Chapter 19 Mechanical Vibrations

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Chapter 19 Mechanical Vibrations 19.1 INTRODUCTION

19.1 Introduction A mechanical vibration is the motion of a particle or a body which oscil-
Vibrations without Damping lates about a position of equilibrium. Most vibrations in machines and
19.2 Free Vibrations of Particles. structures are undesirable because of the increased stresses and energy
Simple Harmonic Motion losses which accompany them. They should therefore be eliminated or
19.3 Simple Pendulum (Approximate reduced as much as possible by appropriate design. The analysis of
Solution) vibrations has become increasingly important in recent years owing to
19.4 Simple Pendulum (Exact Solution) the current trend toward higher-speed machines and lighter structures.
19.5 Free Vibrations of Rigid Bodies There is every reason to expect that this trend will continue and that
19.6 Application of the Principle of an even greater need for vibration analysis will develop in the future.
Conservation of Energy The analysis of vibrations is a very extensive subject to which
19.7 Forced Vibrations entire texts have been devoted. Our present study will therefore be
Damped Vibrations limited to the simpler types of vibrations, namely, the vibrations of
19.8 Damped Free Vibrations a body or a system of bodies with one degree of freedom.
19.9 Damped Forced Vibrations A mechanical vibration generally results when a system is dis-
19.10 Electrical Analogues placed from a position of stable equilibrium. The system tends to
return to this position under the action of restoring forces (either
elastic forces, as in the case of a mass attached to a spring, or gravi-
tational forces, as in the case of a pendulum). But the system gener-
ally reaches its original position with a certain acquired velocity which
carries it beyond that position. Since the process can be repeated
indefinitely, the system keeps moving back and forth across its posi-
tion of equilibrium. The time interval required for the system to
complete a full cycle of motion is called the period of the vibration.
The number of cycles per unit time defines the frequency, and the
maximum displacement of the system from its position of equilib-
rium is called the amplitude of the vibration.
When the motion is maintained by the restoring forces only,
the vibration is said to be a free vibration (Secs. 19.2 to 19.6). When
a periodic force is applied to the system, the resulting motion is
described as a forced vibration (Sec. 19.7). When the effects of fric-
tion can be neglected, the vibrations are said to be undamped. How-
ever, all vibrations are actually damped to some degree. If a free
vibration is only slightly damped, its amplitude slowly decreases
until, after a certain time, the motion comes to a stop. But if damp-
ing is large enough to prevent any true vibration, the system then
slowly regains its original position (Sec. 19.8). A damped forced
vibration is maintained as long as the periodic force which produces
the vibration is applied. The amplitude of the vibration, however, is
affected by the magnitude of the damping forces (Sec. 19.9).
VIBRATIONS WITHOUT DAMPING

19.2 FREE VIBRATIONS OF PARTICLES. SIMPLE
HARMONIC MOTION
Consider a body of mass m attached to a spring of constant k (Fig.
19.1a). Since at the present time we are concerned only with the
motion of its mass center, we will refer to this body as a particle.
When the particle is in static equilibrium, the forces acting on it are
its weight W and the force T exerted by the spring, of magnitude
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T 5 kdst, where dst denotes the elongation of the spring. We have, 19.2 Free Vibrations of Particles. Simple
Harmonic Motion
1215
therefore,
W 5 kdst
Suppose now that the particle is displaced through a distance xm from
its equilibrium position and released with no initial velocity. If xm has
been chosen smaller than dst, the particle will move back and forth
through its equilibrium position; a vibration of amplitude xm has been
generated. Note that the vibration can also be produced by imparting Unstretched T = kdst
a certain initial velocity to the particle when it is in its equilibrium dst
position x 5 0 or, more generally, by starting the particle from any
given position x 5 x0 with a given initial velocity v0.
To analyze the vibration, let us consider the particle in a position
P at some arbitrary time t (Fig. 19.1b). Denoting by x the displacement Equilibrium
OP measured from the equilibrium position O (positive downward), (a) W
we note that the forces acting on the particle are its weight W and the
force T exerted by the spring which, in this position, has a magnitude
T 5 k(dst 1 x). Recalling that W 5 kdst, we find that the magnitude of
the resultant F of the two forces (positive downward) is
− xm
F 5 W 2 k(dst 1 x) 5 2kx (19.1)
Thus the resultant of the forces exerted on the particle is proportional
to the displacement OP measured from the equilibrium position.
Recalling the sign convention, we note that F is always directed toward T = k(dst + x)
the equilibrium position O. Substituting for F into the fundamental
O
equation F 5 ma and recalling that a is the second derivative ẍ of x
with respect to t, we write x
Equilibrium
m ẍ 1 kx 5 0 (19.2) P =
Note that the same sign convention should be used for the accelera- + xm W
tion ẍ and for the displacement x, namely, positive downward. ..
ma = mx
The motion defined by Eq. (19.2) is called a simple harmonic +
motion. It is characterized by the fact that the acceleration is propor- (b)
tional to the displacement and of opposite direction. We can verify that Fig. 19.1
each of the functions x1 5 sin (1k/m t) and x2 5 cos (1k/m t) satis-
fies Eq. (19.2). These functions, therefore, constitute two particular solu-
tions of the differential equation (19.2). The general solution of Eq. (19.2)
is obtained by multiplying each of the particular solutions by an arbitrary
constant and adding. Thus, the general solution is expressed as
k k
x 5 C 1x1 1 C 2x2 5 C 1 sin a tb 1 C 2 cos a tb (19.3)
Am Am
We note that x is a periodic function of the time t and does, there-
fore, represent a vibration of the particle P. The coefficient of t in
the expression we have obtained is referred to as the natural circular
frequency of the vibration and is denoted by vn. We have
k
Natural circular frequency 5 v n 5 (19.4)
Am
1216 Mechanical Vibrations

