Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Tunnel 2019
Tunnel 2019
Tunnel 2019
November 2018
Indian Railways Institute of Civil Engineering,
Pune 411001
FOREWORD
Ajay Goyal
November, 2018 Director
IRICEN, Pune.
director@iricen.gov.in
PREFACE
Chapter-2
Engineering Properties of Rocks 15
1. Determination of Rock Properties 15
1.1 Direct Methods 15
1.2 Indirect Methods 16
2. Test Methods 16
2.1 Laboratory Tests 16
2.2 In-situ Tests 17
3. Lab Test Samples 17
4. Strength and Deformation Tests 18
4.1 Uniaxial Compressive Strength Test 18
4.2 Tri-axial Compression Test 19
4.3 Young’s Modulus and Poisson’s Ratio 21
4.4 Brazilian Tensile Strength Test 21
4.5 Shear Strength 23
4.6 Point Load Index Test 25
5. Physical and Engineering Properties Tests 27
5.1 Density, Porosity and Water Content 27
5.2 Hardness 28
5.3 Abrasivity 28
5.4 Permeability 29
5.5 Wave Velocity 30
6. Failure Criteria of Rock Material 31
6.1 Mohr-Coulomb Criterion 31
6.2 Hoek-Brown Criterion 33
Chapter-3
Rock Mass Classification Systems 37
1. Rock Quality Designation (RQD) 39
2. Terzaghi’s Rock Mass Classification 41
3. Rock Mass Rating (RMR) 43
4. Rock Mass Quality (Q) 44
5. Geological Strength Index (GSI) 47
6. Tunnelman’s Ground Classification for Soils 49
7. Examples of estimating RMR, Q and GSI 52
7.1 Example – 1 52
7.2 Example – 2 53
7.3 Example – 3 55
7.4 Comparison of rock Class/Quality 56
8. Correlation between RMR, Q & GSI 56
9. Squeezing behaviour of rock mass 57
10. Empirical relations for rock mass strengths 58
10.1 Compressive Strength of Rock Mass 59
10.2 Tensile Strength of Rock Mass 59
Appendix-3.1: Assessment of RMR value 60
Appendix-3.2: Assessment of Q values 63
Chapter-4
Geotechnical Investigations 69
1. Phases of Geotechnical Investigation
Program 69
1.1 Preliminary Geotechnical
investigations for Feasibility Studies 69
(A) Collection, organization & study
of available data 69
(B) Preliminary Survey 70
(C) Conducting investigations to
compare alternative alignments
and for arriving at a conceptual
preliminary design 71
1.2 Preconstruction Planning and
Engineering Phase 74
(A) Topographical Survey 74
(B) Subsurface Investigations 75
(C) Detailed Geological Mapping 82
(D) Groundwater investigation 83
(E) Structure & Utility
pre-construction survey 85
1.3 Geo-technical Investigations during
Construction phase 85
Tunnel Seismic Prediction 87
2. Assessing exploration requirements 89
3. Geotechnical investigation Program 91
Chapter-5
Tunnel Surveying 93
1. Type of Surveys 93
1.1 Preliminary Surveys 93
1.1.1 Equipment and Techniques 94
1.2 Utility Surveys 95
1.2.1 Equipment and Techniques 95
1.3 Preliminary Survey Network 96
1.3.1 Survey Control 97
2. Surveying steps in alignment control 98
3. Recommendations for framing contract 99
Chapter-6
Choice of Tunnel System, Alignment and
Shape/Size of Cross-section 101
1. Choice of Tunnel System 101
1.1 Escape Distances 101
1.2 Lateral Exits/Access 102
1.3 Parallel Service & Safety Tunnel 103
2. Choice of Alignment 104
3. Shape and Dimensions of the
Cross-section 105
3.1 Serviceability requirements 105
3.2 Geological/geotechnical conditions 106
3.3 Construction aspects 106
4. Shape of Railway Tunnels 107
4.1 D Shaped 107
4.2 Horseshoe Shaped 108
4.3 Elliptical/Circular Shape 109
Chapter-7
Tunnel Design and Tunnel Supports 111
1. Concept of Stabilization of a Cavity 111
2. Properties of Supports 114
2.1 Stiffness 114
2.2 Bond 96 115
2.3 Time of installation 115
3. Type of Tunnel Supports 115
3.1 Steel ribs/Steel sets 115
3.2 Lattice Girders 117
3.3 Rock Bolts 117
3.3.1 Reinforcement by Rock Bolts 124
3.3.2 Rock bolting pattern 129
3.3.3 Floor Bolting 130
3.4 Concrete Lining 130
3.4.1 Cast in-situ Concrete Lining 131
3.4.2 Precast Segmental Lining 134
3.5 Shotcrete 137
3.5.1 Initial Shotcrete Lining 140
3.5.2 Final Shotcrete Lining 142
4. Design of tunnel lining 144
5. Need for Design Consultant 144
6. Initial and Final Support System 144
Chapter-8
Empirical Methods of Tunnel Support
