Geophysical Methods for Groundwater Resources Assessment, Development and

Pollution Mapping and Monitoring: Examples from Botswana and Zimbabwe.

Rubeni T. Ranganai1, James G. King1, Dominic I. Koosimile2 and Tiyapo H. Ngwisanyi2

1
University of Botswana, Department of Physics, P. Bag UB0704, Gaborone. Botswana.
2
Geophysics Division, Geological Survey Department, P. Bag 14, Lobatse. Botswana.

Abstract.
Sub-Saharan Africa’s arid and semi-arid regions depend almost entirely on groundwater for domestic
supplies, as rainfall is unreliable and surface water limited. Rural water supply programmes in these
areas have traditionally involved establishment of hand-dug wells and boreholes fitted with hand
pumps for domestic use, village gardens and small stock. However, recent frequent and prolonged
droughts in these areas mean that the water table is lowered to levels too deep for exploitation by
hand-dug wells and shallow boreholes. Further, there are increased demands for water due to
population increases and socio-economic development, for mining activities and associated
settlements, small-scale irrigation, rural agro-industries, and livestock. At the same time, all these
activities cause a number of environmental problems leading to depletion and degradation of the
region's water resources, further limiting the supply of adequate clean water for domestic use. This
paper proposes a management plan for sustainable development of groundwater in the region to
alleviate water scarcity and pollution and their related socio-economic and/or environmental problems.
Case studies of the combined use of geophysics and remote sensing in evaluating groundwater
potential, groundwater pollution mapping and monitoring, and water pipeline route investigations are
presented. An analysis of various types of aquifers shows that the deep sedimentary aquifers can be
described as very good, fractured-karst aquifers as good, while the shallow crystalline and
metamorphic aquifers are slightly good, in terms of quantity of groundwater. The shallow and karst
aquifers are highly vulnerable to surface and subsurface pollution compared to the deep aquifers but
water from the latter is almost invariably brackish or saline, as the groundwater cycling is slow due to
limited or seasonal recharge.

Introduction.

The populated dry sub-humid and semi-arid zones of southern Africa are mainly covered by crystalline
basement and metamorphic terrains plus semi-/consolidated sedimentary sequences and Aeolian or
alluvial deposits in places. In the former, exploitable groundwater occurs mainly in fissures, fractures
or faults and deeply weathered (dyke) contact zones (e.g., Wright and Burgess, 1992) (Fig. 1). The
latter involves anisotropic fractured and/or karstified aquifers, Karoo basalts and sandstone, porous
Kalahari sands and alluvium. The approach to rural water supply programmes in these areas has
traditionally been empirical, being aimed at providing water supplies where and when required, with a
tendency to limit exploration to the immediate vicinity of settlements. Boreholes are usually drilled to
about 60 m in anticipation that a deep weathering profile or water-filled fissures will be struck (Fig. 2)
and a hand pump installed. Such relatively shallow groundwater resources have been found to be
more than adequate for domestic use, village gardens and small stock, and there is considerable
potential for small-scale irrigation. Small towns and large villages are supplied by wellfields while
smaller settlements and farms in the countryside depend on single wells or boreholes. However,
recent frequent and prolonged droughts in these areas mean that the water table is lowered to levels
too deep for exploitation by wells and shallow boreholes. Further, there are increased demands for
water due to population increases and socio-economic development, for mining activities and
associated settlements, small-scale irrigation, rural agro-industries, and even livestock. Projects
directed to the assessment of resources for primary supply (small abstractions) are therefore no
longer justified. At the same time, all these activities cause a number of environmental problems
leading to depletion and degradation of the region's water resources, further limiting the supply of
adequate clean water for domestic use. In order to serve the water needs of large villages and their
associated activities, regional groundwater resources far from pollution sources are therefore required.

