PREFACE

I VAISHALI VERMA student of B.E. Chemical,

Third Year have completed industrial training at
Rajasthan Atomic Power Station (RAPS) for 45
days.

The training at Rajasthan Atomic Power Station

(RAPS) has been particularly beneficial for me. I
saw various processes and equipments used in
production of electricity by nuclear power that
were studied in books and this had help me in
understanding of power station and various aspects
related to it.
 NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME &
TECNOLOGY IN INDIA

1. INTRODUCTION

Indian figured in the nuclear power map of the world in 1969, when two
boiling water reactors (BWRS) were commissioned at Tarapur (TAPS 1&2) these
reactors were built on the turnkey basis. The main objective of setting these units
was largely to prove the techo-economic viability of nuclear power.

The nuclear power programme formulated embarked on the three-stage

nuclear power programmes, Linking the fuel cycle of pressurized heavy water
reactor (PHWR) & fast breeder reactors (FBR) for judicious utilization of our
reserves of uranium & thorium. The emphasis of the programme is self-Reliance
& thorium utilization as a long- term objective.
# STAGE 1 = This stage envisages construction of natural uranium, heavy
water moderator& cooled pressurized heavy water reactors
(PHWR). Spent fuel from these reactors is reprocessed to
obtain plutonium.

# STAGE 2 = This stage envisages on the construction of fast breeder

reactors (FBR) fuelled by plutonium &depleted U produced
in stage1. These reactors would also breed U233 from thorium.

# STAGE 3 = This stage would comprise power reactors using U233 –

thorium as fuel, which is used as a blanket in these types of
reactors.

Vv
 THE THREE STAGES OF OUR NUCLEAR POWER
PROGRAMME ARE:

# STAGE 1 = This stage envisages construction of natural uranium, heavy

water moderator& cooled pressurized heavy water reactors
(PHWR). Spent fuel from these reactors is reprocessed to
obtain plutonium.

# STAGE 2 = This stage envisages on the construction of fast breeder

reactors (FBR) fuelled by plutonium &depleted U produced
in stage1. These reactors would also breed U233 from thorium.

# STAGE 3 = This stage would comprise power reactors using U233 –

thorium as fuel, which is used as a blanket in these types of
reactors.

THE PHWR WAS CHOSEN DUE TO THE FOLLOWING

# It uses natural uranium as fuel. Use of natural uranium available in India helps
cut heavy investments on enrichments are capital intensive.

# Uranium requirement is the lowest & plutonium production is the highest.

# The infrastructure available in the country is suitable for undertaking

manufacture of the equipment.

The short term goal of the programme was to complement the generation of
electricity at locations away from coalmines. The long-term policy is based on
recycling nuclear fuel & harnessing the available Thorium resources to meet
country’s long- term energy demand and security.
 INDIAN NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME

Indian nuclear power programme is essentially based on PHWRs using

natural uranium as fuel and heavy water as moderator and coolant. India has
seven atomic power plants at that time in which electricity produced by usingthe
nuclear reaction .

NPCIL UNITS SYNCHRONISATION TO GRID &

COMMENCEMENT OF COMMERCIAL OPERATION.

UNIT DATE OF FIRST DATE OF

SYNCHRONISATION COMMERCIAL
OPERATION
TAPS-1 01.04.1969 01.11.1969
TAPS-2 08.05.1969 01.11.1969
RAPS-1 30.11.1969 16.12.1973
RAPS-2 01.11.1980 01.04.1981
MAPS-1 23.07.1983 27.01.1984
MAPS-2 20.09.1985 21.03.1986
NAPS-1 29.07.1989 01.01.1991
NAPS-2 05.01.1992 01.07.1992
KAPS-1 24.11.1992 06.05.1993
KAPS-2 04.03.1995 01.09.1995
KAIGA-2 02.12.1999 16.03.2000
RAPS-3 10.03.2000 01.06.2000
KAIGA-1 12.10.2000 16.11.2000
RAPS-4 17.11.2000 23.12.2000
 DESCRIPTION OF STANDARD INDIAN PHWR
DDRDRDRFFGFTDESEGFGFGYRYTFTDEASWASXFDFDREW
EEWEE

LAYOUT:

The nuclear power stations in India are generally planned as two units
modules, sharing common facilities Such as service building, spent fuel storage
bay& other auxiliaries like heavy water upgrading, waste. Management facilities
etc. separate safety related systems &component are however provided for each
unit. Such an arrangement retains independence for safe operation of each unit
&simultaneously permits optimum use of space, finance & construction time. The
lay out for a typical 220MW station as given fig.1, shows two reactor building,
active service building including spent fuel bay, safety related electrical, control
buildings and the two turbine buildings. Orienting turbine building radial to the
reactor building provides protection from the effect of turbine missiles. Other
safety related building & structures are also located as not to fall in the trajectory
of missiles generated from the turbine. The building and structures have also been
physically separated on the basis of their seismic classification.

