LECTURE: EVS 314

Pollutants, Invaders and Global Change

Pollutants

A pollutant is any substance in the environment, which causes objectionable

effects, impairing the welfare of the environment, reducing the quality of life and
may eventually cause death. Such a substance has to be present in the environment
beyond a set or tolerance limit, which could be either a desirable or acceptable
limit. Hence, environmental pollution is the presence of a pollutant in the
environment; air, water and soil, which may be poisonous or toxic and will cause
harm to living things in the polluted environment.

Classification of Pollutants

Pollutants can be classified based on (i) its chemical nature, and (ii) its persistence.

Classification Based on its Chemical Nature

Depending upon the chemical nature of the pollutants and their interaction with
environment process, pollutants can be classified as follows:

1) Solid Wastes: The solid wastes includes the pollutants like garbage, rubbish,
ashes, large wastes formed due to demolition and construction processes,
dead animals wastes, agricultural wastes, etc.
2) Liquid Wastes: These are group of wastes that affects the amount of
oxygen in any aquatic system. Oxygen cycle is nicely operated in aquatic
system maintaining ecological balance. That is, the dissolved oxygen is used
by aquatic living organisms for their respiration and in return, these liberate
carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide molecules are again used by green plants and
algae in the process of photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, oxygen is
again liberated to water which remains in dissolved state. However, if some
organic matter (food for bacteria) enters the water course, then bacteria
oxidize these materials consuming oxygen from water. At such a condition, if
the process of re-oxygenation is slower than the process of deoxygenation,
then the river will be devoid of life sustaining dissolved oxygen and aquatic
living organisms will die.
 The most important source of liquid waste is sewage which contains faecal
matter, urine, kitchen washing and oil washings. Sewage also contains a large
number of pathogenic and harmless bacteria. The strength of organic waste
material of sewage is measured in terms of Bio-chemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD). The value is expressed in terms of mg of oxygen per litre of waste
for 5 days at 200C. If the volume of BOD is below 1500mg per litre, the
sewage is termed as weak waste, if it is 4000mg per litre, it is medium and
above this value it is termed as strong waste.
3) Gaseous Wastes: The gaseous wastes include Carbon monoxide (CO),
Sulphur dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Ozone (O3) and smog gases
(composed of a complex mixture of photochemical oxidation products of
hydrocarbons. These gases are more abundant in the atmosphere of
industrial cities.
4) Waste without Weight: This type of pollution is also known as pollution
by energy waste; Wastes without weight may be of the following types:
i) Radio-active Substance: Despite of all possible precautions in the
functioning and maintenance of nuclear reactors, it is seen that minute
quantity of radio-active waste escapes out into the environment. From the
mining operation of the uranium to the use and final disposal of wastes from
the reactor, radio-active materials continuously escape out into the
environment. Besides, a lot of radio-active wastes enter into environment
during the nuclear tests.
ii) Heat: A large quantity of waste heat energy is dissipated into
environment by the way of hot liquid streams or hot gases released by
industries and automobiles.
iii) Noise: The unwanted sound is known as noise. The source of noise for the
general public are the machines in the industry, traffic noise, indiscriminate
use of transistor, radios, public address systems, indiscriminate blasting of
horn etc.

Classification Based on its Persistence in the Environment

Pollutants are generally grouped under two classes: (1) Biodegradable pollutants and
(2) Non-biodegradable pollutants.

1. Biodegradable pollutants: These are categories of waste that are easily broken
down by the activities of microorganisms. The products of biodegradation of such
waste enter the biogeochemical cycles. They act as pollutants only when their
quantity is large and they aren't degraded at the right time. Examples of such
pollutants are domestic waste products, urine and faecal matter, sewage,
agricultural residue, paper, wood and cloth.

2. Non-biodegradable pollutants: These are categories of wastes that don't

break down into simpler and harmless products. The amount of such pollutant
remains unchanged with time. These include insecticides, pesticides, DDT, mercury,
lead, arsenic, aluminium, plastics, and radioactive waste. These pollutants may be in
liquid-gaseous or solid form. They may enter into the food chain and harm the
organisms. Some pollutants are biodegradable and therefore will not persist in the
environment in the long term.