Design 145
1. Terzaghi’s Rock Load factors 145
2. Modified Terzaghi’s Theory 147
3. Support based on Rock Quality
Designation 149
4. Supports based on RMR Classification 151
5. Standup time v/s Unsupported span 153
6. Supports based on Q system 154
7. Elements of commonly used Excavation
and Support Classes (ESC) in Rock and
Soft ground 158
8. Example of estimating support
requirement 158
9. Limitations of Empirical Approach 161
Appendix-8.1 Elements of commonly used
ESC in Rock 162
Appendix-8.2 Elements of commonly
used ESC in Soft Ground 165
Chapter–9
Analytical and Numerical Methods of
Tunnel Support Design 169
1. Analytical Methods 169
1.1 Examine Software 169
1.2 RocSupport Software 169
2. Numerical Methods 170
Chapter–10
Tunnel Excavation Methods 173
1. Selection of Tunnel Excavation Method 173
2. Excavation Methods for Rock Tunnels 173
3. Drill and Blast Method 173
3.1 Drilling 175
(i) Wedge Cut or “V” Cut Drilling 176
(ii) Cone/ Pyramid/ Diamond Cut 176
(iii) Burn (Parallel) Cut Holes 176
3.2 Loading 177
3.2.1 Choice of Explosives 177
3.2.2 Requirement of Explosives 178
3.3 Blasting 179
3.3.1 Choice of Initiation System &
Selection of Delay Sequence 179
3.3.2 Controlled Blasting 179
3.3.3 Air Column Method 180
3.3.4 Efficiency of Blasting 180
3.4 Ventilation (De-fuming) 180
3.5 Mucking (removing rubble) 181
3.6 Scaling (Dislodging) 181
3.7 Supporting (Securing) 181
3.8 Geological Mapping 182
4. Full Face v/s Partial Face Excavation 182
4.1 Full-Face Excavation 182
4.2 Partial Face Excavation 182
5. Excavation by Road header 185
6. Mechanized Tunnelling 187
7. Tunnelling Shields 188
8. Tunnel Boring Machine 189
9. Stages of TBM Construction 191
10. Types of TBM 192
10.1 Hard Rock TBMs 192
(I) Gripper TBM 194
(II) Shielded TBM 195
10.2 Soft Ground TBMs 196
(I) Mechanical Support TBM 197
(II) Compressed Air TBM 197
(III) Slurry Shield TBM 197
(IV) Earth Pressure Balance TBM 199
10.3 Special purpose TBMs 200
11. Back-up systems for TBM 200
12. Selection of TBM 200
13. Excavation Methods for Soft Ground Tunnels 201
13.1 Multiple Drift Method 201
13.2 Excavation by Tunnel Shields 201
14. Stipulation about machinery in contract 201
Chapter–11
Tunnelling Methods/Philosophies 203
1. Conventional Tunnelling 203
2. Ground (Rock) Support Interaction 204
2.1 Ground Reaction Curve (GRC)
and Support Reaction Curve (SRC) 205
3. Observation Method of Tunnelling 210
4. New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM) 212
4.1 Definition of NATM 212
4.2 Principles of NATM 213
4.3 Construction Sequence 214
4.4 Limitations of NATM 214
4.5 Pre-requisites for NATM 215
4.6 Advantages of NATM 215
5. Norwegian Method of Tunnelling (NMT) 215
6. ADECO-RS Method of Tunnelling 216
6.1 Important Components in Tunnelling 216
6.2 Deformation Response of the
Medium 217
6.3 Some Terms used in this
Methodology 219
6.4 Experimental and Theoretical
Research 220
6.5 Type on Interventions 221
6.5.1 Protective Interventions 221
6.5.2 Reinforcement Interventions 222
6.6 Behaviour Categories of Core Face 223
(A) “Category-A” – Stable Core
Face 223
(B) “Category-B” – Stable Core
Face in Short Term 224
(C) “Category-C” – Unstable Core
Face 224
6.7 Stages of ADECO-RS Approach 225
(A) Design Stage 225
(B) Construction Stage 226
6.8 Tunnelling with ADECO-RS Approach 227
6.9 Difference between NATM and
ADECO-RS 227
6.10 Case History with ADECO-RS Method 228
Chapter–12
Instrumentation and Monitoring of
Tunnels 231
1. Need for Geotechnical Instrumentation 231
2. Purpose of Instrumentation and
Monitoring 232
2.1 Design and Design Verification 232
2.2 Construction Control 232
2.3 Safety/Stability 232
2.4 Regulatory/Environmental
requirements 233
2.5 Performance Monitoring 233
2.6 Contractual Documentation 233
3. Items to consider in Instrumentation and
Monitoring Program 234
3.1 Project Conditions 234
3.2 Mechanisms that control behaviour 234
3.3 Purpose of Instrumentation 234
3.4 Parameters to be Monitored 234
3.5 Expected values of parameters