PLANT LAYOUT

The over all plant layout is for a twin unit complex. The principal features
of the layout are :-

 The layout is based on the concept of in dependent operation of each

unit.
 The layout is based on the concept of in dependent operation of each
unit.
 Mirror image is avoided to the maximum extent possible to retain
uniformity in layout.
 All safety related systems and components are grouped together.
 Reactor auxiliary building is located near to the reactor building to
avoid long piping lengths.

 Control room & control equipment room in this building are so laid
out as to cater for unitized operation.
 Emergency power system such as DG, & batteries are provided
separately in safety related structures.
  Physical protection scheme to protect against industrial sabotage &
external or internal malevolent ad ions.

The main and auxiliary equipment of layout in nuclear power plant are
described below:-

1. Nuclear Reactor
2. Turbine
3. team generator
4. Calendria
5. Coolent assembly
6. End shield
7. Dump tank
8. Moderator pump & auxilaries
9. PHT pumps
10.Fuel design
11.Fuel handling
12.Moderator system
13.PHT system
14.Reactivity control mechanism
 1. NUCLEAR REACTOR

A reactor plays an important role in nuclear power plant. In NPP, heat

energy is produced by the fissions of nuclear such as uranium, in a reactor thus,
the source of heat energy is the reactor, which is equipment to the furnace in a
coal fired plant. It is necessary to transport this energy to the turbine where it is
changed Mechanical energy of rotation.

In concept, the Indian Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor is a pressure tube

type reactor using heavy water moderator, heavy water coolant and natural
uranium dioxide fuel. The reactor as shown in the cut away view in Figure 2.2.3
consists primarily of calandria, a horizontal cylindrical vessel. It is penetrated by
a large number of zircaloy pressure tubes (306 for 235 Mwe reactor), arranged in
a square lattice. These pressure tubes, also referred as coolant channels, contain
the fuel and hot high-pressure heavy water coolant. The pressure tubes are
attached to the alloy steel and fitting assemblies at either end by special roll
expanded joints.a typical pressure tube assembly is shown in Figure 2.2.4 End-
shields are the integral parts of the calandria and are provided at each end of the
calandria to attenuate the radiation emerging from the reactor, permitting access
to the fuelling machine vaults when the reactor is shutdown. The end fittings are
supported in the end shield lattice tubes through bearings, which permit their
sliding. The clandria is housed in a concrete vault, which is lined with zinc
metallised carbon steel and filled with chemically treated demineralised light
water for shielding purposes. The end shields are supported in opening in the
vault wall, and form part of the vault enclosure at these opening. Axial shielding
to individual coolant channels is provided by removable shield plugs fitted in the
end fittings. A replaceable channel seal plug seals the end fitting. Each pressure
tube is isolated from the coldheavy water moderator present in calandria by a
concentriz zircaloy calandria tube. The pressure tubes are centred and partially
supported in the calandria tubes by garter spring spacers. The annular space
between the pressure tube and calandria tube has been sealed by inconel bellows
and is connected to the annulus gas system, which circulated dry carbon dioxide
gas. The moisture content of this gas is monitored at inlet and outlet points to
detect possible leaks in the pressure tubes or the calandria tubes. Special care is
taken in design of coolant channels to ensure that they can be replaced easily if
and when the situation should warrant such a replacement. The en-mass coolant
channel replacement carried out successfully in RAPS#2 during 1997-98 by in-
house developed technology has demonstrated the capability of NPCIL to take
up this work in future reactors namely MAPS and NAPS. Coolant channels of
these stations are made of Zircally-2 which will need replacement within 10
Effective Full Power Years (EFPY). However in KAPS#2 coolant tubes having
Zirconium-2.5% Niobium alloy has been used. This alloy has superior
mechanical properties, low deuterium pick-up rate and low irradiation assisted
creep. Adequate creep allowances are given for the full 30 years design life of the
station. Zr-2.5% Nb is being used as pressure tube material which has improved
creep properties, higher strength (hence neutron economy) and above all
improved properties with regard to in pile corrosion and hydrogen pick-up.

