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Comminu0on
Manufacturing,
Engineering
&
Technology,
Fich
Edi4on,
by
Serope
Kalpakjian
and
Steven
R.
Schmid.
ISBN
0-‐13-‐148965-‐8.
©
2006
Pearson
Educa4on,
Inc.,
Upper
Saddle
River,
NJ.
All
rights
reserved.
Mechanical
alloying
of
nickel
par4cles
with
dispersed
smaller
par4cles.
As
nickel
par4cles
are
flaIened
between
the
two
balls,
the
second
smaller
phase
is
impresses
into
the
nickel
surface
and
eventually
is
dispersed
throughout
the
par4cle
due
to
successive
flaIening,
fracture,
and
welding
events.
Other
Methods
of
Making
Powders
Chemical
Reduc0on:
Oxide
par4cles
are
reduced
in
gases
such
as
hydrogen
and
carbon
monoxide
at
high
temperatures.
Electroly0c
Deposi0on:
By
using
aqueous
solu4ons
and/or
fused
salts
of
the
required
metal
in
an
electroly4c
processes,
metallic
par4cles
are
precipitated
from
solu4on.
Carbonyls:
Metal
carbonyls
are
decomposed
into
their
respec4ve
metal.
Usually
used
to
produced
very
small
par4cles
of
Co,
Fe
or
Ni
with
a
4ght
par4cle
size
distribu4on.
Condensa0on:
Par4cles
can
form
by
the
condensa4on
from
its
metal
vapors
6
mesh
Sieving
• A
micron
is
1/25,000th
of
an
in.
U.S.
Standard
Space
between
wires
Sieve
Mesh
No.
Inches
Microns
Typical
Material
14
0.056
1400
28
0.028
590
Beach
sand
60
0.0098
250
Fine
sand
100
0.0059
150
200
0.0030
75
Portland
cement
325
0.0017
43
Silt
400
0.0015
38
Plant
Pollen
(1200)*
0.0005
12
Red
Blood
Cell
(2400)*
0.0002
6
(4800)*
0.0001
2
CigareIe
smoke
Mesh
numbers
in
parentheses
are
too
small
to
exist
as
actual
screen
sizes.
They
are
es4mates
included
for
reference
Aperture
Size
A
screen
mesh
contains
open
spaces
(holes)
and
material
(wire)
and
Open
Area
Open
Area
is
the
total
area
of
the
holes
divided
by
total
area
of
the
cloth
Open
Area
describes
how
much
of
the
mesh
is
open
space
With
aperture
size
(L)
and
wire
thickness
(D),
Open
Area
can
be
calculated
as
follows:
(a)
A
plot
of
the
weight
of
par4cles
as
a
func4on
of
par4cle
size.
The
most
populous
size
is
termed
the
mode.
In
this
case,
it
is
between
75µm
and
90µm.
(b)
Cumula4ve
par4cle-‐size
distribu4on
as
a
func4on
of
weight.
Source:
Reprinted
with
permission
from
Randall
M.
German,
Powder
Metallurgy
Science,
Princeton,
NJ:
Metal
Powder
Industries
Federa4on,
1984.
Specific
Surface
Area
of
Par0cles
Surface
area/unit
mass
=
specific
surface
area
Calculate
from
size
distribu4on
and
shape
factor
Size
is
expressed
as
a
"typical"
dimension,
Dp
Volume
of
the
par4cle
can
be
expressed
as:
Vp
=
pDp3
(1)
Ap=
6qDp2
(2)
where
Vp
is
the
volume
of
the
par4cle,
Ap
is
the
area
of
the
par4cle
surface,
Dp
is
the
typical
dimension
of
the
par4cle
p,
q
are
factors
that
connect
the
par4cle
geometries.(subscript
p
and
factor
p)
Ra4o
of
surface
area
to
volume
is:
Ap/Vp
=
6
(q/p)
Dp
=
6λ/
Dp
(3)
and
so
Ap=
6q
Vp
/
pDp
=
6
λ(Vp
/
Dp)
(4)
For
a
mass
m
of
par4cles
of
density
ρ,
the
number
of
par4cles
equals
m
/
ρVP
each
of
area
Ap.
So
total
area:
At
=
(m
/
ρVP)λ(Vp
/
Dp)
=
6
λ
m
/
ρDp
(5)
where
At
is
the
total
surface
area
of
the
mass
of
par4cles.
