FLIGHT DYNAMICS.

( TWO MARK QUESTIONS with detail explanations)

Q.1 Define skin friction drag and pressure drag.

A.1

Skin Friction
• Due to shear stresses produced in boundary layer.
• Significantly more for turbulent than laminar types of boundary layers.

Form (Pressure) Drag

• Due to static pressure distribution around body - component resolved in direction of motion.
• Sometimes considered separately as forebody and rear (base) drag components.
Q.2 What is ISA?
A.2 Since the physical properties of the air are dependent upon temperature, and the performance of the aircraft
is dependent upon the air density, pressure and temperature, correlation of performance data is dependent upon
some assumed standard lapse rate. For convenience, an International Standard Atmosphere has been adopt6ed
based on an average linear lapse rate at 40 degree north latitude which has been empirically chosen after a study
of average lapse rates observed throughout the world.
Q.3 What are the conditions required for minimum drag and minimum power?
A3. Also there must be a single value for the angle of attack which gives:
– Maximum L/D, minimum TR and minimum D.
– Thrust Required TR must be proportional to 1/(L/D) or 1/(CL/CD)
– I.e. speed for minimum drag or minimum thrust required must correspond with speed for maximum lift/drag
ratio.
This means that the two components (parasite & lift-induced) are equal at minimum drag
conditions. Thus, at minimum drag (or maximum L/D) conditions: CD = 2 CD0.
Minimum Power Speed
For minimum power conditions, dP/dV = 0
Q4. Explain the significance of load factor.
A.4 The load factor of a given aircraft in a given condition of flight is defined as the lift divided by the weight.
It is denoted by ‘n ‘ so that n =L/W /. In straight and level flight, L=W, so that n=1. In maneuvers, the lift may
be greater than or less than weight. In either case, L=n.W, and it is easily seen that, other things being equal, the
stalling speed in the maneuver is proportional to √n. The load factor influences the wing loading and also on the
loads in the aircraft, which in turn influences the shear and bending load distribution in the aircraft, and hence
design weight of the overall aircraft.
Q5. What is meant by the degree of freedom and how much required for airplane?
A5. The aircraft has six degrees of freedom, namely three translational and three rotational. The longitudinal
axis is denoted by x-axis towards the forward nose section of the fuselage. The y-axis points towards the
starboard position and the z-axis vertically downward. The degrees of freedom signify the various modes the
aircraft centre of gravity can translate and rotate freely in all directions.

Q.6 State two conditions for static longitudinal stability and indicate them with a plot.
A.6

Q.7 what is meant by dihedral effect?

A.7 The phenomenon of rolling moment due to sideslip is termed dihedral effect and is not a static stability in
the true sense of the word. An airplane is said to have stable dihedral effect if a negative rolling moment (left
wing down) is created as a result of positive sideslip. The dihedral stability is the ability of the aircraft to
recover from a roll without pilot’s intervention. If the wing is tilted upwards from root to tip, it has a dihedral.
Dihedral is good for
Lateral stability.

dihedral
The dihedral angle is defined as the angle between the plane of each wing and the horizontal. when the aircraft
is unbanked and level. And is positive when wing lies above horizontal plane. Negative dihedral is used in some
aircraft and is known as anhydral.
The tilting of the lift vector on each wing, associated with wing dihedral, is responsible for a minor destabilizing
contribution towards the yawing moment due to yaw. However the contribution is insignificant compared with
the effect of wing sweepback.
Q.8 What happens when the aircraft undergo a roll?

A.8 A portion of the lift is pointed sideways. The vehicle moves Laterally. This is called sideslip. During
sideslip, a relative wind flows from right to left A downwash occurs On the left wing, reducing As a result, the
aircraft rights itself, and recovers from the roll. This wind has a component normal To the wing on the right,
viewing from the front. This is an up wash. The up wash increases lift on the right wing.
Q.9 Graphically represent a system which is statically stable but dynamically unstable.
A.9 STATICALLY STABLE Aircraft may be dynamically unstable

Q.10. What is directional stability?