recorded 235
3.6 Instrument selection 235
3.7 Location for Installation 235
3.8 Threshold Values 235
3.9 Remedial action and Implementation 236
3.10 Factors affecting measurements 236
3.11 Ensuring Data Correctness 236
4. Instruments used 236
4.1 Surface Settlement 236
(A) Borehole Extensometer 237
(B) Multiple Point Borehole
Extensometer 237
4.2 Sub-surface Horizontal Movement 237
(A) Borehole Extensometer 238
(B) Inclinometer 238
4.3 Diameter or Width Change 240
(A) Tape Extensometer 240
(B) 3-D Optical Targets 242
4.4 Tilt 243
4.5 Load or Stress in structural Supports 243
(A) Load Cell 243
(B) Pressure Cell 243
(C) Measuring Anchors 245
(D) Shotcrete Strain Meter 245
4.6 Pore Water Pressure (Piezometer) 246
4.7 Groundwater Level (Water level
sounder) 246
4.8 Vibrations (Engineering Seismographs) 246
5. Monitoring Sections at Construction Stage 248
5.1 Standard Monitoring Section 248
5.2 Principal Monitoring sections 249
(A) Measurements 249
(B) Number of Instruments 249
(C) No. of Principal Monitoring
Sections 249
5.3 Surface Monitoring 250
6. Stages in Geotechnical Monitoring 250
7. Graphical Presentation of Monitoring Data 251
7.1 Time Displacement Diagram 251
7.2 Vector Diagram 251
7.3 Lines of Influence 252
7.4 Trend Lines 253
8. Control Limits in Observational Approach 254
8.1 Type of Control Limits 255
(A) Alert Level 255
(B) Alarm Level 255
(C) Action Level 255
8.2 Threshold Values for Control Limits 256
(A) Control Limits-Displacement
Velocity 256
(B) Control Limits-Differential
Settlement 257
(C) Control Limits-Trend Lines 257
(D) Control Limits-Shotcrete Strain 258
9. Ignoring Instrumented Data 258
10. Contract Document 260
Chapter–13
Drainage and Water Proofing in Tunnels 261
1. Stages of providing Drainage 261
1.1 Pre-drainage 261
(A) Diverting water channels 261
(B) Ground Water Pumping 262
(C) Grouting 262
(D) Ground Freezing 262
1.2 Drainage during Construction 263
(A) Construction of Cutoff Walls 263
(B) Use of Plastic Gutter,
Channels Pipes 264
(C) Drainage or Dimpled Mats 264
(D) Dewatering Pumps 265
(E) Drainage Boreholes before
Tunnel Advance 266
(F) Drainage Boreholes after
Tunnel Advance 266
1.3 Permanent Drainage System 268
2. Extent of Waterproofing 268
2.1 Watertight/Waterproof Tunnel 268
2.2 Partially Drained Tunnel 269
2.3 Fully Drained Tunnel 270
3. Requirements of Watertightness in Tunnels 271
4. Waterproofing Systems 273
4.1 Rigid Systems 273
4.2 Flexible Systems 273
(A) Bitumen Waterproofing Layer 273
(B) Use of Geo-synthetics 274
(C) Sprayed Waterproofing Layer 275
Chapter–14
Tunnelling in Weak/Soft Grounds 277
1. Conventional Methods 277
1.1 Belgian Method 277
1.2 German Method 278
1.3 English Method 279
1.4 Austrian Method 279
2. Ground Improvement 279
3. Drainage 281
4. Grouting 281
4.1 Location for Grouting 282
4.2 Groutability of Ground 282
4.3 Types of Grouting 283
4.4 Grouting Material 284
5. Ground Freezing 285
5.1 Refrigeration Process 285
5.2 Ground Freezing Techniques 286
6. Face Consolidation 286
7. Advance Supporting or Pre-supporting 287
7.1 Mechanical Pre-cutting 287
7.2 Spiles 288
7.3 Umbrella Arch 289
8. DRESS Method 290
9. Tunneling in Swelling Grounds 294
10. Tunnelling in Squeezing Grounds 297
11. Comparison between Squeezing &
Swelling 301
12. Tunnelling in Seismic Areas 301
Chapter–15
Problems and Hazards in Tunnelling 305
1. Rock Burst 305
2. Chimney Formation or Daylighting 307
3. Face Collapse 308
4. Water Ingress 309
5. Portal Collapse 312
6. Toxic Gases and Geothermal Gradient 312
7. Timely Decision 313
8. Failure Analysis 314
Chapter–16
Safety Aspects in Tunnel Construction 315
1. Applicable Regulations 315
2. Risk Assessment 315
3. Project Safety Plan (PSP) 315
4. General Safety Measures 316
4.1 Basic Philosophy 316
4.2 Personal Protective Equipment 316
4.3 Access Control System 317
4.4 Signage 317
4.5 Safety Management and Training 319
4.6 Medical Facilities 320
4.7 Ventilation 321
4.8 Noise Protection 322
4.9 Lighting 323