This paper proposes a management plan for sustainable development of groundwater in the region to
alleviate water scarcity and pollution and their related socio-economic and/or environmental problems.
Case studies of the combined use of geophysics and remote sensing in water resources assessment,

1
development and management from Botswana and Zimbabwe (Fig. 3) are presented. It is hoped that
many governments in the region will adopt the approach and methodologies outlined, as is already the
case with the Botswana government that insists on a significant geophysical component in most of its
groundwater resources projects.

(Fig. 1 Hydrogeological model in crystalline and metamorphic terrains: From Wright and Burgess,
1992) and (Fig. 2 Typical saprolite profile in crystalline basement: Jones, 1985)

(Fig. 3 Location of some of the study areas in Botswana and Zimbabwe)

Groundwater Resources Evaluation/Assessment

It is now generally known that crystalline basement and metamorphic terrains lack primary
permeability and porosity, and are therefore usually considered to have poor groundwater potential
(e.g., MWERD, 1985; CSC, 1987; DWA, 1991; Wright and Burgess, 1992). However, exploitable
groundwater in these hard-rocks may occur due to the development of secondary permeability and
porosity; mainly in faults, fractures, dyke contacts and deeply weathered zones (e.g., Clark, 1985;
Jones, 1985; Acworth, 1987) (Fig. 1). Various geological conditions or processes involving magnetite
creation and/or destruction make most of these features easily distinguishable by means of
aeromagnetic (AM) surveys (cf. Henkel and Guzman, 1977; Grant, 1985). Fractures, joints, faults and
lithological contacts along which groundwater may accumulate can be detected because of the
susceptibility contrast between the rocks and weathered products. Magnetic data can also be inverted
to obtain depth to magnetic source (Spector and Grant, 1970), very often interpreted as depth to
crystalline basement (thickness of weathering or non-magnetic sediments), which allows assessment
of the potential storage capacity of regolith (the weathered zone) and/or sediments (Fig. 4). On the
other hand, almost all geological materials are inherently nonconductive and virtually all subsurface
conductivity is related to the presence of water (Paterson and Bosschart, 1987), leading to the direct
detection of groundwater through its electrical conductivity (c.f. Fig. 2). AEM systems can thus directly
image groundwater if it contains some dissolved solids or may be converted to 2D conductivity depth
transform (CDT) sections showing the presence or absence of groundwater (Paterson and Reford,
1986; Wynn, 2002). AEM inversion is based on a 3-layer earth model, the top layer of which has zero
conductivity (Paterson and Reford, 1986) (Fig. 5), allowing determination of the depth to unweathered
bedrock and estimates of conductivity and thickness of the subsurface layers. Further, the
mineralogical and/or petrological differences and metamorphic conditions of the geological units not
only affect susceptibility and conductivity but also give different visible and infrared spectral
reflectance which can be identified on Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) or Multispectral Scanner (MSS)
images. Research in the last two decades has shown that the use of airborne
magnetic/electromagnetic (AM/AEM) and TM or MSS data for regional structural mapping before
ground surveys are undertaken results in significant borehole success rates and increased yields
(e.g., Astier and Paterson, 1989; Zeil et al., 1991; Koosimile, 1992; Ranganai and Ebinger, 2003).
Examples are presented from the Mberengwa district of Zimbabwe and the Northeast and Southeast
districts of Botswana, which illustrate applications of these data in different environments.

(Fig. 4 Depth to crystalline basement from aeromagnetic data: Koosimile, 1992) and (Fig. 5 Three
layer earth model for AEM Inversion: Paterson and Reford, 1986)

Mberengwa District, Zimbabwe

The Mberengwa district is situated in southern Zimbabwe, and is mainly covered by a varied
assemblage of crystalline basement rocks, mainly ancient granitic gneiss and younger granite plutons.
Groundwater development potential in these rocks is considered low (MWERD, 1985), and weathered
bedrock, fault- and fissure-related aquifers are expected (Fig. 1). Regional aeromagnetic data at 1 km
spacing and 305 m terrain clearance are used in combination with Landsat TM data to map these
features. The aeromagnetic data were processed by the application of various digital filter operators
and enhancement techniques (apparent susceptibility; derivatives, pseudoshading, etc.). The TM data
shown (Fig. 6) were contrast stretched and edge enhanced before prints were made at various scales.
AM data were able to map several dykes and faults while numerous fractures were identified on
Landsat TM images.