It has been the experience that garter spring spacers between the calandria
tubes and pressure tubes of the earlier design were prone to displacement during
operation and hence a modified design of garter spring capable of ensuring their
freedom from displacement is used from KAPS, Unit#2 onward reactors. The
garter spring used in standardized PHWRs are tight fit on the coolant tubes. In-
situ measurements/studies in KAPS, Kaiga and RAPP-3&4 subsequent to hot
conditioning has indicated this design to be effective in preventing displacement
of garter springs.

REACTOR BUILDING
2. TURBINE

Turbine is tandem compound machine directly coupled to electrical

generator. A turbine generally consists of low- pressure cylinder (double flow
for 500 MW units).

Turbine has a maximum continuous &economic rating of 229MW. Turbine

is the horizontal tandem compound re-heating impulse type running at 3000RPM
with special provision for the extraction of moisture. A steam turbine converts
heat energy of steam into mechanical energy and drives the generator. It uses the
principle that the steam when issuing from a small opening attains a high velocity.
This velocity attained during expansion depends on the initial and final heat
content of steam. The difference between initial & final heat content represents
the heat energy converted into mechanical energy. They are of two types :

1. Impulse turbine :- In this, steam is expanded in turbine nozzle and

attains a high velocity, also complete expansion of steam takes place
in the nozzle & steam pressure during the flow of steam over turbine
blades remains constant. The blades have symmetrical profile.

2. Reaction turbine :- In this, only partial expansion takes place in

nozzle and further expansion takes place as the steam flows over the
rotor blades.
3. STEAM GENERATORS

The boiler assemblies contain 10-u shaped shell & tube heat exchangers,
connected in parallel. The hot coolant inlet channel and returning cold water
channel are welded, the shell material is carbon steel & tube material is Monel.
Each heat-exchangers has 195 tubes approximately 42 ft. long 4.5” dia. 049 thou
thick the design pressure on the heavy water side of the boiler is 1350 psig at
5700 f.
4. CALANDRIA

It is the heart of reactor and contains fuel and moderator; it is made of Austenitic
Stainless Steel. It contains 306 horizontal calandria tubes made form Nickel- free-
Zically-2. It also contains a special tube, which has 12 fuel bundles making a total
of 3672 fuel bundles. It also has 6 openings at the top through which pass the
reactivity control mechanism assemblies. In the middle it has piping connection
for moderator outlet & inlet.The entire assembly is supported from calandria vault
roof.
Calandria is a huge cylindrical structure which houses bundles. The
specifications regarding 200 MWe reactors calandria are-
5. COOLANT ASSEMBLY

The primary function of coolant assembly is to house the reactor fuel &to direct
the flow of primary coolant part in to remove the nuclear heat. To the end of 306
tubes provided a low neutron capture containment’s structure, while the end
fitting provides entry and end connections both to the primary coolant system.

6. END SHIELD

Two circular water coolant end shields of diameter about 5.12m

&thickness about 1.11m are located in then north and south calandria vault. They
ate penetrated by 306 passages form reactor coolant tube assemblies.

These end shields provides shielding to reduce the radiation in the fuelling
machine vaults, the heat due to a closed water circulation removes radiation from
the calandria into shields.

7. DUMP TAK

Below the calandria there is a dump tank a capacity some greater then that
of calandria. The purpose is to provide moderator when dumped through the S-
shaped at 24 psig to support the moderator in the calandria.

8. MODERATOR PUMP AND AUXILIARIES

The main moderator circulating systems consists of 5 pumps, 2 heat exchangers,

and necessary valves and piping. The pumps circulate moderator form cal.
through the two shell& tube heat exchangers to keep the temp. Between 700f
&1450. The cooled heavy water is again fed to the cal. cooling necessities to
reduce capture of thermal neutral and the thermal stresses. The moderator
receives about 37Mwe fission heat. The system contain about 140,000kg. Heavy
water.