4.10 Communication system 323
(A) Warning Signs and Notice
Boards 323
(B) Telephone System 324
(C) CCTV System 324
4.11 Fire Protection 324
4.12 Housekeeping 327
4.13 Working with Machinery &
Equipment 329
4.14 Insects, Leeches, Vermins and
Snakes 329
4.15 Emergency Management System 329
5. Safety Requirement for Various Activities 330
5.1 Drilling and Blasting 330
(A) Drilling Operations 330
(B) Blasting Operations 330
(C) Inspection after Blasting 332
(D) Misfires 332
(E) Scaling and Mucking 333
(F) Explosives Disposal 333
(G) Explosives Accountal 334
5.2 Installation of Supports 334
5.3 Structural Steel Erection 334
5.4 Scaffolds 334
5.5 Working Platforms 335
5.6 Concreting 335
(A) Mixing Plant 335
(B) Pumped Concrete 335
(C) Grouting and Shotcreting 335
5.7 Welding and Cutting 336
(A) General 336
(B) Oxy-acetylene Cutting and
Welding 336
(C) Gas Cylinders 336
(D) Hoses and Torches 336
(E) Electric Arc Welding and
Cutting 337
5.8 Paints 337
Chapter–17
Safety Aspects in Operation in Tunnels 339
1. General 339
2. Important Safety Aspects 340
2.1 Tunnel Ventilation 340
2.2 Effect of Movement of Train inside
Tunnels 340
(A) Air Quality Deterioration 340
(B) Thermal Environment Hazards 341
(C) Pressure Transient Hazards 341
2.3 Permissible Values of Pollutants 341
2.4 Types of Ventilation Systems 342
(A) Natural Ventilation 342
(B) Artificial Ventilation 342
2.5 Tunnel Illumination System 343
2.6 Design of Tunnel Lighting Systems 344
2.7 Normal Tunnel Lighting 344
2.8 Emergency Tunnel Lighting 344
2.9 Power Supply System 345
2.10 Cables 345
2.11 Leaky Feeder 346
2.12 Sensors inside Main and Escape
Tunnels 346
2.13 Safety Walkway near tunnel portal 346
3. Infrastructure Measures 346
3.1 Speed Monitoring/Signaling System 346
3.2 Train Radio 347
3.3 Train Detection 347
3.4 Train Control Equipment 348
3.5 Arrangement of Switches 348
3.6 Access Control 348
3.7 Double-bore Single-track Tunnels 349
3.8 Fire, Smoke and Gas detection
in tunnels 350
3.9 Fire Extinguishing System 350
3.10 Ventilation System 350
3.11 Escape Routes 352
3.12 Emergency Tunnel Lighting 352
3.13 Emergency Telephone/
Communication Means 353
3.14 Escape Distances 354
3.15 Vertical Exits/Access 354
3.16 Lateral Exits/Access 355
3.17 Cross Passages 355
3.18 Parallel Service and Safety Tunnel 356
3.19 Access to Tunnel Entrance and Exits 356
3.20 Rescue Areas at Tunnel Entrance or
Exit 357
3.21 Water Supply (as access, in tunnel) 358
3.22 Electrical Supply for Rescue Services 359
3.23 Radio Installation for Rescue Services 359
3.24 Control Systems 360
3.25 Tunnel Rescue Train 360
3.26 Road/Rail Vehicle for Rescue 361
4. Prevention of Fire on Rolling Stock 361
4.1 Fire Load and Prevent Fire Spreading 361
4.2 Onboard Fire detection 362
4.3 Onboard Fire Extinguishing Equipment 362
4.4 First-aid Equipment Onboard 363
4.5 Escape equipment & design of coaches 363
5. Operations Measures 363
5.1 Regulations for carriage of
Dangerous Goods 363
5.2 Emergency Information for
Passengers 364
5.3 Emergency and Rescue Plans 364
5.4 Information on carriage of
Dangerous Goods 364
5.5 Provision of Rescue Equipment 365
6. Additional Measures for Very Long Tunnels 365
6.1 Segmentation of Overhead Lines 365
7. Safety Measures for Existing Tunnel 366
8. Mock Drills 366
Chapter–18
Tunnel Portals 367
1. Need for Portal 367
2. Design of Portal 367
3. Construction of Portal 368
Chapter–19
Shafts 373
1. Need for Shafts 373
2. Location of Shafts 373
3. Shape of the Shaft 374
4. Design of Shaft 374
5. Collar 375
6. Area around Shaft 376
7. Shaft excavation in Soft Ground 376
8. Support Systems used for Shaft
Excavation 377
8.1 Timber Sheet Piling 377
8.2 Steel Sheet Piling 378
8.3 Soldier Piles and Lagging 380
8.4 Liner Plates 381
8.5 Horizontal Ribs and Vertical Lagging 383
8.6 Slurry Walls 384
8.7 NATM System 386
9. Shaft excavation in Soft and Wet Ground 386
9.1 Lowering of Groundwater 386
9.2 Open Pumping 387
9.3 Wellpoint System 387
9.4 Deep Wells 387
9.5 Freezing 388
