CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

TOPIC 6– CONCRETE WITH

PARTICULAR PROPERTIES

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 High Strength Concrete
 High-strength concrete has a compressive strength generally
greater than 6,000 pounds per square inch (40 MPa = 5800 psi).
 High-strength concrete is made by lowering the water-cement (W/C)
ratio to 0.35 or lower.
 Often silica fume is added to prevent the formation of free calcium
hydroxide crystals in the cement matrix, which might reduce the
strength at the cement-aggregate bond.
 Low W/C ratios and the use of silica fume make concrete mixes
significantly less workable, which is particularly likely to be a
problem in high-strength concrete applications where dense rebar
cages are likely to be used.
 To compensate for the reduced workability, superplasticizers are
commonly added to high-strength mixtures.
 Aggregate must be selected carefully for high-strength mixes, as
weaker aggregates may not be strong enough to resist the loads
imposed on the concrete and cause failure to start in the aggregate
rather than in the matrix or at a void, as normally occurs in regular
concrete.
 In some applications of high-strength concrete the design criterion is
the elastic modulus rather than the ultimate compressive strength.

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 High Performance Concrete
 High-performance concrete (HPC) and Ultra-high-performance concrete are
relatively new terms used to describe concrete that conforms to a set of
standards above those of the most common applications, but not limited to
strength.
 While all high-strength concrete is also high-performance, not all high-
performance concrete is high-strength. Notable concrete-mixtures are:
Ductile, concrete mixed with titanium oxide, ... Some examples of such
standards currently used in relation to HPC are:
 Ease of placement
 Compaction without segregation
 Early age strength
 Long-term mechanical properties
 Permeability
 Density
 Heat of hydration
 Toughness
 Volume stability
 Long life in severe environments
 Depending on its implementation, environmental

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 Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC)
 During the 1980s a number of countries including Japan, Sweden and
France developed concretes that are self-compacting, known as self-
consolidating concrete in the United States. This self-consolidating concrete
(SCCs) is characterized by:
 extreme fluidity as measured by flow, typically between 650-750 mm on a
flow table, rather than slump(height)
 no need for vibrators to compact the concrete
 placement being easier.
 no bleed water, or aggregate segregation
 Increased Liquid Head Pressure, Can be detrimental to Safety and
workmanship
 SCC can save up to 50% in labor costs due to 80% faster pouring and
reduced wear and tear on formwork.
 This emerging technology is made possible by the use of polycarboxylates
plasticizer instead of older naphthalene based polymers, and viscosity
modifiers to address aggregate segregation.

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 Shotcrete
 Shotcrete is mortar or (usually) concrete conveyed through a hose
and pneumatically projected at high velocity onto a surface.
 Shotcrete (also known by the trade name Gunite) uses compressed
air to shoot mortar onto (or into) a frame or structure.
 Shotcrete is frequently used against vertical soil or rock surfaces, as
it eliminates the need for formwork.
 It is sometimes used for rock support, especially in tunneling.
 Shotcrete is also used for applications where seepage is an issue to
limit the amount of water entering a construction site due to a high
water table or other subterranean sources.
 This type of concrete is often used as a quick fix for weathering for
loose soil types in construction zones.

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 Shotcrete Con’t
 There are two application methods for shotcrete.
 dry-mix (Guniting) – the dry mixture of cement and fine aggregates
is filled into the machine and conveyed with compressed air through
the hoses. The water needed (under pressure) for the hydration is
added at the nozzle. W/C controlled in between 0.33 to 0.50. The
machine/ equipments ensuring continuous supply of the mortar can
convey the material to a distance of 300 to 500 m horizontally and
45 to 100 m vertically. Lightweight concrete can be used in the
process.
 wet-mix – the mixes are prepared with all necessary water for
hydration. The mixes are pumped through the hoses. At the nozzle
compressed air of 5.5 to 7 atmosphere is added for spraying. It
does not cause dust problem.
 For both methods additives such as accelerators and fiber
reinforcement may be used.