A.10
.
Q.11. What is spiral divergence?
A.11. Spiral instability exists when the static directional stability of the airplane is very strong as compared to
the effects of its dihedral in maintaining lateral equilibrium. When the lateral equilibrium of the plane is
disturbed by a gust of air and a sideslip is introduced, the strong directional stability tends to yaw the nose into
the relative wind, while the comparatively weak dihedral lags in restoring the lateral balance. Due to the yaw,
the wing on the outside of the turning moment travels faster than the inside wing and as a consequence its lift
becomes greater. This produces an over banking tendency which ,if not corrected by the pilot, will result in the
banking angle becoming steeper and steeper. At the same time, the strong directional stability that yaws the
plane into the relative wind is actually forcing the nose to a lower pitch attitude. Then the start of a slow spiral
which has begun if not counter-acted by the pilot will gradually increase into a steep spiral dive.
Thus it is a fairly complicated motion, involving a mixture of side forces and moments in both the
rolling and yawing sense .A small degree of spiral instability is often tolerated, and usually the rate of
divergence in the spiral motion, is so gradual that the pilot can control the tendency without any difficulty. Of
the in-flight structural failures that have occurred in general aviation airplanes, improper recovery from this
condition has probably been the underlying cause of more fatalities than any other single factor.
Q12. What causes induced drag?
A.12 The drag resulting from lift is called induced drag. From the potential theory, it can be shown that with no
circulation, ‘ Г ‘about an aerodynamic body the lift is equal to zero. With a finite value of circulation a lift
forces results, which in turn produces an induced drag force. From the classical theory it was impossible to
explain the formation of this circulation without the assumption of a viscous fluid in the boundary layer setting
up the circulation.
Q.13 Why does an airplane require a vertical tail or fin?
A.13. The main contributor to the static directional stability is the vertical tail or fin. Both the size and arm of
the fin determine the directional stability of the aircraft. The further the vertical fin is behind the C.G the more
static directional stability the aircraft will have. (This is often called the weather vaning effect, because it works
the same way as a weather vane.).
Q.14. How does the wing contribute to directional stability?
A.14. A wing produces two effects that give a yawing moment with sideslip. The important one is due to wing
sweepback angle and the other is due to geometrical dihedral. The second effect is due to dihedral, results from
a lift of the lift vector with sideslip. Both effects are stabilizing. Fuselage and engine nacelles are usually de-
stabilizing. When there is a sideslip which is positive ‘β ‘the rightwing i.e. the star board wing faces the flow
more perpendicularly i.e. more wing chord wise flow. These results in more lift and also drag, which acts to
favorably correct the disturbance due to sideslip.

Q.15. What is lateral or Static roll stability?

A.15

Q.16. What is adverse yaw?

A.16.
Q.18 What are the requirements of directional control? A18.

Q.20. What is roll control?

A .20. Stability about the airplane’s longitudinal axis, which extends from nose to tail, is called lateral stability.
This helps to stabilize the lateral or rolling effect; when one wing gets lower than the wing on the opposite side
of the airplane. Their are four main design factors that make an airplane stable laterally. They are :-
- dihedral
-keel effect
-sweep back
-weight distribution
During flight, the side area of the airplanes fuselage and vertical fin react to the airflow in much the
same manner as the keel of a ship. Such laterally stable airplanes are constructed so that the greater portion of
the keel area is above and behind the centre of gravity. Thus when the airplane slips to one side, the
combination of the airplanes weight and the pressure of the airflow against the upper portion of the keel area
(both acting about the C.G) tends to roll the airplane back to wings level flight.
Q21. Define aileron control power.
A 21. The rolling performance of any wing-aileron-system must be developed from a study of
the equations of motion of the airplane in roll.
The equation of motion can be written very simply, the rolling moments arising only from the aileron
deflection, ‘ δa ‘ and the wing damping due to angular velocity., ‘ p ‘
Q22. What is adverse Yaw and aileron drag?
A22. The aileron drag is a further factor that may cause an aircraft to stall. When the pilot applies aileron to roll
upright during low speed, the downward movement of the aileron in the lower wing might take an angle on that
part of the wing past the critical stall angle. Thus that section of the wing, rather than increasing the lift and the
aircraft instead of straightening up, will roll into a steeper bank and descend quickly.
Also the wing with the down aileron often produces a larger drag, which may create a yaw motion in the
opposite direction of the roll. This yaw motion partially counteracts the desired roll motion and is called the
adverse yaw.
Q23. How do we recover from a stall?
A23. In order to recover from a stall the pilot has to reduce the angle of attack back to a low value. Despite the
aircraft is already falling towards the ground, the pilot has to push the stick forward to get the nose even further
down. This reduces the angle of attack and the drag, which increases the speed.
After the aircraft has gained speed and the aircraft incidence becomes favorable, the pilot may pull back on
aircraft stick to increase the angle of attack again (within the allowable range.), restoring lift. Since recovery
from a stall involves loss of height, the stall is most dangerous at low altitudes. Engine power can help to reduce
the loss of height by increasing the velocity more quickly and also helping to re-attach the flow over the wing.
Q24. What is spin?
A24 A worse version of a stall is called spin, in which the plane spirals down. A stall can develop into a spin
through the exertion of a sideways moment. Depending on the plane (and where its CG is located) it may be
more difficult or impossible to recover from a spin.
Recovering requires good efficiency from the tail surfaces of the airplane, typically involves the use of the
rudder to stop the spinning motion, in addition to the elevator to break the stall. However the wings may block
the airflow to the tail. If the CG is too far back, it will make the recovery more difficult.
Q25. What is flutter?
A25. Another circumstance that may cause loss of control is when a hinged control surface starts to flutter. Such
flutter is harmless if it just vibrates slightly at certain airspeed (possibly giving a buzzing sound), but ceases as
soon as the airspeed drops. In some cases however the flutter increases rapidly so that the aircraft is no longer
controllable. The pilot may not be aware of the case and thinks it is radio interference instead... T6o control the
flutter the control linkages should not be loosely fitted and push rods have to be stiff... Long unbraced push rods
can cause flutter, as vibration whips them around. In some difficult cases the control surfaces has to be
balanced, so that its centre of mass gravity is ahead of the hinge line. It should be located at about 60-65% of
the length of the control surface from the inner end.