Equa4on
(5)
can
be
combined
with
the
results
of
a
sieve
analysis
to
es4mate
the
total
surface
area
of
a
powder.
Example:
Surface
Area
of
Salt
Crystals
Es0mate
the
surface
areas
of
these
two
frac0ons
on
a
5Kg
sample
• 38%
of
a
rock
salt
sample
passes
through
a
7
mesh
screen
and
it
is
retained
on
a
9
mesh
screen
• 5%
passed
80
mesh
and
it
was
retained
on
a
115
mesh
screen
Salt
density
=
1050
kg·∙m-‐3
and
Shape
Factor
(λ)
is
1.75
Apertures
of
Tyler
sieves
passes:
7
mesh
=
2.830
mm
retained:
9
mesh
=
2.000
mm
Passes:
80
mesh
=
0.177
mm
retained:
115
mesh
=
0.125
mm
Mean
size(1)
-‐7
+
9
mesh
=
2.415
mm
=
2.415
x
10-‐3
m
Mean
size(2)
-‐
80
+
115
mesh
=
0.151
mm
=
0.151
x
10-‐3
m
So,
from
Eqn.
(5):
A1
=
(6
x
1.75
x
0.38
x
5)
/
(1050
x
2.410
x
10-‐3)
=
7.88
m2
A2
=
(6
x
1.75
x
0.05
x
5)
/
(1050
x
0.151
x
10-‐3)
=
16.60
m2
Determine
the
shape
factor
for
(1)
a
spherical
par4cle,
(2)
a
cubic
par4cle
and
Example:
(3)
a
cylindrical
par4cle
with
a
length
to
diameter
ra4o
of
2.
K=
shape
factor
A Deq
=
the
diameter
of
the
sphere
that
has
the
same
volume
as
the
par4cle
k = Deq
V or
object
being
considered.
A
=
Area
V
=
Volume
π D2
k= D=6 sphere
(
π D3
6 )
1 1
! 6V $ ! 6L $
3
3 3 6L2
Deq = # & = # & = 1.24L k = 3 1.24L = 7.44 cube
"π % " π % (L )
2π D 2
A= + π DL = 2.5π D 2
4
1
1 ! (π D 3 +3 $ 3
π D 2 L π D3 ! 6V $ 3 # 6 *) 2 -, &
V= = ⇒ Deq = # & = # & = 1.442D
4 2 "π % # π &
" %
( +
2
* 2.5π D -
k =* -1.442D = 7.21 cylinder L/D ratio of 2
*) (
π D 3
)
2 -,
Sedimenta0on
(0.08-‐300microns)
Typical values for loose powder have a packing factor that ranges from 0.5 to 0.7.
Porosity
is
defined
as
the
ra4o
between
the
volume
of
the
pores
(empty
spaces
within
the
solid)
to
the
bulk
volume.
In
principle:
Porosity (ε ) =
( Bulk − volume) − (True − volume)
( Bulk − volume)
Example:
A
sample
of
calcium
oxide
powder
with
a
true
density
of
3.203g.cm-‐3
and
weighing
131.3g
was
found
to
have
a
bulk
volume
of
82
cm3
when
placed
in
a
100-‐ml
graduated
cylinder.
Calculate
the
porosity
?
131.3g 3
True − volume = = 41cm
3.203g ⋅ cm −3
82 − 41
Porosity (ε ) = = 0.5 or 50%
82
Blending
Powders
Blending
must
be
carried
out
to
homogenize
the
mixture
of
powders
and
addi4ves
(lubricants
and
binders).
Example:
mixture
of
industrial
diamonds
and
tungsten
par4cles
must
be
homogenized
for
diamond
bearing
core
drills.
Controlled
blending
condi4ons
must
be
used
in
order
to
avoid
contamina4on
or
deteriora4on.
Different
bowl
geometries
are
available
for
efficient
mixing.
Some
powder
metals
may
be
prompt
to
oxida4on
or
explosion
due
to
their
high
surface
area
to
volume
ra4o.
Some
bowls
are
especially
constructed
to
avoid
sparks.
Bowls
can
be
grounded
to
avoid
building
of
charges
due
to
fric4on.
Compac0on
of
Metal
Powders
• The
pressed
powder
is
known
as
the
Green
Compact.