10. Shaft excavation in Rock 388
10.1 Raises 389
10.2 Temporary Supports 389
11. Other Mechanized Methods 390
12. Lining of Shafts 390
Chapter–20
Inspection and Maintenance of Tunnels 393
1. Pre-requisites for Tunnel Inspection 393
1.1 Qualifications of Inspecting Officials 393
1.2 Equipment/Tools for Inspection 393
1.3 Advance Preparation 395
(A) Study of Tunnel Records 395
(B) Marking of Reference System 395
(C) Tunnel Inspection Record 395
(D) Inspection Methodology 396
(E) Ensuring Safety 396
2. Common Structural Defects 396
2.1 Concrete Structures 398
(1) Scaling 398
(2) Cracking 398
(3) Spalling 398
(4) Pop-outs 399
(5) Efflorescence 399
(6) Staining 399
(7) Hollow Area 400
(8) Honeycomb 400
(9) Leakage 400
2.2 Steel Structures 400
(1) Corrosion 400
(2) Cracks 401
(3) Buckles and kinks 401
(4) Leakage 401
(5) Protection System 401
2.3 Masonry Structures 402
(1) Masonry Units 402
(2) Mortar 402
(3) Shape 402
(4) Leakage 402
2.4 Connection Bolts 403
2.5 Shotcrete/SFRS 403
2.6 Rockbolts 403
3. Major Items to be inspected 404
3.1 Portal (including cuttings at
approaches) 404
3.2 Section of tunnel in relation to
moving dimensions 404
3.3 Tunnel Roof, Walls and Invert 405
3.4 Tunnel Refuges and Walkway 405
3.5 Drainage 405
3.6 Track 405
3.7 Ventilation, Lighting, Telephone
Communication, Firefighting
preparedness and Electrical/
Mechanical Systems 405
4. Inspection Documentation 406
4.1 Recording of Defects 406
4.2 Condition Rating System 407
4.3 Repair Priority Classifications 408
4.4 Specialized Testing Reports 409
4.5 Tunnel Inspection Report 409
5. Role/Duties of Inspecting Officials 410
5.1 Inspection by SSE/P.Way or
SSE/Works 410
5.2 Inspection by ADEN 411
5.3 Inspection by Divisional/Sr.
Divisional Engineer 411
5.4 Special Inspection 412
6. Maintenance and Repair of Tunnels 413
6.1 Portal and Approach Cuttings 413
(A) Surface Drainage 413
(B) Catch Water Drain 413
(C) Removal of loose boulders etc. 413
(D) Structural Repairs 414
(E) Access Road 414
(F) Weep Holes 414
6.2 Inside Tunnel 414
6.3 Systematic Approach for Repairs 415
Appendix 20.01: Tunnel Inspection
Register 416
Appendix 20.02: Tunnel Inspection
Register 419
Appendix 20.03: Supplementary Tunnel
Information Register 422
Chapter–21
Metro Tunnels 425
1. Metro Tunnels Excavation 425
2. Pre-cast Lining 427
3. Building Condition Survey and
Vibration Limit 428
4. Impact on the Structures 428
5. Subsidence 429
6. Portal and Cut Slopes 430
Appendix 21.1: Building Damage
Classification 432
Chapter–22
Miscellaneous 435
1. Ballastless Track in Tunnels 435
1.1 Ballasted Track Structure 435
1.2 Ballastless Track Structure 437
1.3 Ballastless Track Systems 438
2. Cut and Cover Tunnelling 438
2.1 Bottom-Up Construction 440
2.2 Top-Down Construction 443
3. Micro-tunnelling 446
3.1 Guidance System 448
3.2 Control Container 449
3.3 Remote Hydraulic Power pack 449
3.4 Main Drive Power Container 450
3.5 Procedure of Micro-tunnelling 450
3.6 Utility in Railways 450
4. Provision of OHE 451
INDEX 452
CHAPTER-1
ROCK MATERIAL AND ROCK MASS
1
Chapter-1
2
ROCK MATERIAL AND ROCK MASS
3
Chapter-1
4
ROCK MATERIAL AND ROCK MASS
5
Chapter-1
6
ROCK MATERIAL AND ROCK MASS
7
Chapter-1
8
ROCK MATERIAL AND ROCK MASS
9
Chapter-1
10
ROCK MATERIAL AND ROCK MASS
11
Chapter-1
12
13
ROCK MATERIAL AND ROCK MASS
14
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
CHAPTER-2
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF
ROCKS
15
Chapter-2
16
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
17
Chapter-2
18
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
19
Chapter-2
20
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
21
Chapter-2
T0 = 2*P / π *D*L
Where:
“P” is the applied load, “D” is the core diameter
and “L” the core thickness (length of specimen)
22
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
23
Chapter-2
24
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
Where,
“P” is Breaking Load in KN and “D” is distance
between platens in mm.