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Schematic flow of Gunite System

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 Shotcrete Machine

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 Shortcrete Cont’

Shotcrete nozzle with

Shotcrete swimming Shotcrete-stabilized
75mm concrete hose from
pool under cliff above a
line pump and 20mm
construction motorway
compressed air line

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 Cellular Concrete
 Aerated concrete produced by the addition of an air entraining agent to
the concrete (or a lightweight aggregate like expanded clay pellets or
cork granules and vermiculite) is sometimes called Cellular concrete,
lightweight aerated concrete, variable density concrete, foamed
concrete and lightweight or ultra-lightweight concrete.
 Not to be confused with Aerated autoclaved concrete which is
manufactured off site using an entirely different method.
 In the 1977 seminal work on A Pattern Language Towns, Buildings and
Construction, architect Christopher Alexander wrote in pattern 209 on
Good Materials:
 "Regular concrete is too dense. It is heavy and hard to work. After it
sets one cannot cut into it, or nail into it. And it's surface is ugly, cold,
and hard in feeling unless covered by expensive finishes not integral to
the structure.
 And yet concrete, in some form, is a fascinating material. It is fluid,
strong, and relatively cheap. It is available in almost every part of the
world. A University of California professor of engineering sciences, P.
Kumar Mehta, has even just recently found a way of converting
abandoned rice husks into Portland cement.

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 Cellular Concrete Cont’
 Is there any way of combining all these good qualities of concrete and
also having a material which is light in weight, easy to work, with a
pleasant finish? There is. It is possible to use a whole range of ultra-
lightweight concretes which have a density and compressive strength
very similar to that of wood. They are easy to work with, can be nailed
with ordinary nails, cut with a saw, drilled with wood-working tools,
easily repaired.
 We believe that ultra-lightweight concrete is one of the most
fundamental bulk materials of the future.
 The variable density is normally described in Kg per M 3, where regular
concrete is 2400 kg/M 3.
 Variable density can be as low as 300 kg/m3 although at this density it
would have no structural integrity at all and would function as a filler
or insulation use only.
 The variable density reduces strength to increase thermal and
acoustical insulation by replacing the dense heavy concrete with air or a
light material such as clay, cork granules and vermiculite.
 There are many competing products that use a foaming agent that
resembles shaving cream to mix air bubbles in with the concrete.
All accomplish the same outcome: to displace concrete with air.

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 Roller-Compacted Concrete
 Roller-compacted concrete, sometimes called rollcrete, is a low-
cement-content stiff concrete placed using techniques
borrowed from earthmoving and paving work.
 The concrete is placed on the surface to be covered, and is
compacted in place using large heavy rollers typically used in
earthwork.
 The concrete mix achieves a high density and cures over time
into a strong monolithic block.
 Roller-compacted concrete is typically used for concrete
pavement, but has also been used to build concrete dams, as
the low cement content causes less heat to be generated while
curing than typical for conventionally placed massive concrete
pours.

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Typical Mix Proportions of RCC and
PCC
Type of Water- Cement Fly Ash Fine Coarse Water
Concrete Binder Aggreg Agg. Content,
Ratio ate (mm) kg/ m3
10- 20-
4.75 10
RCC 0.440 0.78 0.22 1.78 1.33 2.0 160
PCC 0.475 1.00 - 1.75 1.05 1.5 190
8

•Typical mix proportions, by mass, of roller compacted concrete

(RCC) and conventional concretes (PCC) for a 91-day strength of 25
Mpa are compared.

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 Fraction of 28-day Flexural Strength

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 Polymer Concrete

 Polymer concrete is concrete which uses

polymers to bind the aggregate.
 Polymer concrete can gain a lot of strength in
a short amount of time.
 For example, a polymer mix may reach 5000
psi in only four hours. Polymer concrete is
generally more expensive than conventional
concretes

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 Polymer Concrete Cont’-Raw Materials

 Polymer concrete is composed of aggregates

that include silica, quartz, granite, limestone,
and other high quality material.
 The aggregate must be of good quality, free
of dust and other debris, and dry.
 Failure of these criteria can reduce the bond
strength between the polymer binder and the
aggregate.

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 Polymer Concrete Cont’-Application

 Polymer concrete may be used for new construction

or repairing of old concrete.
 The adhesion properties of polymer concrete allow
patching for both polymer and cementitious
concretes.
 The low permeability of polymer concrete allows it to
be used in swimming pools, sewer pipes, drainage
channels, electrolytic cells for base metal recovery,
and other structures that contain liquids.
 Also as a replacement for asphalt pavement, for
higher durability and higher strength.