• Pressing
the
powder
is
necessary
to
obtain
the
required
shape
of
the
part,
increase
the
density
and
increase
the
par4cle-‐to-‐par4cle
contact
points
necessary
for
sintering.
• The
density
of
the
green
compact
and
of
the
final
P/M
part
depends
strongly
on
the
applied
pressure.
• Pressures
can
range
between
20000
and
100000psi.
• The
green
compact
is
s4ll
very
porous
with
approximately
70%
of
the
rue
density.
The
higher
is
the
density
of
the
green
compact,
the
higher
is
the
strength
and
elas4c
modulus
of
the
final
P/M
part.
As
the
green
compact
pressure
is
increased,
the
porosity
of
the
final
P/M
part
decreases.
To
ensure
a
more
uniform
density
across
the
green
compact,
mul4ple
punches
can
be
used.
The
required
pressure
depends
on
the
characteris4cs
of
the
powder,
i.e.,
shape,
lubrica4on,
blending
method
Effect of compacting pressure on green density (the
density after compaction but before sintering). Separate
curves are for several commercial powders.
! π D2 $ ! π D2 $
# & px − # & ( px + δ px ) − (π D ) ⋅ (µσ r ) δ x = 0
" 4 % " 4 %
Dδ px + 4 (µσ r ) δ x = 0
Assume
that
a
powder
mix
has
a
k=0.5
and
a
µ=0.3
.
At
what
depth
will
the
pressure
in
a
straight
cylindrical
compact
of
10mm
diameter
become
(a)
zero
and
(b)
half
of
the
pressure
at
the
punch?
px = pO e
( −4⋅µ⋅k⋅x
D )
(a)
zero
0.5⋅ pO = pO e
( −4⋅0.3⋅0.5⋅x )
10
⇒ 0.5 = e (−0.06 x )
⇒ x = 11.55mm
Classes
of
P/M
Equipment
The
equipment
has
been
grouped
in
our
classes
according
to
the
complexity
of
the
P/M
part.
Isosta0c
Pressing
Cold
Isosta0c
Pressing
(CIP)
• The
powder
is
placed
in
a
flexible
rubber
mold.
• The
chamber
is
hydrosta4cally
pressurized
up
to
150ksi.
• A
more
uniform
compac4on
and
density
are
achieved.
• Typical
applica4ons
are
automo4ve
cylinder
liners.
Impregna0on
The
pores
of
a
P/M
part
is
permeated
with
oil
or
other
fluid
such
as
a
polymer.
Example:
oil-‐impregnated
bearings,
gears
www.ondrives.com
Infiltra0on
An
opera4on
in
which
the
pores
of
the
PM
part
are
filled
with
a
molten
metal
• The
mel4ng
point
of
the
filler
metal
must
be
below
that
of
the
PM
part
• Involves
hea4ng
the
filler
metal
in
contact
with
the
sintered
component
so
capillary
ac4on
draws
the
filler
into
the
pores
• The
resul4ng
structure
is
rela4vely
nonporous,
and
the
infiltrated
part
has
a
more
uniform
density,
as
well
as
improved
toughness
and
strength.
• Suitable
for
non-‐soluble
systems
such
as
W-‐Cu.
Miscibility
of
one
metal
in
the
other
causes
increasing
of
viscosity
of
the
infiltrated
liquid,
lowering
of
the
capillary
forces
and
hence
short
infiltra4on
distances.
• Infiltra4on
and
liquid
phase
sintering
are
the
only
processes
available
when
producing
parts
with
high
mel4ng
point
materials
for
example
W
par4cles
embedded
in
copper,
or
diamond
bearing
cuxng
tools.
Hi-‐Tech
Applica0ons
of
P/M
Cermet
cuxng
inserts
for
lathe
Electrical
Contacts
Sliding
Electrical
Contacts
Very
Hard
Magnets
Very
Soc
Magnets
An4-‐fric4on
products
Fric4on
products
Filters
Refractory
Material
Products
www.kyocera-yashica.com.br
Microstructure:
ceramic
par4cles
in
metal
matrix
Hard
and
Wear
Resistant
Tools
Ferrous
&
Non-‐ferrous
Structural
parts
etc
.