Point Load Index can be correlated to Strengths
by various empirical formulas, as given below,
and it can be used as an independent strength
index also.
25
Chapter-2
26
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
27
Chapter-2
28
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
Q = A * k * (h1- h2) / L
29
Chapter-2
30
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
Where:
ρ = Density of material
νs = S Wave velocity in the material
νs = P Wave velocity in the material
The modulus values arrived at by using the above
equations is slightly higher than the modulus
determined from static tests.
6. Failure Criteria of Rock Material: There are two
failure criteria normally used for rock material.
6.1 Mohr-Coulomb Criterion is a mathematical
model describing the response of brittle materials
to shear stress as well as normal stress (Fig.
31
Chapter-2
σ n = ½ ( σ 1 + σ 3) + ½ ( σ 1 - σ 3) cos2
= ½ ( σ 1 - σ 3) sin2
= ¼ +½ Ø
Where: σn = Normal Stress on the failure plane
= Shear Stress on the failure plane
σ1 = Major Principal Stress
σ3 = Minor Principal Stress
θ = Inclination of the failure plane
Shear strength is made up of two parts, a constant
Cohesion (c) and a normal stress dependent Angle
of Internal Friction (Ø):
ζ = c + σ n tanØ
Actual tensile strength of rock material is lower
than the criterion. A tensile cut-off is usually
32
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
33
Chapter-2
34
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
35
Table 2.04: Typical values of mb and s
36
Chapter-2
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
CHAPTER-3
37
Chapter-3
38
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
39
Chapter-3
40
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
41
Chapter-3
42
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
43
Chapter-3
RQD J r J w
Q
J n J a SRF
44
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
Where:
RQD = Rock Quality Designation 10
= 115 – 3.3 JV 100
Jn = Joint Set Number
Jr = Joint Roughness Number for critically
oriented joint set
Ja = Joint Alteration Number for critically
oriented
joint set
Jw = Joint Water Reduction Factor
SRF = Stress Reduction Factor to consider
in-situstresses
Jv = Joint Volume Count
Numerical ratings are assigned to above six parameters,
based on rock conditions. The ratings do not include
joint orientation to make the classification more general
and orientation of joints/discontinuities is considered
by taking lowest value of second quotient for computing
Q for Most unfavourable joint.
The parameter Jn, representing the number of joint sets,
is often affected by foliations, schistocity, slaty cleavages
or beddings etc. If strongly developed, these parallel
discontinuities should be counted as a complete joint
set. If there are few joints visible or only occasional
breaks in rock core due to these features, then one
should count them as “a random joint set” while
evaluating Jn.
The parameters Jr and Ja, represent roughness and
degree of alteration of joint walls or filling materials.
These parameters should be obtained for the weakest
critical joint set or clay-filled discontinuity in a given
zone. If the joint set or the discontinuity with the
minimum value of (Jr/Ja) is favorably oriented for
stability, then a second less favorably oriented joint set
or discontinuity may be of greater significance, and its
value (Jr / Ja) should be used when evaluating Q.
45
Chapter-3
46
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
47
Chapter-3
48
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
RQD J r
GSI 9 log 44
n J a
J
GSI can be used to describe rock quality as given in
Table 3.06
Table 3.06: GSI and Rock Mass Quality
GSI Value 76-95 56-75 41-55 21-40 <20
Rock Mass Very Very
Quality good Good Fair Poor poor
49
Chapter-3
50
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
51
Chapter-3
52
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
7.2 Example - 2
(A) Input values
• A sandstone rock mass,
• Fractured by 2 joint sets plus random
fractures,
• Average RQD is 70%,
• Average joint spacing is 0.11m,
• Joint surfaces are slightly rough, highly
weathered with stains but no clay found on
surface,
• Joints are generally in contact with
apertures generally less than 1mm,
• Average rock material uniaxial compressive
strength is 85 MPa,
• Tunnel is to be excavated at 80m below
ground level, and
• The groundwater table is 10m below the
ground surface.