Organic pollutant

Organic pollutants can be further divided into following categories:

a) Oxygen Demanding wastes: The wastewaters such as, domestic and municipal
sewage, wastewater from food processing industries, canning industries, slaughter
houses, paper and pulp mills, tanneries, breweries, distilleries, etc. have
considerable concentration of biodegradable organic compounds either in
suspended, colloidal or dissolved form. These wastes undergo degradation and
decomposition by bacterial activity. The dissolved oxygen available in the water
body will be consumed for aerobic oxidation of organic matter present in the
wastewater. Hence, depletion of the DO will be a serious problem adversely
affecting aquatic life, if the DO falls below 4.0 mg/L. This decrease of DO is an
index of pollution.

b) Synthetic Organic Compounds

Synthetic organic compounds are also likely to enter the ecosystem through
various manmade activities such as production of these compounds, spillage during
transportation, and their uses in different applications. These include synthetic
pesticides, synthetic detergents, food additives, pharmaceuticals, insecticides,
paints, synthetic fibers, plastics, solvents and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
Most of these compounds are toxic and biorefractory organics i.e., they are
resistant to microbial degradation.
Even concentration of some of these in traces may make water unfit for different
uses. The detergents can form foams and volatile substances may cause explosion
in sewers. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are used in the industries since 1930s
which are complex mixtures of chlorobiphenyls. Being a fat soluble they move
readily through the environment and within the tissues or cells. Once introduced
into environment, these compounds are exceedingly persistent and their stability
to chemical reagents is also high.

c) Oil

Oil is a natural product which results from the plant remains fossilized over
millions of years, under marine conditions. It is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons
and degradable under bacterial action, the biodegradation rate is different for
different oils, tars being one of the slowest. Oil enters in to water through oil
spills, leak from oil pipes, and wastewater from production and refineries. Being
lighter than water it spreads over the surface of water, separating the contact of
water with air, hence resulting in reduction of DO. This pollutant is also
responsible for endangering water birds and coastal plants due to coating of oils
and adversely affecting the normal activities. It also results in reduction of light
transmission through surface waters, thereby reducing the photosynthetic activity
of the aquatic plants. Oil includes polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), some of
which are known to be carcinogenic.

Organic air, water and soil pollutant

Organic Air pollutant

Organic pollutants may have a strong effect upon atmospheric quality.. The effects
of organic pollutants in the atmosphere may be divided into two major categories
such as;

1. Direct organic air pollutant effects: This is a localised situation like

workplace- (power station using coal, industries) and domestic activities
2. Secondary pollutants effect like photochemical smog, which is more
important effect when hydrocarbon pollutant in the atmosphere is
discussed.
Organic contaminants are lost from the atmosphere by a number of routes. These
include dissolution in precipitation (rainwater), dry deposition, photochemical
reactions, formation of and incorporation into particulate matter, and uptake by
plants (phytoextraction). Reactions of organic atmospheric contaminants are
particularly important in determining manner and rate of loss from atmosphere.

Pollutant hydrocarbons

The widespread use of fuel and petroleum products as a result of anthropogenic

(originating through human activities) activities have made them predominate
source of hydrocarbon pollutant among organic atmospheric pollutants.
Hydrocarbons may be release directly or as by-products of the partial combustion
into the atmosphere. The most vital concern entry method in the by-products
because they tend to be unsaturated and relatively reactive.

Most pollutant sources produce about 15% reactive hydrocarbons, whereas those
from incomplete combustion of gasoline are about 45 % reactive. The hydrocarbons
in controlled automobile exhausts are only about 1/3 alkanes, with the remainder
divided approximately equally between more reactive alkenes and aromatic
hydrocarbons, thus accounting for the relatively high reactivity of automotive
exhaust hydrocarbons.

Investigation on smog formation has given a likely composition of alkanes and

alkenes needed as hydrocarbon pollutant in the atmosphere. The typical mixture is
0.556 alkanes and 0.444 alkenes.

Alkenes enter the atmosphere through various processes, including emissions from
internal combustion engines, turbines, foundry operations, petroleum refining.
Other hydrocarbons sources for air pollutants are;

1. Aromatic hydrocarbon e.g. Biphenyl

2. Aldehydes and ketones e.g. Formaldehydes used in plastic, resin, lacquers,
dyes, and explosives. Formaldehydes and acetaldehydes can be produced by
microorganisms, and acetaldehyde is emitted by some kinds of vegetation.
Generally, air organic pollutant enter atmosphere from large number of sources and
processes, which include direct emissions from internal combustion engine
exhausts, incinerator emissions, spray painting, polymer manufacture, printing,
petrochemicals manufacture, and lacquer manufacture.

Photochemical smog

An important feature of photochemical smog is the production of aerosols that

markedly reduce visibility, eye irritation, cracking of rubber, deterioration of
materials. Aerosols of similar composition are formed by the irradiation of olefins
or gasoline in the presence of NO2.