9. PHT PUMPS

The PHT pump circulates the coolant (HW) in reactor core to steam gen.
To generate steam. The complete system contain & circulating pumps. 8-sets of
boiler isolating valve of special design, 2 pressurizing pump. A stand by cooling
system, a relief control valve & feed and bleed system.
10. FUEL

The use of natural uranium dioxide fuel with its it s low content of fissile
material (0.72% u-235) precludes the Possibility of a reactivity accident during
fuel handling or storage. Also, in the core there would no significant Increase in
the reactivity, in the ever of any mishaps causing redistribution of the fuel by
lattice distortion or otherwise. The thermal characteristics namely the low thermal
conductivity and high specific heat oh UO2, permit almost all the heat generated
in a fast power transient to be initially absorbed in the fuel. Furthermore, high
melting point of UO2 permits several full power seconds of heat to be safely
absorbed that contained at normal power.

Most of the fission products remain bound in the UO2 matrix and may get
released slowly only at temperatures considerably higher than the normal
operating temperatures. Also on the account of the uranium dioxide being
chemically inert to the water coolant medium, the defected fuel releases limited
amount of radioactivity to the primary coolant system.

The use of 12 short length fuel bundles per channels in a PHWR, rather
than full- length elements covering the whole length of the core, subdivides the
escapable radioactive facility in PHWR has also the singular advantage of
allowing the defected fuel to be replaced by fresh fuel at any time.

The thin zircoloy-2/4 cladding used in fuel elements is designed to collapse

under coolant pressure on to the pellets. This feature permits high pellet- clad gap
conductance resulting in lower fuel temperature and consequently lower fission
gas release from the UO2 matrix into pellet- clad gap.

11. FUEL DESIGN

Fuel assemblies in the reactor are short length (half meter long) fuel
bundles. Twelve of such bundles are located in each fuel channel. The basic fuel
material is in the form of natural uranium dioxide a pellet, sheathed & sealed in
thin Zircoloy tubes. Welding them to end plates to form fuel bundles assembles
these tubes. Figure 5 shows the 19- element fuel bundle being used in 220 Mwe
PHWRs.
12. FUEL HANDLING

On – power fuelling is a feature of all PHWRs, which have very low excess
reactivity. In this type of reactor, refueling to compensate for fuel depletion& for
over all flux shaping to give optimum power distribution is carried out with help
of 2 fueling machines, which work in conjunction with each other on the opposite
ends of a channel. One nted on a bridge & column assembly. Various mechanisms
provided along tri-directional movement (X, Y&Z Direction) of fueling machine
head and make it mechanisms have been provided which enables clamping of
fueling machine head to the end fitting, opening & closing of the respective seal
plugs, shield plugs & perform various fuelling operations i.e. receiving new fuel
in the magazine from fuel transfer system, sending spent fuel From magazine to
shuttle transfer station, from shuttle transfer station to inspection bay & from
inspection bay to Spent fuel storage bay.
13. MODERATOR SYSTEM

The heavy water moderator is circulated through the calandria by aid of a

low temperature & low- pressure moderator system. This system circulates the
moderator through two heat exchanges, which remove heat dissipated by high-
energy neutrons during the process of moderation. The cooled moderator is
returned to the calandria via. Moderator inlet nozzles. The high chemical purity
and low radioactivity level of the moderators are maintained through moderator
purification system. The purification systems consists of stainless steel ion –
exchange hoppers, eight numbers in 220MW contains nuclear grade, mixed ion-
exchange Resin (80% anion &20% cat ion resins). The purification is also utilized
for removable of chemical shim, boron to affect start- up of reactor helium is used
as a cover- gas over the heavy water in calandria. The concentration deuterium in
this cover –gas is control led by circulating it using a sealed blower and passing
through the recombination containing catalyst alumina- coated with 0.3%
palladium.

14. PRIMARY HEAT TRANSPORT (PHT) SYSTEM

The system, which circulates pressurized coolant through the fuel channels
to remove the heat generated in fuel, referred as Primary Heat Transport System.
The major components of this system are the reactor fuel channels, feeders, two
inlet headers, two reactor outlet headers, four pumps & interconnecting pipe &
valves. The headers steam generators & pumps are located above the reactor and
are arranged in two symmetrical banks at either end of the reactor. The headers
are connected to fuel channels through individual feeder pipes. Figure 6 depicts
schematically the relative layout of major equipment in one bank of the PHT
system. The coolant circulation is mentioned at all times during reactor operation,
shutdown& maintenance.