(Fig. 6 Landsat TM band 5 image of part of the Chivi area showing major fractures in granite.)

2
Interpreted AM and TM lineaments were correlated with boreholes already drilled to establish
aeromagnetic responses of groundwater bearing structures and use the findings to identify areas with
high groundwater potential. Ground geophysical profiles show that dykes and faults/joints interpreted
from magnetic data have associated conductivity anomalies which in the case of the former are
coincident with their margins and are attributed to water saturation or clays from weathering
(Carruthers et al., 1991). Successful boreholes are shown to be spatially related to dykes and faults
but proximity to these features does not guarantee productivity. In some cases, drill-hole data
indicates that fracturing is present in both wet and dry boreholes and that the depth of fracturing does
not reflect groundwater presence or absence (Greenbaum et al., 1993). Drilling on some of the
photolineaments found no evidence of fracturing. Groundwater targets were developed with the aid of
magnetic modelling using measured susceptibility values (Ranganai and Ebinger, 2003). These are
defined as coincided AM/TM lineaments and continuous structures with large recharge areas,
particularly the highly fractured Chivi granite (Fig. 6).

Kanye, SE Botswana
High-resolution aeromagnetic data were acquired in 1996 by the Botswana Geological Survey for
groundwater exploration around the Kanye area in the Southeast district, southwest of the capital
Gaborone (Fig. 3). The earliest rocks in the area include poorly exposed Achaean Kaapvaal craton
gneisses and amphibolites and metasediments (Carney et al., 1994). Extensive granites and volcanic
occurrences also form part of the basement (Fig. 7). These are overlain by supracrustals of clastic
reworked Ventersdorps volcanosediments, clastics and carbonate/chert sequences of the Transvaal
and the continental redbeds of the Waterberg Group ranging in age from the Neoarchaean to the
Mesopreterozoic. Patches of the Waterberg, Transvaal, Ventersdorp and Achaean constitute fractured
aquifers while dolomite areas represent the less common karstified fractured aquifer at various
locations. The majority of the major settlements in the area, such as Kanye and Moshaneng and
Selokolela (Fig. 7), are supplied by wellfields while farms depend on single wells.

The aeromagnetic data from the area have been processed and enhanced by derivative and
pseudoshading techniques that highlight short wavelength anomalies associated with linear features
and/or structures. Euler deconvolution was performed to determine depth to basement and to reveal
other structural information. Interpretation of the derived maps (e.g., Fig. 8) indicates several dykes
trending NE and NNE, particularly in the northeastern half of the study area. SPOT imagery and aerial
photographs were also used for the interpretation of lineaments in the area. The interpretation
obtained using these media showed contrasting lineament patterns across the major unconformities
separating the basement, the Transvaal Supergroup and the Waterberg Group. The pattern obtained
in the basement could be correlated with the lineament/fracture patterns obtained from the
aeromagnetic data, with a dominant ENE trend. N-S and NE directions dominate lineaments within
the Transvaal rocks; the latter attributed to faults or dykes. Other new features have also been
identified from the two data sets, resulting in an improved sub-outcrop geology and structural map of
the area. The map was then used to identify prospective areas for detailed ground investigations.

(Fig. 7 Simplified geology of the Kanye area, SE Botswana) and (Fig. 8 First vertical derivative of
aeromagnetic data from Kanye area, SE Botswana)

Tshokwe, NE Botswana
This study area comprises mainly Achaean basement gneisses and metasedimentary rocks
uncomformably overlain by younger Karoo basalts and arkosic sandstones in places. A late Mesozoic
ESE trending dyke swarm, the northern Botswana dyke swarm, intruded the basement rocks and
these have been offset by short minor faults. In most of the area, aquifers are expected to be
unconfined and mainly along fracture zones. Structures which can be associated with fractures and
weathering thus need to be mapped.