Smog-forming reactions of organic compounds in the atmosphere

Hydrocarbons are eliminated from atmosphere by a number of chemical and

photochemical reactions. These reactions are responsible for the formation of
many noxious secondary pollutant products and intermediates from relatively
innocuous hydrocarbon precursors. These pollutant products and intermediates
make up photochemical smog.

Hydrocarbons and most other organic compounds in the atmosphere are

thermodynamically unstable toward oxidation and tend to be oxidized through a
series of steps. The oxidation process terminates with formation of CO 2. Solid
organic particulate matter which settles from the atmosphere or water-soluble
products (for example, acids, Aldehydes) is removed by rain. Inorganic species
such as ozone or nitric acid are by-products of these reactions.

The major three steps involved in an overall photochemical reaction are:

1. Absorption or radiation
2. Primary reactions
3. Secondary reactions
Smog forming automotive emissions

Internal combustion engines used in automobiles and trucks produce reactive

hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides, two of the three key ingredients required for
smog to form. At the high temperature and pressure conditions in an internal
combustion engine, products of incomplete burned gasoline undergo chemical
reactions which produce several hundred different hydrocarbons. Many of these
are highly reactive in forming photochemical smog. As shown in Fig 1, the
automobile has several potential sources of hydrocarbon emissions other than the
exhaust. The first of these to be controlled was the crankcase mist of
hydrocarbons composed of lubricating oil and “blowby”. The latter consists of
exhaust gas and unoxidised carbureted mixture that enters the crankcase from
the combustion chambers around the pistons. This mist is destroyed by
recirculating it through the engine intake manifold by way of the positive
crankcase ventilation (PCV) valve.

A second major source of automotive hydrocarbon emissions is the fuel system,

from which hydrocarbons are emitted through fuel tank and carburetor vents.
When the engine is shut off and the engine heat warms up the fuel system,
gasoline may be evaporated and emitted to the atmosphere. In addition, heating
during the daytime and cooling at night causes the fuel tank to breathe and emit
gasoline fumes. Such emissions are reduced by fuel formulated to reduce volatility.
Automobiles are equipped with canisters of carbon which collect evaporated fuel
from the fuel tank and fuel system, to be purged and burned when the engine is
operating.

Organic water pollutant

Water pollutant is any biological, chemical or physical substance present at

excessive level capable of causing harm to living organisms, including man.
Therefore, any organic substance that fulfilled definition above is called organic
water pollutant. The organic water pollutant sources can be categorise into point
source and non-point source.
Point source refers to contaminants that enter waterway from single, identifiable
source like pipe or ditch.

Non-point source refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a
single discrete source. It is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of
contaminants gathered from large area.

Organic pollutant in soil

(Extracted from: Soil Contamination with Heavy Metals and Petroleum Derivates:
Impact on Edaphic Fauna and Remediation Strategies
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52868 177)

Soil is characterized as a complex and dynamic system. It is constituted by several

layers that differ in relation to the physical, chemical, mineralogical and biological
nature, which are influenced by the climate and activities of the living organisms.
Besides contributing to the maintenance of all forms of life that occur in the
terrestrial surface, soil plays an important role in protecting the groundwater
acting as a collector filter of organic and inorganic residues, helping in
sequestering possible toxic compounds [1]. During the last decades of the
twentieth century there was an awareness of the importance of the soil as an
environmental component and recognition of the need to maintain or improve its
capacity to allow it to perform its various functions. At the same time there was a
confirmation that the soil is not an inexhaustible resource and, if used improperly
or poorly managed, its characteristics can be lost in a short period of time, with
limited opportunities for regeneration [2]. However, the final disposal of
potentially toxic residues in the soil has become a practical and inexpensive
alternative and can cause alterations in the arthropod community [3, 4]. These
species can present individual biological alterations (physiological, morphological
and behavioural), which can be extrapolated to field studies in order to analyze
ecological aspects, such as population dynamics and richness of diversity in the
contaminated areas. Therefore, the gathering of biological studies, both
laboratorial and field, combined with chemical analysis of the contaminants,
provides a real scenario of the effects that the toxic substances can cause in the
ecosystem. Among the substances released in the soil it can be highlighted the
petroleum derivatives and heavy metals [5]. In soils contaminated with petroleum
and derivatives, some contaminants stand out compared to others, such as benzene,
toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes, known as BTEX, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH) and total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) [6, 7]. Pollution by
heavy metals is derived from the anthropogenic activity, mainly associated to the
industrial process and natural sources, such as volcanic eruptions [8]. Although
researches involving soil quality are facing an important technologic challenge with
several actions being taken in order to assess, correct and reduce the risks of
contaminants in the soil, standardized monitoring combined with remediation
strategies are still needed [5]. Thus, several researches aiming to remediate the
effects of the soil contaminants have been carried out worldwide. Remediation of a
contaminated area involves the application of one or more techniques aiming to
remove or contain harmful substances in order to allow the reuse of the area with
acceptable risk limits for human and environmental health. For this purpose, an
ideal remediation process must remove all the contaminants of the soil or, at least,
reduce the percentage of contamination of the environment to acceptable limits;
should also avoid the migration of contaminants to other areas. For the
remediation of soils contaminated with petroleum, several physical, chemical and
biological techniques have been developed for the removal or degradation in situ or
ex situ of the pollutant [6, 9].