15. REACTIVITY CONTROL MECHANISMS

Due to the use of natural uranium fuel& on-load refueling, the PHWR’S
do not need a large excess reactivity. Correspondingly the devices reactivity
worth. Standard reactor designs are provided with four systems for reactivity
control, viz.

1. Regulating rods.
2. Shim rods.
3. Adjuster rods for xenon override
 4. Natural boron addition in the moderator to compensate for the excess
reactivity in a fresh core & for absence of xenon after a long
shutdown.

The reactivity control devices are installed in the low-pressure moderator

region & so they are not subjected to potentially severe hydraulic& thermal forces
in the event of postulated accidents. Furthermore, the relatively spacious core
lattice of PHWR allows sufficient locations to obtain complete separation
between control & protective functions. The regulating systems are thus fully
independent with its own power supplies, instrumentations & triplicate controls
channels. Cobalt & stainless steel absorber elements have been utilized in the
reactivity control mechanisms. For 220MW standardized design, two diverse, fast
acting & provides a high degree of assurance that plant transients requiring
prompt shutdown of the reactor will be terminated safety the primary shutdown
system consists of 14 mechanical shut off rods of cadmium sandwiched in
stainless steel & Makes the reactor sub critical in less than 2 sec. Fail-safe features
like gravity fall & spring assistance has been incorporated in design if mechanical
shut off rods. The second shutdown system, which is also fast acting, Comprise
12 liquid poison tubes, which are filled with lithium pent borate solution under
helium pressure. The Trip signal actuates a combination of fast acting valves and
causes poison to be injected simultaneously in 12 interstitial liquid poison tubes
of calandria of the machines is used to fuel the channel while the other one accepts
the fuel bundles. In, Addition, the fueling machines facilitate removal of failed
fuel bundles. Each fueling machine is moun thin zircoloy tubes. Welding them to
end plates to form fuel bundles assembles these tubes. Fig, 5 show the 19- element
fuel bund le being used in 220 MW PHWRs.
 STATUS OF NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION
& FUTURE PLANS

The nuclear power programme in India up to year 2020 is based on

installation of a series of MWe & 500MWe pressurized heavy water reactor
(PHWR) UNITS. 1000MWe light water reactors (LWR) UNITS & fast breeder
reactors (FBR) units. NPCIL plans to contribute about 10% of the total additional
needs of power of about 10000MWe per year i.e. 1000 MWe per year in the
coming two 5 year plans. The total installed capacity of nuclear generation would
increase.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF SITES FOR

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT:

1. OBJECTIVE:

The main objective in sitting Nuclear Power Plants from the point of view
of nuclear safety is to be able to construct and operate Nuclear Power Plants safely
& ton provide protection to the public against radiological impact resulting from
accidental releases of radioactive material as well as release of such materials
during normal operation of the plant. Hence the basic criteria for selection of a
site for the location of a nuclear power plant shall be to ensure that the site plant
interaction will not introduce any radiological risk or others of an unacceptable
magnitude.

This can be achieved by:

A. The radiological risk to the Nuclear Power Plant due to the
external events should not exceed the range of radiological risk
associated with accidents of internalorigin.
B. The possible radiological impact of a Nuclear Power Plant on the
environment should be acceptably low for normal operation an
accident conditions and with in the stipulated criteria for
radiological safety.
 In evaluating the suitability of a site for locating a Nuclear Power Plant,
Plant, the following are the major aspects that need to be considered:

 Effect of external events(nature & man – induced) on the

plant.
 Effect of plant on environment & population
 Implementation of emergency procedures particularly
counter- measures in the public domain.

2. DESIGN BASIS FOR INTERNAL NATURAL EVENTS:

Natural phenomenon, which may exist or can occur in the region of a

proposed side, shall be identified and these should be classified as per their
importance. Design basis shall be derived for each important event by adopting
appropriate metholodogies. These should be justified as being compatible with
the characteristics of the region & also with the current state of art of the extent
possible.

3. DESIGN BASIS FOR EXTERNAL MAN- INDUCED

EVENTS:

Proposed sites shall be adequately investigated with respect to all the

design basis man- induced events that could affect the plant safety.

The region shall be examined for facilities and human activates that may
affect the safety of the proposed Nuclear Power Plant. These facilities & activates
shall be identified and the conditions under which the safety of the plant is likely
to be affected shall be considered in fixing the design basis for man-induced
events. Information concerning the frequency & severity of those important, man-
induced events shall be collected & analyzed for reliability accuracy &
completeness.