In late 1989, an EEC financed GEOTEM survey was flown in central northeastern Botswana
(Magogaphate area) for base metal exploration purposes. Magnetic data, collected simultaneously
with the EM data, are processed and interpreted here to identify structures likely to host groundwater.
AEM (channel 1) data are used as an auxiliary data set to optimise the selection of ground follow-up
target areas, with support from other reference data (geological, hydrogeological, etc.). Channel 1 of
the GEOTEM was chosen because its high amplitudes are likely to be more above the noise level
than those of the other channels. All the structures that were targeted have anomalous EM (channel 1)

3
responses which are highest at lineament intersections and lineament intersections with drainage
channels (Fig. 9). The high first channel GEOTEM amplitudes may point to a poorly conductive
weathered layer. Increase in porosity in metamorphic rocks is directly related to fracturing, thus
interpreted magnetic structures likely to host water with a coincident conductivity anomaly, are in
general, more attractive as groundwater bearing targets than those which do not. Over felsic terrains,
high conductivity anomalies can be attributed to increased porosity with possible water saturation.

(Fig. 9 Airborne electromagnetic data of Tshokwe area, NE Botswana)

Potential regional groundwater sites in the study areas are identified at dyke margins, faults/joints or
intersections of any combination of these structures. Priority should be given to amphibolites and
continuous structures with high recharge potential from streams. A map of high groundwater potential
areas was produced.

Groundwater Development.

Borehole Siting and Installation

Once potential groundwater targets have been identified on airborne geophysical and remote sensing
images they must be further investigated using ground geophysical methods. The hydrogeophysical
properties of aquifers depend, among other factors, on the degree of fracturing, the mode of
groundwater occurrence and dissolved salts. Thus the ground follow-up of selected areas is usually
carried out using a combination of magnetic, electromagnetic (EM34, HLEM, VLF), electrical resistivity
(CST and VES), seismic and/or GPR techniques. This has become the standard in borehole site
investigations and there are several case studies showing applications of various techniques in
different environments.

The example presented from Sawmills northwest of Bulawayo, Zimbabwe (Fig. 3), employed transient
electromagnetic (TEM) and DC-resistivity surveys over Kalahari sands and Alluvium overlying Karoo
basalts and sandstone (Olsson et al., 1998). The four different geological layers have different
permeability and porosity and hence different resistivity/conductivity values. Water leaches through the
permeable Kalahari sand and the upper part of the underlying basalt is therefore often weathered. The
resistivity data were inverted and modelled using the RES2DINV program (Loke, 1997) to construct a
2D model of the subsurface (e.g., Fig. 10). The profile indicates little lateral variation of resistivity but
significant changes of the resistivity with depth (Fig. 10). The top 45 m thick layer has low resistivities
averaging about 22 Ωm and probably consists of alluvial deposits and clay (from weathered basalt).
This overburden is underlain by a more resistive layer that has resistivities of over 220 Ωm in the
middle and lower values in the top and bottom (Olsson et al., 1998). The resistive zone below the
weathered basalt is fresh basalt, and the lower resistivities at the bottom of the profile in the WNW
could be the top of the sandstone at about 110 m depth.

(Fig. 10 Resistivity inversion and 2D model at Sawmills, SW Zimbabwe: Olsson et al., 1998)

The ground geophysics at a site can also give an indication of the depth of weathering and the nature
of fracturing, which may assist in the design of boreholes. With the water table below the weathered
zone, the weathered zone is ‘cased off’ while for thick, permeable, water bearing weathered rock, the
position and length of screens and gravel pack should be chosen following geophysical logging of the
borehole (Clark, 1985).

