

Although this study is not without flaws, there is a significant relationship between the results
obtained in this study and previous research and theory related to time perspective and its
related constructs. In the next subsection, the results of this study will be positioned within
the larger literature concerning time perspective to illustrate how it supports, contradicts or
extends the already existing knowledge base (Lance & Vanderberg, 2009).

41
4.7 The Relationship of the Results to Previous Theory and Research:

As was mentioned in the review of literature concerning time perspective and its related
constructs, there is a substantial amount of empirical evidence indicating a significant
relationship between the results obtained in this study, the results of other related studies and
previous theories regarding time perspective.

For instance, Hall and Fong’s temporal self-regulation theory is supported by the findings of
this study by extending the findings of other similar studies investigating temporal
orientation. As was mentioned in the review of relevant literature, the temporal self-
regulation theory states that any behaviour is motivated by its most likely outcome and the
value that is placed on this outcome and the strength of that motivation is moderated by two
factors, namely (1) behavioural prepotency; and (2) self-regulatory capacity (Hall & Fong,
2007). The previous research of Zimbardo and Boyd (1999) uncovered valuable positive
correlations between the future time perspective and conscientiousness (r = .73),
consideration for future consequences (r = .67) and hours spent studying per week (r = .28).
Being able to actually dedicate a substantial amount of time studying, possessing the ability
to consider the consequences of one’s actions and conscientious behaviour in general are all
considered higher order executive brain functions (for a more in-depth explanation, see
Miller & Wallis, 2009). Such higher order cognitive functions are influenced by an
individual’s self-regulatory capacity, which according to the temporal self-regulation theory
is one of the factors that influence various behavioural outcomes. The results of this study
elaborate on the findings of Zimbardo and Boyd by explaining a significant amount of
variance in the academic performance of university students using the future time
perspective. This reinforces the previously established association between consciousness and
academic performance by revealing the future time perspective’s predictive power. Because
of the future time perspective’s noteworthy positive correlation with conscientiousness, this
in turn supports Hall and Fong’s (2007) theory that human behaviour is moderated by an
individual’s ability to regulate their own behaviour.

Therefore, this study secures its place among the literature concerned with time perspective
and academic performance. It accomplishes this task by supporting and elaborating on the
findings of researchers such as Zimbardo and Boyd (1999) and theorists such as Hall and
Fong (2007).

42
4.8 Conclusions:

In summary, the endeavors of this study are fruitful since the results confirmed HA (a) (the
Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory can be used to explain the variance in academic
performance of third year psychology students at the University of Johannesburg) and HA (b)
(scoring highly on the future time perspective is associated with higher academic
performance). Therefore, this study concludes that the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory
can be used to explain a small amount of the variance in academic performance of third year
psychology students at the University of Johannesburg and that scoring highly on the future
time perspective is significantly associated with higher academic performance and academic
performance in general.

43
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