.
www.moldmakingtechnology.com
Processing
of
Ceramics
Processing
ceramics
Crushing
or
grinding
the
raw
materials
in
to
very
fine
par4cles
Mixing
with
addi4ves
(binder:
to
hold
the
par4cles
together,
lubricant:
to
reduce
fric4on,
wexng
agent:
to
improve
mixing
process,
plas4cizer:
to
improve
ease
of
forming
mixture,
agents:
control
of
foaming
and
sintering,
deflocculent:
to
create
an
uniform
mixture
by
applying
like
charges
to
all
par4cles,
causing
them
to
repel
each
other.
Shaping,
drying
,
and
firing
the
material
Crushing
(a.k.a.
comminu4on
or
milling)
Crushing
is
typically
done
in
a
ball
mill,
in
either
wet
or
dry
condi4ons.
Wet
milling
is
preferred
because
it
strengthens
par4cle
bonds
and
limits
dust.
For
correct
sizing,
the
crushed
par4cles
are
passed
through
a
sieve.
Mixing
Par4cles
are
then
mixed
with
one
of
the
addi4ves
listed
and
described
on
the
previous
slide.
Advanced
Ceramics:
Materials
Advanced
Ceramics:
Materials
for
for
Automobile
Engines
Ceramic
Armor
Advantages:
Operate
at
high
temperatures
–
high
Components:
efficiencies
-‐-‐
Outer
facing
plates
Low
fric4onal
losses
-‐-‐
Backing
sheet
Operate
without
a
cooling
system
Proper4es/Materials:
Lower
weights
than
current
engines
-‐-‐
Facing
plates
-‐-‐
hard
and
briIle
—
fracture
high-‐velocity
projec4le
Disadvantages:
—
Al2O3,
B4C,
SiC,
TiB2
– Ceramic
materials
are
briIle
-‐-‐
Backing
sheets
-‐-‐
soc
and
duc4le
– Difficult
to
remove
internal
—
deform
and
absorb
remaining
energy
voids
(that
weaken
structures)
—
aluminum,
synthe4c
fiber
laminates
– Ceramic
parts
are
difficult
to
form
and
machine
Par0culate
Forming
Slip
Cas0ng
(Drain
Cas0ng)
-‐
The
crushed
par4cles
are
first
mixed
with
water,
then
they
are
poured
into
a
mold.
Pouring
must
be
done
properly
to
avoid
air
pockets.
When
some
of
the
water
has
been
absorbed,
the
remainder
of
the
mixture
is
poured
out
of
the
top
of
the
mold.
The
top
of
the
part
can
then
be
trimmed.
Advantages
-‐
inexpensive
components
Disadvantages
-‐
limited
control
of
dimensions
&
low
produc4on
rate
Sequence of operations in slip-casting a ceramic part. After the slip has been poured, the part is dried and fired in
an oven to give it strength and hardness.
Solid
cas0ng
The
star4ng
mixture
must
have
a
plas4c
consistency,
with
15%
Plas0c
Forming
to
25%
water.
Plas4c
Forming
Methods:
Hand
modeling
(manual
method)
Jiggering
(mechanized
method)
Pressing
Isosta4c
pressing
Extrusion
Jiggering
Similar
to
poIer's
wheel
methods,
but
hand
throwing
is
replaced
by
mechanized
techniques.
Powder
Pressing:
It
is
used
for
both
clay
and
non-‐clay
composi4ons.
•
Powder
(plus
binder)
compacted
by
pressure
in
a
mold
-‐-‐
Uniaxial
compression
-‐
compacted
in
single
direc4on
-‐-‐
Isosta4c
(hydrosta4c)
compression
-‐
pressure
applied
by
fluid
-‐
powder
in
rubber
envelope
-‐-‐
Hot
pressing
-‐
pressure
+
heat
(
decreased
porosity)
Sintering
occurs
during
firing
of
a
piece
that
has
been
powder
pressed
-‐-‐
powder
par4cles
coalesce
and
reduc4on
of
pore
size
Tape
Cas0ng
Doctor-‐Blade
Process-‐
Used
to
produce
ceramic
sheets
thinner
than
1.5mm.
Ceramic
mixture
is
forced
under
a
blade
to
create
a
film,
which
is
then
dried
in
a
drying
chamber
(usually
aIached
to
the
same
machine).