When the contaminant reaches the soil, either on purpose or accidentally, it

suffers the action of geochemical and biological phenomena and is distributed by
the subsurface in the vaporized, residual or adsorbed phases, free phase and
dissolved phase. The distribution of such phases will depend on their physico-
chemical characteristics and also on the type of the soil [12]. Thus, the mobility of
the contaminants and, consequently, their toxicity are directly related to the
capacity of the soil in maintaining them retained in their solid phase, making them
unavailable to be absorbed by plants, eroded and/or leachate [13]. Among the
factors that determine the binding of contaminants to the soil there is the
available surface area of the particles (m²/g). Moreover, the electrical charges of
the particles of the soil matrix also influence in the adsorption of the
contaminants to the environment. It is noteworthy that in relation to their
physico-chemical properties the contaminants are classified as Dense Non-Aqueous
Phase Liquid (DNAPL), when the substance is moredense than the water and Light
Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (LNAPL), when it is less dense [14]. The main processes
of interaction between the organic compounds or metals and the environment are
the retention by adsorption, absorption or precipitation; biotic and abiotic
transformations and transport by volatilization, leaching or runoff [15]. There are
com‐ pounds highly resistant to degradation that can interact strongly in a
reversible or irreversible way with the colloidal components of the soil. This
process is called sorption, both for adsorption and absorption. Adsorption is
characterized as an interfacial process while absorption differs for involving the
penetration of the compound in the particles of the soil and can be accumulated
inside the absorber system [11]. In general, the dynamic of the contaminants in the
soil can be modelled by three mechanisms of mass transference, namely: advection,
dispersion and attenuation. a. Advection – it consists in the mechanism where the
contaminants coincidentally follow the flow vectors and keep a direct relationship
with the speed of percolation in the soil. It is the mechanism responsible for the
formation and mobilization of the free phase of hydrocarbons. b. Dispersion –
Consists in the mechanism responsible for the decrease in the concentration of the
contaminants in the fluid percolation and that can occur by two processes: hydro‐
dynamic dispersion and molecular diffusion. Hydrodynamic dispersion occurs by the
flow restriction in the pores of the soil that generates the reduction in the
percolation velocity of the more viscous components while the molecular diffusion
is, intrinsically, a phenomenon of dilution of the more soluble compounds, and is the
main formation process of the dissolved phase, responsible for the greater
mobility of the contaminants. In the case of emulsions, such as hydrocarbons, the
dispersion can occur in a more complex mechanism, due to the phenomena of
hysteresis (delay) of the entrainment of the contaminants, especially in the
saturation fronts and capillary fringe. This process is associated to the formation
of the adsorbed phase and also by the production of a fraction of emulsions that
can compose the dissolved phase. c. Attenuation – Consists in the reduction of
contaminants transported by advection or dilution by chemical or physico-chemical
reactions. Chemical attenuation is the more in‐ tense in soils with higher cation
exchange capacity and acts reducing compounds in the free and adsorbed phase.
Also in the list of reactions there are the bioconversion reactions, in which a part
of the hydrocarbons is transformed or totally oxidized in organic acids. Chemical
attenuation is more intense in the region with higher availability of oxygen.
Physico-chemical attenuation is responsible for the formation of the adsorbed
phase and consists in the imprisonment of the contaminants that adhere to the
grains of the soil, especially to the grumes of clay with higher activity. However,
associated with the mechanisms of chemical attenuation, it is responsible for the
formation of the dissolved phase (facilitated by the reduction of pH) [16].