53
Chapter-3
54
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
7.3 Example - 3
(A) Input values
• A highly fractured siltstone rock mass,
• Has 2 joint sets and many random fractures
• Average RQD is 41%,
• Average joint spacing 5cm,
• Joints appears continuous,
• Joint surfaces are slickensided & undulating,
and are highly weathered,
• Joints are separated by about 3-5mm,
• Filled with clay,
• Average rock material uniaxial compressive
strength is 65MPa,
• Inflow per 10m tunnel length is approximately
50 litre/minute, with considerable outwash of
joint fillings, and
• Tunnel is at 220m below ground.
55
Chapter-3
56
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
RMR = 9 ln Q + (44+18)
RMR = 13.5 log Q + 43
GSI = RMR – 5 (for GSI > 25)
9. Squeezing behaviour of Rock Mass: Squeezing
is time dependent large deformation, which occurs
around an opening, and is essentially associated with
creep caused by stress exceeding shear strength. The
degree of squeezing is classified as under:
(i) Mild squeezing: Closure 1-3% of opening D
(ii) Moderate squeezing: Closure 3-5% of D
(iii) High squeezing: Closure > 5% of D
57
Chapter-3
58
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
σ tm = 0.5 σ c [mb - m 2b 4s ]
Where: mb & s are material constants.
59
Chapter-3
60
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
61
Chapter-3
62
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
63
Chapter-3
64
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
65
Chapter-3
66
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
67
Chapter-3
68
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
CHAPTER-4
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
69
Chapter-4
70
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
71
Chapter-4
72
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
73
Chapter-4
74
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
75
Chapter-4
76
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
77
Chapter-4
78
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
79
Chapter-4
80
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
81
Chapter-4
Table 4.06
82
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
• Discontinuity persistence
• Weathering
In addition, following surface features should also
be observed and documented during the geologic
mapping program:
• Slides, new or old, particularly in proposed portal
and shaft areas
• Faults
• Rock weathering
• Sinkholes and karstic terrain
• Groundwater springs
83
Chapter-4
regime, aquifers, and sources of water, any perched
or artesian conditions, depth to groundwater, and
the permeability of the various materials that may
be encountered during tunneling.
Related considerations include the potential impact
of groundwater lowering on settlement of overlying
and nearby structures, utilities and other facilities;
other influences of dewatering on existing structures;
pumping volumes during construction; the potential
impact on water supply aquifers; and seepage into
the completed tunnel etc.
Groundwater investigations typically include most
or all of the following elements:
• Observation of groundwater levels in boreholes
• Assessment of soil moisture changes in the
boreholes
• Installation of groundwater observation wells and
piezometers
• Borehole permeability tests
• Pumping tests
During subsurface investigation i.e. drilling and
coring, it is particularly important to note and
document any groundwater related observations
made during drilling or during interruptions to the
work when the borehole has been left undisturbed.
Even seemingly minor observations may have an
important influence on tunnel design and ground
behavior during construction.
Observation wells and piezometers should be
monitored periodically over a prolonged period of
time to provide information on seasonal variations
i n grou n dwat er l evel s. Moni t ori n g du rin g
construction provides important information on the
influence of tunneling on groundwater levels,
forming an essential component of construction
control and any protection program for existing
structures and facilities.
84
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
85
Chapter-4
86
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
87
Chapter-4
88
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
89
Chapter-4
90
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
91
Chapter-4
92
TUNNEL SURVEYING
CHAPTER-5
TUNNEL SURVEYING
93
Chapter-5
94
TUNNEL SURVEYING
95
Chapter-5
96
TUNNEL SURVEYING
97
Chapter-5
98
TUNNEL SURVEYING
99