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 Polymer Concrete Cont’-Advantages
 Advantages of polymer concrete include:
 Rapid curing at ambient temperatures
 High tensile, flexural, and compressive strengths
 Good adhesion to most surfaces
 Good long-term durability with respect to freeze and thaw cycles
 Low permeability to water and aggressive solutions
 Good chemical resistance
 Good resistance against corrosion
 Lightweight
 May be used in regular wood and steel formwork
 May be vibrated to fill voids in forms
 Allows use of regular form-release agents
 Dialectric

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 Polymer Concrete Cont’-Disadvantages

 Some safety issues arise out of the use of polymer

concrete.
 The monomers can be volatile, combustible, and
toxic.
 Initiators, which are used as catalysts, are
combustible and harmful to human skin.
 The promoters and accelerators are also dangerous.
 Polymer concretes also cost significantly more than
conventional concrete.

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 Asphalt and Rubberized Concrete

 Strictly speaking, asphalt is a form of

concrete as well, with bituminous materials
replacing cement as the binder.
 While "rubberized asphalt concrete" is
common, rubberized Portland cement
concrete ("rubberized PCC") is still
undergoing experimental tests, as of 2009.

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 Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC)

 Traditional reinforced concrete –

continuous reinforcing steel, located in the
structure to optimize structural performance.
It has two dimensional reinforcement, require
workers to place the steel bars.
 FRC- discontinuous fiber reinforced,
distributed randomly throughout the concrete
matrix. Short fibers provide 3-D reinforcement
and not require extra labor to place them.

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 Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC)

 Fibers slightly increase the compressive

strength of concrete.
 The main effect is on failure mode of
concrete.
 Plain concrete- brittle and sudden failure.
 FRP- ductile after added short fibers/ macro
fibers. Fibers provide a small level of internal
confinement during compression failure as
the internal cracks are held together.
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 Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC)
 Major fiber types- depend on the raw materials they are
made of, i.e. steel fiber, glass fiber, synthetic fibers
(polypropylene, carbon, nylon, polyethylene, polyvinyl
alcohol (PVA) etc.) , natural fibers (wood, sisal, coconut,
etc.)
 FRC production methods- produced in truck mixer,
batch plant, precast operations etc.
 Techniques of production- premixing, hand-spraying,
shotcreting, laying.

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 Coconut fiber
Steel fibers

Carbon fiber Sisal fiber PVA fiber

Glass fiber

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 Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC)
Fiber type Production method
Glass (chopped) Premix, hand spray, automatic spray
Glass (strands) Centrifugal casting, laying
Steel Premix, shotcrete
Polypropylene (single-filament) premix
Polypropylene (fibrilated) Premix, shotcrete

Natural Wet mix, dry-compacted mix

Note:
Single-filament- a single element (cylindrical cross section) of fiber which may
be 10- 50 microns.
Centrifugal casting- Used to make cylindrical, hollow shapes by placing
chopped fiber inside a rotating mold. Resin is applied inside of the mold.
Spraying- manufactured in layers, there is a mist coat, then the GFRC is
sprayed, the material is compacted with a roller and typically a second layer is
sprayed. It can be done manually or automatically.

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 Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC)
 Steel fiber- high strength and high ductility, it
can partially or fully replace steel bars in
certain application.
 GFRC- widely used in thin-sheet applications
such as shell structures, pipes, channels,
floor slabs, wall panels, roof tiles, and
decorative segments.
 High aspect ratio fibers can be difficult to mix
in concrete, so plasticizers are used to
improve the workability of concrete.
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 Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC)

 Typically, longer fibers and higher dosage of

fibers increase ductility and energy
absorption capacity under tension and
bending.
 Fibers serve to transfer the load across the
joints and cracks
 Rheology of FRC- flow or deformation under
stress – workability, flowability (slump and
inverted slump test, vebe time test)
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 Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC)

 FRC- designed as a ductile material that can

carry load under large deformations while still
absorbing energy.
 Mechanical properties of FRC-
compressive strength, modulus of elasticity,
poison’s ratio.
 Tensile and flexural properties- strength and
toughness
 Impact property.
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 Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC)
 Durability of FRC- plastic shrinkage testing,
creep and aging effect.
 Application of FRC- airport runways,
overlays, canal linings, bridge decks,
suspended slabs, strong floors, side walks,
special pavements, reducing or eliminating
shrinkage cracking.