Contaminants can be resistant to the decomposition processes and, therefore, can

be accumulated in the soil [19]. Invertebrates easily become exposed to such
contaminants, which can affect their ecological function [20] and influence
indirectly the ecosystem and alter the ratio predator/prey and affect the complex
food chain [21]. In order to evaluate the ecological effects of this contamination it
is developed tests that aim to quantify the abundance, mortality and reproduction
of the organisms exposed [20].

Studies on the toxicity of petroleum have shown that some species present higher
sensitivity to these contaminants. Survival of earthworms (Eisenia andrei and E.
fetida) and enchytraeids (Enchytraeus crypticus) can be reduced in soil containing
crude petroleum [25, 26], while the abundance of Isopoda and Hymenoptera in
areas contaminated with complex mixtures derived from refineries can be higher in
relation to uncontaminated areas [27]. Among the petroleum derivatives, the
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) have a prominent role. Chemically, they
are aromatic compounds formed by two or more benzene rings, constituted
exclusively by atoms of carbon and hydrogen, arranged in a linear, angular or
grouped form [28], and are residues of combustion, petroleum refinery and other
industrial processes of high temperature [29]. There are thousands of these
substances in the environment, each one differing in the number and position of
the aromatic ring [30], but only 16 substances cause environmental concern:
acenaphthene, acenaphthylene, anthra‐ cene, benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(a)pyrene,
benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(ghi)perylene, ben‐ zo(k)fluoranthene, chrysene,
dibenzo(a, h)anthracene, phenanthrene, fuoranteno, fuoreno, indeno(1,2,3-
cd)pyrene, naphthalene and pyrene [31].
A small review performed by Souza et al. [7] discusses the main ecotoxicological
assays that can be applied in soils contaminated by petroleum hydrocarbons. In this
review, the authors affirm that bioassays with invertebrates have been efficient,
thanks to the important role that these animals play in the ecological processes of
the soil, such as cycling and decomposition. Studies using earthworms as
bioindicator organisms of contamination of the soil by PAH showed that the impact
in these organisms is limited. Both the survival and reproduction rates were not
altered and the concentrations of these substances in the individuals were low,
suggesting low absorption by them [36]. Schaub and Achazi [apud 36] observed
that PAH did not influence the survival and growth of the earthworm E. fetida in
the concentration of 100.8 mg/kg, but the reproduction was affected in the
concentration of 1.008 mg/kg. Chrysene did not alter the survival of E. fetida in a
study carried out by Bowmer [37].

Notable pollutants

For the purpose of this lecture, the following notable pollutants will be discussed:

 Persistent organic pollutants

 Volatile organic compounds

VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOCs)

Volatile organic compounds are defined as organic compounds which easily

evaporate and enter the atmosphere. VOCs include a wide range of air pollutants,
such as hydrocarbons, compounds of chlorine, and sulphur.

Sources

The major anthropogenic sources of VOCs include paints, adhesives, aerosols, metal
cleaning solvents, and emissions from petrol etc.

Natural sources of VOCs include vegetation decay, plant synthesize compounds

such as terpenes, emission of CH4 from decaying solid wastes.

Effects of VOCs
VOCs may produce the following effects:

1. They have potential of causing cancer.

2. They contribute to sick building syndrome indoors
3. Respiratory difficulties.
4. They contribute to climate change dynamics.

Persistent organic pollutant

What are POPs: Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that
are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological and
photolytic processes. Because of this, they have been observed to persist in the
environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulation in human and
animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have potential significant impacts
on human health and the environment.

POPs include a range of substances that include:

1. Intentionally produced chemicals currently or once used in agriculture,

disease control, manufacturing, or industrial processes. Examples include
PCBs, which have been useful in a variety of industrial applications (e.g., in
electrical transformers and large capacitors, as hydraulic and heat
exchange fluids, and as additives to paints and lubricants) and DDT, which
is still used to control mosquitoes that carry malaria in some parts of the
world.
2.Unintentionally produced chemicals, such as dioxins, that result from some
industrial processes and from combustion (for example, municipal and
medical waste incineration and backyard burning of trash).

POPs are characterised by the following four properties.

High toxicity: POPs have been linked to several negative health effects, including
cancer, reproductive impairment, immune system changes, and endocrine disruption,
in wildlife and human beings.
Persistence: POPs are slow to degrade and can remain in the environment for
decades after they are initially released or unintentionally produced.

Mobility: because of their semi-volatile nature, POPs can volatilise and be carried
long distances through the air and through water, which means that they can end
up in locations far from their point of origin.