Water Pipeline Route Investigation

Recent regional emphasis on the implementation of piped water supplies for villages, growth points,
business and service centres, and small-scale irrigation projects in rural areas imply the laying of
water pipes for long distances from wellfields or dams. In recent years, some of the various mining
and petroleum oriented geophysical techniques have been modified from their deeper applications to
sample at shallower depths for geotechnical and environmental applications (Poeter et al., 1997). The
main objective of the geophysical surveys is to provide information on depth to bedrock along the
proposed water pipe routes. An indication of the subsurface rock types and materials is a secondary
objective which assists in determining rippability of the subsurface (the ease with which ground can be
ripped up by an excavator). Traditional methods of obtaining such information like drilling and
trenching are slow and expensive, and provide information at discrete locations. Geophysical methods

4
are fast and relatively cheap and provide more detail, mainly laterally distributed subsurface
information.

A seismic refraction survey was carried out in the Central district of Botswana using a Seistronix RAS-
24 seismograph with a 24-geophone spread controlled by a laptop with RAS software installed. Since
water pipes are normally laid at about 1 - 2 metre depth, a geophone separation of 1 m was deemed
appropriate for detailed shallow investigations. Velocities of about 200 m/s to 4500 m/s were
measured, corresponding to overburden soil, alluvium/colluvium to slightly weathered bedrock. The
refraction data indicate an average depth to un-weathered (fresh) bedrock of about 3.0 metres, with a
range between 1.0 and 10.0 metres. These values imply that the subsurface is rippable without any
major problems. Granite rock with velocities up to 2000 m/s is rippable by a large excavator machine
(Caterpillar D9-Single shank ripper). Four sites with open excavations were used to calibrate the
interpretation (Table 1), taking into account the local geology and standard velocities of rocks.

(Table 1 Interpretation scheme for seismic velocity and lithology based on four calibration sites)

Groundwater Pollution Mapping and Monitoring

Countries in the SADC region, especially Botswana, depend heavily on groundwater resources for
potable water supply and therefore all efforts must be made to minimize the risk of pollution to the
already scarce water resources. Awareness and expertise are generally lacking in important areas
dealing with groundwater quality such as the linkages between pollutant sources and transport, aquifer
hydrogeology, and groundwater pollution (e.g., Fig. 11). Due to the fractured and weathered nature of
most common aquifers in the region coupled with the relatively shallow depth of boreholes, the
groundwater is extremely vulnerable to pollution due to various anthropogenic activities. The ability to
secure adequate clean water is therefore a function of effective management of land and water
resources and human activities in order to secure water quality and efficient use. Figure 11 shows a
conceptualisation of this socio-hydrogeological framework where human activities involve two main
basic changes of the landscape, with environmental side effects generated by action of water.

The use and benefits of remote sensing and airborne geophysics for lineament/fracture and/or
contaminant mapping in groundwater pollution evaluation is now widely established (e.g. Chevrel and
Coetzee, 2000; Campbell et al., 2001; Coetzee et al., 2001; Ranganai et al., 2001). Magnetic methods
are particularly important in revealing structure because they respond to physical properties of rock
units beneath as well as at the surface. Aeromagnetic data and LANDSAT imagery can be used to
map major fracture patterns and other subsurface geologic controls on pollutant distribution (e.g.,
Ranganai et al., 2001). Figure 12 shows a first vertical derivative aeromagnetic map of the Romotswa
wellfield, SE Botswana, where a basin comprising the Dolomite and Lephala aquifers is expressed as
areas of low magnetic signatures. The data are dominated by regional NE- to EW-trending features in
the area, which reflect basement units of the Lephala formation. This is also the general groundwater
flow direction to the east and northeast towards the Notwane River (Ranganai et al., 2001), which also
partly recharges the aquifers. All these major structures act both as groundwater recharge zones and
pollutant channels and pathways, affecting both the wellfield boreholes and the Notwane River.