4. RADIOLOGICAL IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT:

The radiological consequences due to Nuclear Power Plant on environment

should be as low as is reasonably achievable taking into account social and
economical factors, both for normal & accidental conditions and within the
stipulated criteria for radiological safety.

In evaluating a site for the radiological impact by the Nuclear Power Plant
on the region for operational states & accidental conditions, appropriate estimates
shall be made of expected or potential releases of radioactive material taking into
account the design of the plant including its safety features. The direct & indirect
pathways, by which radioactive materials released from the Nuclear Power Plant
could reach & affect the people, shall be identified for use in the estimation of the
radiological impact.

Thus, the main points to be considered for sitting Nuclear Power Plants are
as follows:

A. Land requirements.
B. Accessibility.
C. Construction facility.
D. Cooling water.
E. Electrical system and energy resources.
F. Geology.
G. Seismology.
H. Flooding.
I. Natural events.
J. Man-induced events.
K. Population.
L. Radiological impact.
M. Meteorological & air releases.
N. Hydrology & liquid waste.
O. Geo hydrology & solid waste.
P. Land use & Environment impact.
 SAFETY DESIGN PRINCIPALS

It has been ensured that systems, components & structures having a bearing
on reactor safety are designed to meet stringent performance & reliability
requirements. These requirements are met by adopting the following design
principles:

a) The quality requirements for deign, fabrication, construction, &

inspection for these systems are of the high order, commensurate
with their importance to safety.
b) The safety related equipment inside the containment building is
designed to perform its function even under the elevated pressure &
temperature & steam environment conditions expected in the event
of postulated loss of coolent accidents (LOCA).
c) Physical & functional seperation is assured between process systems
& safety systems.
d) Adequate redundancy is provided in systems such that the minimum
safety functions can be performed even in the event of single active
components in the system.
e) To minimize the probability of unsafe failures.
f) Provisions are incorporated to ensure that active components in the
safety systems are testable periodically.
g) All the supplies/services(electric, compressed air or water) to these
systems, necessary for the performance of their safety functions are
assured & ‘safety grade’ sources.

SAFETY & SEISMIC CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS

SAFETY CLASSIFICATION:

In the design of Indian PHWRs, it is required to grade various systems,

equipment & structures in their importance to safety & reliability. The safety
gradation consists of four different safety classes depending upon the nature of
safety functions to be performed by the various items of the plant.
SAFETY CLASS I: It is the highest safety class & includes equipment &
structures needed to accomplish safety functions necessary to prevent
release of substantial core fission product inventory. This includes reactor
shutdown systems & primary heat transport system.

SAFETY CLASS II: Includes equipment, which performs those safety

functions, which become necessary to mitigate the consequences of an
accident involving release of substantial core fission product inventory
from fuel. This class also includes those items, which are required to
prevent escalation of anticipated operational occurrence to accident
conditions. Boiler feed water & steam system, emergency core cooling
system, reactivity control provisions & reactor containment building are
included in this class.

SAFETY CLASS III: Includes systems that perform functions, which are
needed to support the safety functions of safety class II & I. Also, it
includes systems & functions required to control the release of
radioactivity from sources located outside the reactor building. Process
water-cooling system include induced draft cooling towers, air supply
system, shield cooling system primary coolant purification ion exchange
columns & filters etc. are included in this category.

SAFETY CLASS IV: Includes those items & systems, which do not fall
within the above classes but are required to limit the discharge of
radioactive material & air borne radioactivity below the prescribed limits.
D2O upgrading, waste management, deturation & service building
ventilation systems are classified as class IV safety systems.
SEISMIC CLASSIFICATION:

The seismic design of the Indian PHWRs considers two different

intensities of earthquakes, viz.

1. Operating basis earthquake (OBE) and

2. Safe shutdown earthquake (SSE)

The operating basis earthquake represents the intensity of earthquake for

which the plant is designed to remain functional during & after the event. The
safe shutdown earthquake considers the maximum of geological &
seismictechnic data. The equipment in SSE category consists of the following:

 Those required to safely shutdown the reactor & to maintain it in

sub-critical state for prolonged period.
 Those required removing residual decay heat from the core after
reactor shutdown.
 Those which are required to miligatethe potential for release of
radioactivity & ensure that these are within the prescribed limits
under operating conditions & within allowable limits during & after
accidents conditions.
CHEMICAL PROJECT DM WATER TREATMENT

Water tretment plant supplies domestic water for drinking purpose & other public
convenience and demineralised (DM) water for RAPS station use.