Q.26.State two requirements of aircraft control surfaces.

A.26. An aircraft must be controlled along and about 6 degrees of freedom i.e. translational and roll in three
axes. It is also used to trim an aircraft for maintaining equilibrium... Initiate, hold and terminate maneuvers...
Control power has to be sufficient to cope with all possible flight conditions and speeds. including deployment
of high lift devices; cross wind landings, engine failure on multi- engine aircraft. Cross coupling between roll
and yaw complicates control requirements.
Q27. Distinguish between stability and controllability.
A 27.The requirement of static and dynamic stability for any dynamic system arises from the characteristics of
the system response to disturbances like sudden gusts etc or to its controls. The control on the other hand is the
response of aircraft to deliberate applied forces/moments which cause the aircraft to deviate from initial
equilibrium position. The controls must be made effective enough to allow the airplane to realize the maximum
utility, and at the same time light enough, so that maneuvering the airplane will not tax the pilot’s strength, yet
never so light with very little effort can inadvertently maneuver the airplane past its structural design limits.
These problems become more difficult as airplanes become bigger and faster.
Q28. What is the need for aerodynamic balancing?
A28.The control force increases with aircraft speed and size. Aerodynamic balancing can reduce control forces
down to more manageable levels. A basic design requirement is that over-large hinge moments must be reduced
by balancing. Several methods are available to the designer and it is not unusual for two or more methods to be
used on a single control. The asymmetric flap e.g. ‘Frise aileron ‘which has a form of distorted nose balance,
are most often used on aileron controls. The other commonly used aerodynamic balance system is the ‘ Horn
balance ‘. The types of aerodynamic balance can be broken down into two main classes i.e. nose balance and
trailing balance. Aerodynamic balance at the control surface nose consists of variations in nose shape, hinge line
set- back, shrouds, gaps, and seals, while the trailing edge types of aerodynamic balance consists of changes in
airfoil contour, balancing tabs, spring tabs and trailing edge strips.

The FRISE aileron designed as a means of aerodynamic balance is arranged so that when the control is raised
the offset nose of the aileron protrudes into the air-stream. This creates a localized region of low pressure and
this helps to balance the control and also to provide an addition to boundary layer drag on the down going wing.
Mass balancing is different from aerodynamic balancing. As the flaps have definite masses or inertia
characteristics, this aspect is utilizes coupled with aerodynamic characteristics of the control. The inertial
characteristics of a control in all six degrees of freedom or motion must therefore be carefully considered as the
mass distribution of the control surface is the only variable. Mass balancing is the artificial correction of the
inertial characteristics of a control to avoid excessive flutter of the control and main surfaces to which it
attaches.
Q 29. How is load factor related to bank angle?
A 29. In steady conditions for the Aircraft: _
Constant Altitude Banked Turn
•In steady condition:
–T = D
•Force balance gives:
–W = mg = L cosθ
–FR = mV2/R = L sinθ
•∴ tan θ = V2/(Rg)
• So for given speed and turn radius there is only one correct bank angle for a co-ordinated
(no sideslip) turn.
•Maneuverability equations simplified through use of normal load factor (n) = L/W.
•In the turn, n = L/W = secθ > 1 and is therefore determined by bank angle.
Q 30. Define range and endurance.
A 30. Range & Endurance
• Range is concerned with the distance traveled.
• Endurance is concerned with the time spent in the air.
• Different conditions to be met for an aircraft trying to maximize either range or endurance
– Vary with whether the aircraft is a piston-prop or jet/fan (a turboprop falls somewhere between the two).
Endurance
• Depends on minimizing rate of fuel consumption.
• For piston-props, critical parameter is
– Specific fuel consumption (sfc) = weight of fuel / (brake horse power x hours) = Nfuel / (bhp x hr).
• For turbojets/fans, critical parameter is
– Thrust specific fuel consumption (tsfc) = weight of fuel / (thrust x hours) = 1/ hr
(units) Range - Piston-Prop A/C
• Range maximized when flying at minimum drag speed, corresponding to tangent drawn to PR against V curve,
i.e. when CL/CD is at a maximum and the two drag terms are equal in value