(Fig. 11 Key human interaction with the water cycle: IHDP Update, 2001) and (Fig. 12 First vertical
derivative aeromagnetic map of Ramotswa area, SE Botswana).

The ground geophysics collected for borehole siting can give an indication of the depth of weathering
and the nature of fracturing, which may also assist in the design of wellhead protection mechanisms.
The results of geophysical logging, if undertaken at the drilling stage, are also essential for producing
the optimum design and protection of the wells. Both data are important in defining groundwater
protection zones around wellfield boreholes and for production of aquifer vulnerability maps based on
the nature of the geological material in the unsaturated zone.

Summary and Discussion

Much of southern Africa experiences unpredictable rainfall, with the result that droughts are common.
Recharge events tend to vary both with location and with periods of wet and dry conditions. The region
therefore depends heavily on groundwater resources for potable water supply, animal watering, and
agricultural, mining and industrial activities. Villages and settlements are supplied by boreholes or

5
wells usually drilled within a few kilometre radius of the villages, but nitrate pollution, mainly due to pit
latrines, is common in these boreholes and they tend to fail in dry periods (e.g., Ranganai et al., 2001).
Land use and environmental mapping shows that the pollutant sources are located within and near
settlements where the boreholes are also concentrated, demonstrating the conflict between the need
for water protection and the demand for development. Reliable water supplies far from pollution
sources are therefore necessary. A management plan has been proposed for sustainable
development of groundwater in the region to alleviate water scarcity and pollution and their related
socio-economic and/or environmental problems.

The different hydrogeologic units found in the subsurface display a wide range of capabilities to store
and transmit ground water and contaminants. The case studies presented show that an integrated
geophysical approach is important in assessing the nature of the subsurface and its physical
properties, to suite different applications in groundwater evaluation, development and protection.
These techniques are efficient and cost-effective, compared to traditional methods of investigations
such as trenching and drilling. Airborne magnetic and electromagnetic data and LANDSAT imagery
have been successful in mapping major fracture patterns and other subsurface geologic controls on
groundwater occurrence and pollutant distribution. The interpreted lineaments and fracture patterns
are used, in combination with other lithological and hydrogeological information, to identify potential
groundwater sites for detailed ground geophysical investigations. Ground geophysics is now also
increasingly being applied in water pipeline route investigations at the water supply stage. The ground
and borehole geophysics collected at the borehole siting and drilling stages can give an indication of
the depth of weathering and the nature of fracturing, which may also assist in the design of boreholes
and wellhead protection mechanisms and zones. This information is essential for proper placement of
casing and screens in water supply wells and for characterizing groundwater contamination.
Geophysical borehole logs can also determine the in-situ physico-chemical characteristics of the
groundwater and identify pollutant inflow points within boreholes.

An analysis of various types of aquifers in the two countries shows that the deep sedimentary aquifers
can be described as very good, fractured-karst aquifers as good, while the shallow crystalline and
metamorphic aquifers are slightly good, in terms of quantity of groundwater. The shallow and karst
aquifers are highly vulnerable to surface and subsurface pollution compared to the deep aquifers but
water from the latter tends to be brackish. For example in the lower Okavango delta, while surface
water flow is fresh, much of the shallow groundwater is saline and deep (~100m) groundwater is
almost invariably saline, due to a combination of evaporation, evapotranspiration and poor drainage,
the occurrence of fossil water and the presence of soluble minerals (Mokokwe, 1998; Campbell et al.,
2001). In such cases, the target aquifers comprise thick packages of coarser sands characterised by
high porosity and permeability, allowing for annual flushing and recharge.

Recommendations.