Substituting for 1k/m into Eq. (19.3), we write
x 5 C1 sin vnt 1 C2 cos vnt (19.5)
This is the general solution of the differential equation
ẍ 1 v2n x 5 0 (19.6)
which can be obtained from Eq. (19.2) by dividing both terms by m

and observing that k/m 5 v2n. Differentiating twice both members
of Eq. (19.5) with respect to t, we obtain the following expressions
for the velocity and the acceleration at time t:
v 5 ẋ 5 C1vn cos vnt 2 C2vn sin vnt (19.7)
a 5 ẍ 5 2C1v2n sin vnt 2 C2v2n cos vnt (19.8)
The values of the constants C1 and C2 depend upon the initial
conditions of the motion. For example, we have C1 5 0 if the particle
is displaced from its equilibrium position and released at t 5 0 with
no initial velocity, and we have C2 5 0 if the particle is started from O
at t 5 0 with a certain initial velocity. In general, substituting t 5 0
and the initial values x0 and v0 of the displacement and the velocity
into Eqs. (19.5) and (19.7), we find that C1 5 v0 /vn and C2 5 x0.
The expressions obtained for the displacement, velocity, and
acceleration of a particle can be written in a more compact form if
we observe that Eq. (19.5) expresses that the displacement x 5 OP
is the sum of the x components of two vectors C1 and C2, respectively,
of magnitude C1 and C2, directed as shown in Fig. 19.2a. As t varies,
both vectors
¡
rotate clockwise; we also note that the magnitude of their
resultant OQ is equal to the maximum displacement xm. The simple
harmonic motion of P along the x axis can thus be obtained by pro-
jecting on this axis the motion of a point Q describing an auxiliary
circle of radius xm with a constant angular velocity vn (which explains
the name of natural circular frequency
¡
given to vn). Denoting by f
the angle formed by the vectors OQ and C1, we write
OP 5 OQ sin (vnt 1 f) (19.9)
which leads to new expressions for the displacement, velocity, and
acceleration of P:
x 5 xm sin (vnt 1 f) (19.10)
v 5 ẋ 5 xmvn cos (vnt 1 f) (19.11)

a 5 ẍ 5 2xmv2n sin (vnt 1 f) (19.12)
The displacement-time curve is represented by a sine curve (Fig.
19.2b); the maximum value xm of the displacement is called the
amplitude of the vibration, and the angle f which defines the initial
position of Q on the circle is called the phase angle. We note from
Fig. 19.2 that a full cycle is described as the angle vnt increases by
2p rad. The corresponding value of t, denoted by tn, is called the
period of the free vibration and is measured in seconds. We have
− xm 19.2 Free Vibrations of Particles. Simple