DM water is used in Following process loops at RAPS:

1. Steam and feed water cycle
2. Reactor shield cooling
3. Generator stator cooling
4. Chilled water cycle
5. Batteries
6. Spent fuel storage bay
7. Auxiliary boilers
8. Calandria vault dryer scrubber circuit

Water for steam generation should be free from minerals and silica. The
presence of minerals in feed water causes scale formation & foaming in the
boilers. Scale deposition reduce heat tarnsfer & foaming causes entrainment
To avoid such problems feed water for boilers must be free from minerals.

Water is used in reactor shield like reactor end shields, shield tank and
biological shields. Presence of minerals in water used for shield cooling lead
to formation of radioactive products due to activation.

The presence of minerals in the water used for stator water cooling makes it
conductor of electricity if water conductivity is high. The current flow
through the water and water gets heated up which affect its cooling function.
In batteries DM water is used for acid dilution. Presence of minerals in this
water will lead to side reaction and affect the battery performance. DM water
is also used in chilled water cycle. In the following sections we will discuss
the type of impurities in raw water and process of demineralization.

IMPURITIES IN RAW WATER

Water is never found in pure state. Water always have impurities, it vary from
source to source. Water is used in process like steam generation, cooling, heating,
as a solvent & for domestic uses. proper treatment is necessary before using water
into a process to make process efficient & trouble free.
1 TURBIDITY AND SEDIMENT Turbidity is suspended insoluble matter,
including coarse particles (sediment) that settle rapidly on standing. Amounts
range from almost zero in most ground waters and some surface supplies to
60,000 ppm in muddy and turbulent river water. Turbidity and sediment are
objectionable for practically all uses.Standard for drinking water is 10 ppm max.
High-grade pulp and paper calls for water containing not more than 5 ppm
turbidity.

2 COLOR Surface waters from swampy areas often are highly colored from
decaying vegetation. Amount of color is found by comparing its intensity with a
standard. Color of 10 units isn't visible in a tumbler, but 20 units (drinking water
maximum) are noticeable. Many processes can't stand more than 5 units. In the
paper industry, color in process water stains the cellulose fibers, affects brightness
or color of white or dyed papers.

3 MICROBIOLOGICAL GROWTHS Various growths occur in surface water,

seldom in uncontaminated deep wells. Microorganisms include diatoms, molds,
bacterial slimes, algae, iron and manganese bacteria, sulfur or sulfate-reducing
bacteria, etc. Some are dangerous to health; others cause bad taste and odors or
produce clogging deposits. Although many of these organisms are non-
pathogenic, water can't be assumed safe simply because it is clear and odorless.

4 FLUORIDE Amount rarely tops 4.0 ppm (average is much less than 1.0 ppm).
There's evidence that a small amount prevents tooth decay. United States Public
Health Service sets 1.5 ppm as the maximum for drinking water.

5 HARDNESS Water's content of soluble calcium and magnesium salts equals

hardness, expressed as calcium carbonate equivalents in gr per gal or ppm. These
salts, in order of their relative average abundance in water, are (1) bicarbonates
(2) sulfates (3) chlorides (4) nitrates. Calcium salts are about twice the
concentration of magnesium salts. Carbonate (temporary or bicarbonate)
hardness is that present as bicarbonate salts. Noncarbonate (permanent) hardness
equals the remainder present as sulfates, chlorides and nitrates. Hardness is
undesirable because heating or evaporating produces hard stony scale deposits
that clog fluid systems, cause damage.

6 SILICA Most natural waters contain silica ranging from 1 to over 100 ppm. It
forms hard scale in high pressure boilers, passes over with steam to form glassy
deposits on turbine blades & cause pitting on turbine blades.

7 SODIUM AND POTASSIUM SALTS Extremely soluble, they don't deposit

unless highly concentrated. They'll prove trouble some if distilled-water quality
is needed.
8 HYDROGEN SULFIDE This dissolved gas gives a rotten-egg odor to sulfer
waters making them distasteful, corrosive to most metals. Waters with more than
l ppm are definitely undesirable.