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 Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC)

 Short fibers- 1 to 2 inches - used in precast

products, shotcrete (steel fiber reinforced
shotcrete (SFRC) or polypropylene fiber
reinforced shotcrete (PFRC) etc.
 Special applications of FRC- resist
explosive, cyclic, or corrosive factors –
seismic, defensive, marine, masonry
structure applications

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 Vebe Time, s

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 Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP)

 For external reinforcement systems.

 Two types are in common use:
1. Glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP)
laminates or wrap systems
2. Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP)
laminates or wrap systems

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 Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
Applications
 External reinforcement (FRP-ER)
 Repairing damaged/ deteriorated concrete
beams and slabs to restore their strength and
stiffness, assuming that debonding the FRP
wrap would not cause member failure.
 Limiting crack width under increased
(design/service) loads or sustained loads.
 Retrofitting concrete members – enhance
flexural strength and strain-to-failure.
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 Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
Applications
 Designing new concrete members having
depth limitations or needing high demands on
ductility.
 Rectifying design ad construction errors.
 Enhancing the service life of concrete
members.
 Increase the shear strength of in-service
concrete members.

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 Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
Applications
 Providing confinement for concrete members,
such as concrete columns, as an alternative
to steel jacketing
 Restoring or retrofitting structures built with
masonry and wood
 Repairing old and historic structures

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 Bonding of FRP-ER

 Steps:
 Prepare bondable surface, which should be
even and uniform
 For Concrete substrate with excessive
cracking or uneven surfaces- use high-
viscosity polymer putty (i.e. heavy-duty
methacrylate or epoxy) for sealing up to ¼ in.
width or depth.
 Apply a primer coat to obtain a uniform
bondable substrate.
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 Bonding of FRP-ER

 The primer (low-viscosity polymer) as a first

coat.
 Primer bonds to both concrete substrate and
to resin applied on the FRP fabric.
 Apply a resin coat to the concrete/ primer
substrate.
 The resin wets the fabric and chemically
bonds to the primer applied on the concrete
substrate and the fabric.
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 Bonding of FRP-ER

 A protective coating is applied over the

composite wrap o resist environmental
exposure effects (i. e. moisture igress,
leaching of salt water and alkali solution,
ultraviolet (UV) radiation, chemical emissions,
external ingress etc.), also for enhancing fire
rating of FRP-ER.

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 Example: Flexural Strengthening with
FRP-ER
 A simply supported concrete beam in an interior
location is reinforced with four 25 mm bars and
is required to carry a 100% increase in its
original design live load. Assuming that the
beam is safe in shear for such a strength
increase, and also assuming the deflection and
crack width under 100% increased loads are
acceptable, design a CFRP wrap system (low
grade) to carry flexural loads for future live
loads. Use the beam and CFRP properties given
in Tables 1 & 2:
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 Example: Flexural Strengthening with
FRP-ER
 Proposed wrapping scheme: FRP system
consisting of three 38.1 cm wide X 6.7 m long
plies will be bonded at the bottom (soffit) of
the beam. Existing and new loadings and
associated midspan moments for the beam
are summarized in Table 3.

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Strain values will be used to establish strain compatibility between various elements of the beam

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Table 1: Dimensions of Beam and
Properties of Materials
Description Dimension
Length of the beam, l 6.7 m
Width of the beam, w 381 mm
Effective depth, d 546 mm
Total depth of the beam, h 610 mm
fc’ 38 MPa
fy 414 MPa
Design flexural strength, ɸMn w/o FRP 386.34 kN-m
Bars Four # 8

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Table 2: Manufacturer’s Reported
FRP-System Properties
Description Dimension
Thickness per ply, tf 0.89 mm
Ultimate tensile strength, ffu , 0.65 kN/ mm2
Rupture strain, Ɛ fu 0.017 mm/ mm
Modulus of elasticity of FRP 38.6 kN/ mm2
laminates, Ef

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Simply Supported Beam with UDL

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Step 1: Analyze the current beam

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Step 1: The properties of the existing reinforcing steel