Range - Jet/Fan A/C

•Maximum range when (V/D) ratio is maximized, found from tangent drawn to TR against V curve.
0.5
•Relates to attitude giving maximum (CL
/ CD) and where parasite drag = 3 x lift-induced drag.
Q31. What is parasite drag?
A 31.The resistance of aerodynamic bodies immersed in a real fluid is the result of three types ofdrag. The
resistance resulting from the pressure variations over the surface of the body is defined as pressure drag. and
that due to the shear stresses in the boundary layer is defined as frictional drag. A third type of drag associated
with lift on a wing is defined as induced drag. It is customary to called the sum of the first two types as Parasite
drag.
Q 32. Distinguish between troposphere and stratosphere. A 32.
• The atmosphere is categorised into different levels or strata, defined in accordance with the temperature
profile and separated by narrow transition zones.
• We are only interested in the lower two strata, i.e. the troposphere & stratosphere.

Q33. Give some details on spin.

A33. If one wing tip stalls before the other, then the large rolling moment will be setup (due to loss of lift at the
stalled wing tip). This will be accompanied by a yawing moment so that the aircraft can lock into a spin. The
overall motion is again complicated being a mixture of roll, sideslip and yaw. The spin can be steep or flat in
nature with the flat spin being particularly hazardous and difficult to recover from. As in stall recovery, it
requires the separated floe from the stalled wing to be re- attached. This is usually done by:-
- By applying the rudder to remove the yaw.
- Establishing a steady dive.
- Pulling out through the use of the elevator.
Q34. What is control reversal?
A34. At low speeds the wings is close to its stall angle. Downward deflection of a control surface (aileron) can
actually induce a stall, thus reducing the available lift rather than increasing it. (I.e. control reversal occurs.). A
geared aileron where the down going surface deflects less than the up going surface can help to get around this
problem. Alternatively spoilers if fitted can be used for low speed control.
Q 35. What is rudder lock?
A35. Occasionally an airplane will exhibit characteristics called ‘rudder locks ‘where the force on the rudder
pedals suddenly reverse as the rudder deflection approaches its maximum deflection. The rudder will tend to
float all the way to the maximum deflection without any effort by the pilot. This is a potentially dangerous
situation for a multi engine airplane, where the loss of one engine will require large amount of rudder
deflection, to maintain straight level flight.
Q36. What is one engine out condition?
A36. In multi-engine aircraft the main rudder design criterion is that it should hold steady level flight with one
engine cut and the propeller wind milling... This power asymmetry produces a yawing moment equal to Tx d
(d= distance between engine center and aircraft axis); plus drag due to the drag of the dead airscrew... To
maintain flight with zero sideslip requires that the rudder produce sufficient side force at the tail to overcome
this asymmetric power condition. This is most critical at lower air speeds and high engine powers for example
during take-off; since the thrust moment is large, while the rudder yawing moment produced by the
aerodynamic force to the fin and rudder is small. This is usually the design criterion for multi- engine aircraft. If
the engines are set closely towards the fuselage then however the critical rudder case is more likely to be the
cross wind landing case.
Q37. What is auto-rotation?
A 37. In normal flight, rolling motions are very heavily damped. Even though the static stability of the bank
angle is small or even negative, you cannot get a large roll rate without a large roll inducing torque. and when
you take away the torque the roll rate goes away.
Now near the critical angle of attack, the roll damping goes away. Suppose at that time you start the aircraft to
roll to the right; then the roll rate will just continue by all itself. The right wing will be stalled (beyond max lift
angle of attack) and the left wing will be unstalled. (Below max lift angle of attack)
CL

left wing tip

right wing tip
Cd
right wing tip

left wing tip

angle of atta ck angle of atta ck
At sufficiently high initial angles of attack (somewhat greater than the critical angle of attack), the roll will not
just continue but accelerate all by itself. This is an example of departure that constitutes the beginning of a snap
roll or spin. The resulting undamped rolling motion is called autorotation.
At high enough angle of attack, the ailerons loose effectiveness and at the same time start working in reverse.