Water resources management generally entails the development of strategies that take into
consideration long-term sustainability and conservation of the resource, providing appropriate
quantities of water with adequate quality. A systematic geoscientific approach to groundwater
exploration, development and protection should therefore include or involve the following:
1) Regional airborne geophysical mapping of geological structures and features that control both
groundwater occurrence and subsurface pollutant distribution and transport. Integration with Landsat
imagery can help delineate regional and sub-regional factors of hydrogeological relevance so that field
investigations can be carried out cost-effectively and rapidly in priority areas.
2) Correlation of structural interpretation results with geological maps, ground surveys and drill logs for
providing control and developing hydrogeophysical and hydrochemical characteristics that are critical
for the successful location of boreholes and/or pollutant pathways.
3) Ground follow-up of selected areas using magnetic, electromagnetic (EM34, HLEM, VLF) and
electrical resistivity (CST and VES), including geophysical borehole logging of selected drilled sites
(both dry and productive holes). This assists in the understanding of the hydrogeological and hydraulic
characteristics of sites.
4) Areas selected for further detailed studies would require the quantification of localized resources by
means of detailed drilling and testing, and hydrochemical study to confirm the water quality and
suitability for envisaged use.
5) Groundwater protection should be addressed at wellheads, regional and national scales, providing
policy and guidelines or recommendations on the type of activities or developments permissible at

6
each level. Regional aquifer vulnerability maps are produced for protection of groundwater outside the
wellfield whilst a national groundwater vulnerability map is for the protection of all groundwater
resources in the country.
6) Sustainable aquifer management involving study of potential water demands, preparation of a water
balance and computer modelling to assist in the optimum exploitation of the aquifer.
7) Compilation of regional or national development programmes to suit the envisaged water use and
the groundwater protection zones and regional vulnerability maps.

It is therefore recommended that such work be carried out routinely as part of the groundwater
resources evaluation process in order to improve the drilling success rate, protect the possible supply,
and ensure sustainable abstraction and economic development. The proposed approach and
methodologies can easily be incorporated in on-going and future groundwater resources projects in
the region. Already, the Botswana government insists on a strong geophysical component in most of
these projects.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Geological Surveys in Botswana and Zimbabwe for providing the AM and AEM
data, and British Geological Survey for providing the Landsat TM data.

References

Acworth, R.I. 1987. The development of crystalline basement aquifers in a tropical environment.
Quarterly Journal Engineering Geology 20, 265-272.

Astier, J.L. and Paterson, N.R. 1989. Hydrogeological interest of aeromagnetic maps in crystalline and
metamorphic areas. In: Proceedings of Exploration '87 (Edited by Garland, G.D.) Ontario Geological
Survey Special Volume 3, 732-745. Toronto.

Campbell, G., Johnson, S., Bakaya, T. and Nsatsi, J., 2001. Airborne Geophysical Mapping of Water
Quality and Structural Controls in the Lower Okavango Delta, Botswana. 7th SAGA Biennial Technical
Meeting and Exhibition, Drakensburg, 9-12 October 2001. Extended Abstracts CD-Rom.

Carney, J.N., Aldiss, D.T. and Lock, N.P., 1994. The geology of Botswana. Geological Survey
Department, Bulletin 37, 113p.

Carruthers, R.M., Greenbaum, D., Peart, R.J. and Herbert, R. 1991. Geophysical investigations of
photolineaments in southeast Zimbabwe. Quarterly Journal Engineering Geology 24, 437-451.

Clark, L. 1985. Groundwater abstraction from basement complex areas of Africa. Quarterly Journal
Engineering Geology 18, 25-34.

Chevrel, S. and Coetzee, H, 2000. A new tool for assessing the environmental impact of mining
activities: application to the surface and groundwater sensitivity analysis of the West Rand Area,
Gauteng Province, South Africa. 28th International symposium on remote sensing of the environment,
Cape Town, 27-31 March 2000.

Coetzee, H., Wade, P. and Winde, F., 2001. Understanding environmental geophysical anomalies- an
interdisciplinary case study from West Rand. 7th SAGA Biennial Technical Meeting and Exhibition,
Drakensburg, 9-12 October 2001. Extended Abstracts CD-Rom.