9 IRON Most common soluble iron in ground waters is ferrous bicarbonate Water
is clear and colorless when drawn but, on exposure to air, clouds up and deposits
a yellowish or reddish-brown sediment of ferric hydroxide that stains everything
it contacts. Although majority of iron-bearing waters have less than 5 ppm, as
little as 0.3 ppm can give trouble

10 MANGANESE Rarer than iron in water, manganese occurs in similar forms

and is troublesome in industrial and municipal supplies. Pipeline deposits form
rapidly with as little as 0.2 ppm.

11 CARBON DIOXIDE Free carbon dioxide is found in most natural supplies.

Surface waters have the least although some rivers contain to 50 ppm. In ground
waters it varies from zero to concentrations so high that carbon dioxide bubbles
out when pressure is released. Most well waters contain from 2 to 50 ppm. Carbon
dioxide also forms when bicarbonates are destroyed by acids, coagulants, high
temperatures. It's corrosive and accelerates oxygen corrosion.

12 METHANE Occassionally enough methane is found in well waters to cause

fire and explosion hazard. It's readily identified by its flammability.

WATER TREATMENT PROCESS

The water treatment plant supplies domestic water and demineralised water to
fulfill the station requirement. The water after filtration, decolourisation and
chlorination is sent to domestic water tank to supply within the station. For
demineralisation the treated water from pre treatment plant ( Water supply is
taken after Activated carbon filter & prior to clorine addition) is sent to
demineralisation section. Following is a brief description of demineralisation
process: Water is taken from LP process water supply and fed to the upflow
sedimentation tank where it enters from bottom and flow upwards. A
proportionate dosing of alum is done to coagulate the fine dust. A blanket of
suspended particles formed in upflow sedimentation tank is removed by
periodic water draining. Clear water passes through the layer of suspended
particles and collects in the channels provided at the top of the upflow
sedimentation tank. Water collected in the channels is directed to the gravity
sand filters. In gravity sand filter the water passes through bed of sand and this
removes suspended impurities escaped from upflow sedimentation tank. The
clear water passes through the bed of sand and stored in a clear water well
located just below the gravity sand filter. From clear water well water is
pumped through the activated carbon bed to remove organic impurities like
colour, odour, oil and free chlorine. The water after activated carbon bed is
branched in two streams. one stream is to the demineralisation section of the
water treatment plant the second stream of water is injected with chlorinated
water and goes to the domestic water tank. In demineralisation section water
first passes through the cation bed then to the degasser tower and finally to the
degasser sump. The cation present in water is removed by cation resin.

R-H + Na-Cl -----> R-Na + H-Cl

R-H + CaCO3 -----> R-Ca + H2CO3

The carbolic acid formed during the process of cation removal is very weak
acid and it is removed in degasser tower. For removing carbon di-oxide, water
is sprayed from top over porclean rasching ring in a tower and air is blown
from the bottom of the tower this breaks carbolic acid into water and carbon
dioxide.
H2CO3 ----> H2O + CO2

Degased water from degaser sump is pumped through the anion bed and mixed
bed. The anionic impurities is removed in anion bed.

R-OH + H-Cl ---> R-Cl + H2O

R-OH + H2-SO4 ---> R-SO4+ H2O

Finally any escaped impurities such as sodium & silica are removed in Mixed
bed which is also known as polishing unit. The water at the outlet of mixed
bed is known as DM Water and has neutral pH (approx. 7.0) and conductivity
below 1 uS.
CONCLUSION:
The practical training at R.A.P.S. has proved to be quite faithful. It proved an
opportunity for encounter with such huge components like 220MW generators,
turbines, transformers and switchyards etc. The architecture of the NPP
(Nuclear Power Plant):
The way various units are linked and the way working of whole plant is
controlled make the students realize that engineering is not just learning the
structure description and working of various machines, but the greater part is of
planning, proper management.
It also provides an opportunity to learn technology used at proper place and
time can save a lot of labor for example almost all the controls are computerized
because in running condition no any person can enter in the reactor building.

But there are few factors that require special mention. Training is not carried out
into its true spirit. It is recommended that there should be some projects
specially meant for students where the presence of authorities should be
ensured. There should be strict monitoring of the performance of students and
system of grading be improved on the basis of the work done.

However training has proved to be quite faithful. It has allowed as an

opportunity to get an exposure of the practical implementation to theoretical
fundamental.