1217
Harmonic Motion
O
wnt
C2 C1 x
xm
f
wnt
P
Q
+ xm
t
+
(a) (b)
Fig. 19.2
2p
period 5 tn 5 (19.13)
vn
The number of cycles described per unit of time is denoted by fn

and is known as the natural frequency of the vibration. We write
1 vn
Natural frequency 5 fn 5 5 (19.14)
tn 2p
The unit of frequency is a frequency of 1 cycle per second, corre-

sponding to a period of 1 s. In terms of base units the unit of fre-
quency is thus 1/s or s21. It is called a hertz (Hz) in the SI system
of units. It also follows from Eq. (19.14) that a frequency of 1 s21
or 1 Hz corresponds to a circular frequency of 2p rad/s. In problems
involving angular velocities expressed in revolutions per minute
(rpm), we have 1 rpm 5 601 s21 5 601 Hz, or 1 rpm 5 (2p/60) rad/s.
Recalling that vn was defined in (19.4) in terms of the constant k
of the spring and the mass m of the particle, we observe that the
period and the frequency are independent of the initial conditions
and of the amplitude of the vibration. Note that tn and fn depend
on the mass rather than on the weight of the particle and thus are
independent of the value of g.
The velocity-time and acceleration-time curves can be repre-
sented by sine curves of the same period as the displacement-time
curve, but with different phase angles. From Eqs. (19.11) and (19.12),
we note that the maximum values of the magnitudes of the velocity
and acceleration are
vm 5 xmvn am 5 xmv2n (19.15)

xm
O
Since the point Q describes the auxiliary circle, of radius xm, at the f
x a Q0
wnt
constant angular velocity vn, its velocity and acceleration are equal, a m = x mwn2
respectively, to the expressions (19.15). Recalling Eqs. (19.11) and Q
P
(19.12), we find, therefore, that the velocity and acceleration of P wnt + f
v
can be obtained at any instant by projecting on the x axis vectors vm = x mwn
of magnitudes vm 5 xmvn and am 5 xmv2n representing, respectively, x
the velocity and acceleration of Q at the same instant (Fig. 19.3). Fig. 19.3
1218 Mechanical Vibrations The results obtained are not limited to the solution of the prob-
lem of a mass attached to a spring. They can be used to analyze the
rectilinear motion of a particle whenever the resultant F of the forces
acting on the particle is proportional to the displacement x and directed
toward O. The fundamental equation of motion F 5 ma can then
be written in the form of Eq. (19.6), which is characteristic of a simple
harmonic motion. Observing that the coefficient of x must be equal
to v2n, we can easily determine the natural circular frequency vn of the
motion. Substituting the value obtained for vn into Eqs. (19.13) and
(19.14), we then obtain the period tn and the natural frequency fn
of the motion.
19.3 SIMPLE PENDULUM (APPROXIMATE SOLUTION)

Most of the vibrations encountered in engineering applications can
l
be represented by a simple harmonic motion. Many others, although
q
of a different type, can be approximated by a simple harmonic motion,
provided that their amplitude remains small. Consider, for example,
a simple pendulum, consisting of a bob of mass m attached to a cord
m
of length l, which can oscillate in a vertical plane (Fig. 19.4a). At a
given time t, the cord forms an angle u with the vertical. The forces
(a)
acting on the bob are its weight W and the force T exerted by the
cord (Fig. 19.4b). Resolving the vector ma into tangential and
normal components, with mat directed to the right, i.e., in the direc-
T man tion corresponding to increasing values of u, and observing that at 5
la 5 lü, we write
=
mat oFt 5 mat: 2W sin u 5 mlü
Noting that W 5 mg and dividing through by ml, we obtain
g
W ü 1 sin u 5 0 (19.16)
l
(b) For oscillations of small amplitude, we can replace sin u by u, expressed
Fig. 19.4 in radians, and write
g
ü 1 u50 (19.17)
l
Comparison with Eq. (19.6) shows that the differential equation
(19.17) is that of a simple harmonic motion with a natural circular
frequency vn equal to (g/l)1/2. The general solution of Eq. (19.17)
can, therefore, be expressed as
u 5 um sin (vnt 1 f)
where um is the amplitude of the oscillations and f is a phase angle.
Substituting into Eq. (19.13) the value obtained for vn, we get the
following expression for the period of the small oscillations of a pen-
dulum of length l:
2p l
tn 5 5 2p (19.18)
vn Ag

Chapter 19 Mechanical Vibrations

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Chapter 19 Mechanical Vibrations

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bee29400_ch19_1212-1287.

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Chapter 19 Mechanical Vibrations 19.1 INTRODUCTION

VIBRATIONS WITHOUT DAMPING

1216 Mechanical Vibrations

which can be obtained from Eq. (19.2) by dividing both terms by m

x 5 xm sin (vnt 1 f) (19.10)

v 5 ẋ 5 xmvn cos (vnt 1 f) (19.11)

− xm 19.2 Free Vibrations of Particles. Simple

The number of cycles described per unit of time is denoted by fn

The unit of frequency is a frequency of 1 cycle per second, corre-

vm 5 xmvn am 5 xmv2n (19.15)

19.3 SIMPLE PENDULUM (APPROXIMATE SOLUTION)

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