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Step 1: The properties of the existing reinforcing steel (Con’t)
C= a/ β1

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Strength Reduction Factor due to
Ductility

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Step 2: Compute the FRP-system design material properties.
The beam is in an interior location and CFRP material will be used. Therefore, an
environmental reduction factor CE of 0.95 is used as per Table 4.1

ffu = CE ffu*

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Step 3: Preliminary calculations. The properties of the concrete are from ACI 318

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Step 3 (Con’t)

n f = Ef/ E c

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Step 4: Determine the existing state of strain on the soffit. The existing state of strain is
calculated assuming the beam is cracked and the only loads acting on the beam at the time
of the FRP installation are dead loads. A cracked section analysis of the existing beam
gives k = 0.2984 and Icr = 2.827 x 109 mm4

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Step 5: Determine the bond-dependent coefficient of the FRP system. The dimensionless bond-
dependent coefficient for flexure, km, is calculated. Compare nEftf to 180000:

(3) (38600 N/mm2) (0.89 mm) = 103062 < 180000

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Step 6b: Determine the effective strain in the FRP reinforcement. The effective strain in the FRP
is calculated.

Kmεfu
εcu εbi
Note that for the neutral axis depth selected, we can expect a tension- and compression-
controlled failure mode with steel reinforcement strain (0.0114 > 0.005) without FRP rupture
leading to secondary compression failure in the form of concrete crushing.

Note that the values are close but the condition is not satisfied; check again after
obtaining final value of c (Equilibrium)

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Step 6c: Calculate the strain in the existing reinforcing steel. The strain in the reinforcing steel
can be calculated using Equation below:

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Step 6 d: Calculate the stress level in the reinforcing steel and FRP.

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Step 6e: Calculate the internal force resultants and check equilibrium. Force equilibrium is verified by
checking the initial estimate of c Equation below by noting that c = a/ β1.

c = (2026.83 mm2) (414 N/ mm2) + (1017.27 mm2) (482.5 N/ mm2)

(0.85) (0.786) (38 N / mm2) (381 mm)

c = 137. 49 mm not equal to 114.06 mm (Estimated from step 6a)

Therefore, revise the estimate of c and repeat Step 6a through Step

6e until equilibrium is achieved. Using spreadsheet programming for
iterations is suggested to obtain hassle-free solution within a few
seconds. Results of the final iteration are:

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Step 6e (Con’t):

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Strength Reduction Factor due to
Ductility

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Step 7: calculate the design flexural strength of the section. The design flexural strength is
calculated using Equation below with appropriate substitutions. An additional reduction factor, Ψf =
0.85, is applied to the bending strength contributed by FRP system to account for the higher
(uncertain) reliability of FRP-ER strength properties (ACI 440.2R-02). Because Ɛs = 0.0095 >
0.005, a strength-reduction factor of ɸ = 0.90 is used as per Equation 5.9.

Therefore, the strengthened section is capable of sustaining

the new required moment strength.
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Step 8: Check the service stresses in the reinforcing steel and the FRP. Calculate the depth of
the cracked neutral axis by summing the first moment of the areas of the elastic transformed section
without accounting for the compression reinforcement as per Equation below:

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Calculate the stress level in the reinforcing steel using Equation below (Service load stresses
(post-cracking) in steel):

 fs,s = [Ms +εbi Af Ef {h – kd/3}] (d-kd) Es

AsEs (d-kd/3) [d-kd] + Af Ef {h – kd/3} (h-kd)

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Verify that the stress in steel is less than recommended limit as per
Equation below:
fs,s ≤ 0.80 fy

Therefore, the stress level in the reinforcing steel is within the

recommended limit.

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Calculate the stress level in the FRP due to maximum service loads (assume sustained) using
Equation below and verify that it is less than creep-rupture stress limit.

ff,s = 47.55 N/ mm2

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For a carbon FRP system, the creep-rupture stress limit is listed as per Table 5.2

 ff,s ≤ 0.55 ffu

 ff,s = 47.55 N/ mm2 ≤ 0.55 (617.5 N/mm2)

 ff,s = 47.55 N/ mm2 ≤ (339.63 N/mm2)

 Therefore, the stress level in the FRP is

within the recommended creep-rupture
stress limit.

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