Thin
sheets
of
green
ceramic
cast
as
flexible
tape
Used
for
integrated
circuits
and
capacitors
Slip
=
suspended
ceramic
par4cles
+
organic
liquid
(contains
binders,
plas4cizers)
Extrusion-‐
Ceramic
par4cles
mixed
into
a
solu4on
with
20-‐30%
water.
Then
mixture
is
pushed
through
a
small
die
opening
by
a
“screw-‐type
piece
of
equipment.”
Advantages-‐
low
cost,
high
produc4on
Disadvantages-‐
wall
thickness
limited
Forming
and
Shaping
of
Glass
Glass
is
one
of
three
basic
types
of
ceramics
(tradi4onal,
modern
and
glasses).
Glass
is
dis4nguished
by
its
amorphous
(noncrystalline)
structure.
Structure
:
Network
formers
Molecules
that
link
up
with
each
other
to
form
long
chains
and
networks.
Hot
glass
cools,
chains
unable
to
organize
into
a
paIern.
Solidifica4on
has
short-‐range
order
only.
Raw
Materials:
Glass
forming
oxides:
usually
the
dominant
cons4tuent
(SiO2,
B2O3,
P2O5,
etc.).
Fluxes:
reduce
mel4ng
temperatures
(Na2O,
PbO,
K2O,
Li2O,
etc).
Property
modifiers:
added
to
tailor
chemical
durability,
expansion,
viscosity,
etc.
(CaO,
Al2O3,
etc.).
Colorants:
oxides
with
3d,
4f
electron
structures;
minor
addi4ves
(<1
wt%).
Fining
agents:
minor
addi4ves
(<1
wt%)
to
help
promote
bubble
removal
(As-‐,
Sb-‐oxides,
KNO3,
NaNO3,
NaCl,
fluorides,
sulfates)
Shaping
processes
to
fabricate
these
products
can
be
grouped
into
three
categories:
1. Discrete
processes
for
piece
ware
(boIles,
jars,
plates,
light
bulbs)
2. Con4nuous
processes
for
making
flat
glass
(sheet
and
plate
glass)
and
tubing
(laboratory
ware,
fluorescent
lights)
3. Fiber-‐making
processes
to
produce
fibers
(for
insula4on
and
fiber
op4cs)
Piece
Ware
Shaping
Processes
Spinning
–
similar
to
centrifugal
cas4ng
of
metals
Pressing
–
for
mass
produc4on
of
flat
products
such
as
dishes,
bake
ware,
and
TV
tube
faceplates
Press-‐and-‐blow
–
for
produc4on
of
wide-‐
mouth
containers
such
as
jars
Blow-‐and-‐blow
-‐
for
produc4on
of
smaller-‐mouth
containers
such
as
beverage
boIles
and
incandescent
light
bulbs
Cas4ng
–
for
large
items
such
as
large
astronomical
lenses
that
must
cool
very
slowly
to
avoid
cracking.
Molten
Glass
-‐
Gob
Shaping
of
Flat
and
Tubular
Glass
Processes
for
producing
flat
glass
such
as
sheet
and
plate
glass:
Rolling
of
Flat
Plate
Star4ng
glass
from
mel4ng
f u r n a c e
i s
s q u e e z e d
through
opposing
rolls
whose
gap
determines
sheet
thickness,
followed
by
grinding
and
polishing
f o r
p a r a l l e l i s m
a n d
smoothness
Float
Process
Molten
glass
flows
onto
the
surface
of
a
molten
4n
bath,
where
it
spreads
evenly
across
the
surface,
a c h i e v i n g
a
u n i f o r m
thickness
and
smoothness
-‐
no
grinding
or
polishing
is
needed.
Danner
Process
Molten
glass
flows
around
a
rota4ng
hollow
mandrel
through
which
air
is
blown
while
the
glass
is
drawn.
Forming
of
Glass
Glass
fiber
products
can
be
divided
into
two
categories,
with
different
produc4on
methods
for
each:
Fibers
1.
Fibrous
glass
for
thermal
insula4on,
acous4cal
insula4on,
and
air
filtra4on,
in
which
the
fibers
are
in
a
random,
wool-‐like
condi4on.
Centrifugal
spraying
2.
Long
con4nuous
filaments
suitable
for
fiber
reinforced
plas4cs,
yarns,
fabrics,
and
fiber
op4cs.
Drawing