Bio-accumulation: POPs can build up to high concentrations in fatty tissue,

particularly in creatures at the top of food chains, such as predatory fish, birds
and human beings.

POPs released to the environment have been shown to travel vast distances from
their original source. Due to their chemical properties, many POPs are semi-volatile
and insoluble. These compounds are therefore unable to transport directly through
the environment. The indirect routes include attachment to particulate matter, and
through the food chain. The chemicals' semi-volatility allows them to travel long
distances through the atmosphere before being deposited. Thus POPs can be found
all over the world, including in areas where they have never been used and remote
regions such as the middle of oceans and Antarctica. The chemicals' semi-volatility
also means that they tend to volatilize in hot regions and accumulate in cold
regions, where they tend to condense and stay. PCBs have been found
in precipitation.

The ability of POPs to travel great distances is part of the explanation for why
countries that banned the use of specific POPs are no longer experiencing a decline
in their concentrations; the wind may carry chemicals into the country from places
that still use them.

Many POPs were widely used during the boom in industrial production after World
War II, when thousands of synthetic chemicals were introduced into commercial
use. Many of these chemicals proved beneficial in pest and disease control, crop
production, and industry. Others are used in industrial processes and in the
production of a range of goods such as solvents, polyvinyl chloride, and
pharmaceuticals. Though there are a few natural sources of POPs, most POPs are
created by humans in industrial processes, either intentionally or as by-products.
Examples of POPs: In May 1995, the United Nations Environmental
Programme Governing Council (GC) decided to begin investigating POPs, initially
beginning with a short list of the following twelve POPs, known as the 'dirty dozen':
aldrin, chlordane, DDT ( dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane), dieldrin, endrin,
heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (dioxins), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (furans),
and toxaphene.

Since then, this list has generally been accepted to include such substances
as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and some organometallic
compounds such as tributylin (TBT).

Chemical properties of POPs

1. Low water solubility.

2. High lipid solubility. It this property that enables POPs to pass through
biological phospholipid membrane and bioaccumulate in the fatty tissues of
living organisms.
3. Semi – volatility.
4. High molecular masses. POPs with molecular weights lower than 236 g/mol
are less toxic, less persistent in the environment, and have more reversible
effects than those with higher molecular masses.
5. POPs are frequently halogenated, usually with chlorine. The more chlorine
groups a POP have, the more resistant it is to being broken down over time.

Health and Environmental Effects

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are toxic chemicals that adversely affect
human health and the environment around the world. Because they can be
transported by wind and water, most POPs generated in one country can and do
affect people and wildlife far from where they are used and released. They persist
for long periods of time in the environment and can accumulate and pass from one
species to the next through the food chain.
1. POP exposure can cause death and illnesses including disruption of
the endocrine, reproductive, and immune systems: neurobehavioral
disorders; and cancers possibly including breast cancer. Exposure to POPs
can take place through diet, environmental exposure, or accidents.

2. Studies have linked POPs exposures to diseases or abnormalities in a number

of wildlife species, including certain kinds of fish, birds, and mammals.

3. People suffering from learning disorders have been linked to POPs.

4. Musculoskeletal Toxicity: Adverse effects to the structure and/or

function of the muscles, bones and joints caused by exposure to a POPs
have been reported. Examples of musculoskeletal diseases which can be
caused by exposure to such toxic chemicals include the bone disorders,
arthritis, flourish, and osteomalacia.
5. Cardiovascular Toxicity: Adverse effects on the heart or blood
systems have resulted from exposure to POPs.

6. Air and water pollution: POPs can be deposited in marine and freshwater
ecosystems through effluent releases, atmospheric deposition, runoff, and
other means. Because POPs have low water solubility, they bond strongly to
particulate matter in aquatic sediments. As a result, sediments can serve as
reservoirs or "sinks" for POPs. When sequestered in these sediments, POPs
can be taken out of circulation for long periods of time. If disturbed,
however, they can be reintroduced into the ecosystem and food chain,
potentially becoming a source of local, and even global, contamination.

7. Developmental Toxicity: - Adverse effects on the developing child

which result from exposure to POPs are common. Adverse Effects can
include birth defects, low birth weight, and functional or behavioral
weaknesses that show up as the child develop.

Control of POPs

1. Prohibition of the manufacture of POPs.

2. Restricted the use of POPs.
3. Control the releases of dioxins and furans to land, air, and water from
combustion processes.
4. Stop the use of POPs.
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