Commonwealth Science Council (CSC), 1987. Groundwater exploration and development in

crystalline basement aquifers. Workshop Proceedings, Harare, Zimbabwe, June 1987. CSC (89)
WMR-13, Technical Paper 273. London.

DWA (1991). National Water Master Plan, Volume 5: Hydrogeology. Department of Water Affairs,
Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Affairs, Gaborone.

Grant, F.S. 1985. Aeromagnetics, geology and ore environments, I. Magnetite in igneous, sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks: an overview. Geoexploration 23, 303-333.

7
Greenbaum, D., Carruthers, R.M., Peart, R.J., Shedlock, S.J., Jackson, P.D., Mtetwa, S., Amos, B.J.,
1993. Groundwater exploration in southeast Zimbabwe using remote sensing and ground geophysical
techniques. BGS Technical Report WC/93/26, 10pp.

Henkel, H. and Guzman, M. 1977. Magnetic features of fracture zones. Geoexploration 15, 173-181.

Jones, M.J. 1985. The weathered zone aquifers of the basement complex areas of Africa. Quarterly
Journal Engineering Geology 18, 35-46.

Koosimile, D.I. 1992. Aeromagnetic prospecting for fractured aquifers in the metamorphic terrain of
eastern Botswana. MSc Thesis. 118p. ITC, Delft, The Netherlands.

Loke, M.H., 1997. Rapid 2D resistivity inversion using the least-squares method, RES2DINV Program
manual, Penang, Malaysia.

Mokokwe, K., 1998. Reducing groundwater vulnerability in Developing Commonwealth Cities: Case
Study Botswana, Southern Africa. Commonwealth Secretariat, London.

Olsson, M, Persson, A., Gwaze, P. and Dladla, Z., 1998. Resistivity investigations of deep aquifers in
western Zimbabwe. Lund University, 80pp.

Paterson, N. R. and Reford, S.W., 1986. Inversion of airborne electromagnetic data for overburden
mapping and groundwater exploration. In: Palacky, G.J., ed., Airborne resistivity mapping, Geological
Survey of Canada Paper 86-22, p39-48.

Paterson, N.R. and Bosschart, R.A., 1987. Airborne geophysical exploration for ground water. Ground
Water 25(1), 41-50.

Ranganai, R.T. and Ebinger, C.J., 2003. Aeromagnetic and LANDSAT TM structural interpretation for
identifying regional groundwater exploration targets, south-central Zimbabwe craton. Journal African
Earth Sciences (in press).

Ranganai, R.T., Gotlop-Bogatsu, Y., Maphanyane, J. and Tladi, B., 2001. Hydrochemical and
Geophysical Evaluation of Groundwater Pollution in the Ramotswa Wellfield, SE Botswana. BIE2001
Technical Papers, 193-200.

Spector, A. and Grant, F.S., 1970. Statistical models for interpreting aeromagnetic data. Geophysics
35, 293-302.

Wright, E.P. and Burgess, W.G., eds., 1992. The hydrogeology of crystalline basement aquifers in
Africa. Geological Society Special Publication 66, 264p. London.

Zeil, P., Volk, P. and Saradeth, S. 1991. Geophysical methods for lineament studies in groundwater
exploration. A case history from SE Botswana. Geoexploration 27, 65-177.

Table 1.

Seismic Velocity (m/s) Rock Condition Interpretation

200 to 500 Overburden, completely to highly weathered material
500 to 1000 Highly weathered bedrock
1000 to 2000 Highly weathered to moderately weathered bedrock
2000 to 3000 Moderately weathered to slightly weathered bedrock
>3000 Slightly weathered to unweathered bedrock (Fresh bedrock)

8
Figure 1 Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4 Figure 5

9
Figure 6

Figure 7 Figure 8

Figure 9

10
Figure 10

Figure 11 Figure 12

11