Chapter-5
100
CHOICE OF TUNNEL SYSTEM, ALIGNMENT AND SHAPE/SIZE OF CROSS-SECTION
CHAPTER-6
101
Chapter-6
102
CHOICE OF TUNNEL SYSTEM, ALIGNMENT AND SHAPE/SIZE OF CROSS-SECTION
103
Chapter-6
104
CHOICE OF TUNNEL SYSTEM, ALIGNMENT AND SHAPE/SIZE OF CROSS-SECTION
105
Chapter-6
106
CHOICE OF TUNNEL SYSTEM, ALIGNMENT AND SHAPE/SIZE OF CROSS-SECTION
107
Chapter-6
108
CHOICE OF TUNNEL SYSTEM, ALIGNMENT AND SHAPE/SIZE OF CROSS-SECTION
109
Chapter-6
110
TUNNEL DESIGN AND TUNNEL SUPPORTS
CHAPTER-7
111
Chapter-7
112
TUNNEL DESIGN AND TUNNEL SUPPORTS
113
Chapter-7
Table: 7.01
114
TUNNEL DESIGN AND TUNNEL SUPPORTS
115
Chapter-7
116
TUNNEL DESIGN AND TUNNEL SUPPORTS
117
Chapter-7
118
TUNNEL DESIGN AND TUNNEL SUPPORTS
119
Chapter-7
120
TUNNEL DESIGN AND TUNNEL SUPPORTS
121
Chapter-7
122
TUNNEL DESIGN AND TUNNEL SUPPORTS
123
Chapter-7
124
TUNNEL DESIGN AND TUNNEL SUPPORTS
125
Chapter-7
126
TUNNEL DESIGN AND TUNNEL SUPPORTS
127
Chapter-7
128
TUNNEL DESIGN AND TUNNEL SUPPORTS
129
Chapter-7
130
TUNNEL DESIGN AND TUNNEL SUPPORTS
131
Chapter-7
132
TUNNEL DESIGN AND TUNNEL SUPPORTS
133
Chapter-7
134
TUNNEL DESIGN AND TUNNEL SUPPORTS
135
Chapter-7
136
TUNNEL DESIGN AND TUNNEL SUPPORTS
137
Chapter-7
138
TUNNEL DESIGN AND TUNNEL SUPPORTS
139
Chapter-7
140
TUNNEL DESIGN AND TUNNEL SUPPORTS
141
Chapter-7
142
TUNNEL DESIGN AND TUNNEL SUPPORTS
143
Chapter-7
144
EMPIRICAL METHODS OF TUNNEL SUPPORT DESIGN
CHAPTER-8
C = B + Ht
Fig. 8.01: Terzaghi’s Rock Load Factor
145
Chapter-8
Terzaghi stipulated Rock Load Factor (Hp) based on
tunnel width (B) and tunnel height (Ht) for each of the
nine rock mass classes defined by Terzaghi (Ref.: Para-
2 and Table-3.02 in Chapter-3) as given in Table 8.01
below:
146
EMPIRICAL METHODS OF TUNNEL SUPPORT DESIGN
147
Chapter-8
Notations:
pv = Vertical support pressure, ph = Horizontal
support pressure,
ua = Radial tunnel closure, a = B/2,
148
EMPIRICAL METHODS OF TUNNEL SUPPORT DESIGN
149
Chapter-8
150
EMPIRICAL METHODS OF TUNNEL SUPPORT DESIGN
Notes:
1 In good and excellent rock, the support
requirement will be, in general, minimal but
will be dependent upon joint geometry,
tunnel diameter and relative orientations of
joints & tunnel.
2 Lagging requirements will usually be zero in
excellent and will range from up to 25
percent in good rock to 100 percent in very
poor rock.
3 Mesh requirements usually will be zero in
excellent rock and will range from occasional
mesh (or strip) in good rock to 100 percent
mesh in very poor rock.
4 B = tunnel width.
TBM: Tunnel Boring Machine
D&B: Drilling and Blasting
151
Chapter-8
152
EMPIRICAL METHODS OF TUNNEL SUPPORT DESIGN
Note:
(i) The recommendations are applicable only to
tunnels excavated with conventional drilling and
blasting method.
(ii) The support measures recommended above
are permanent and not temporary or primary
supports.
(iii) Double accounting for a parameter should
not be done in the analysis of rock structures and
in estimating the rating of a rock mass. For
example, if pore water pressure is being
considered in the analysis of rock structures, it
should not be accounted for in RMR. Similarly, if
orientation of joint sets is considered in stability
analysis of rock slopes, the same should not be
accounted for in RMR.
5. Standup time v/s Unsupported span: For with
arched roof, Bieniawski (1989) gave correlation between
standup time and unsupported span, for various RMR
values (Fig. 8.02).
153
Chapter-8
Note:
(i) There should not be unnecessarily delay in
supporting the roof in case of a rock mass
with high standup time as this may lead to
deterioration in the rock mass which
ultimately reduces the standup time.
(ii) Standup time improves by one class of RMR
value in case of excavations by TBM (Lauffer,
1988).
(iii) RMR system is found to be unreliable in very
poor rock masses. Care should therefore be
exercised to apply the RMR system in such
rock mass. Q system is more reliable for
tunnelling in the weak rock masses.
154
EMPIRICAL METHODS OF TUNNEL SUPPORT DESIGN
155
Chapter-8
156
EMPIRICAL METHODS OF TUNNEL SUPPORT DESIGN
L = 2 + (0.15B/ESR)
where:
L - Length of rock bolts
B - Excavation width
ESR - Excavation Support Ratio
6.3 Maximum unsupported span: The maximum
unsupported span can be estimated from following
formulae:
Maximum Unsupported Span = 2 ESR Q0.4
157
Chapter-8
158
EMPIRICAL METHODS OF TUNNEL SUPPORT DESIGN
For D&B –
Light to Medium Steel Sets @4 to 5’
(Say 1.2m c/c)
Rock bolts @ 3 to 5’ (Say 0.9m c/c)
Shotcrete – 4’ Say 100mm) thick in
Crown and Sides
(B) Based on RMR Classification
Calculation of RMR Value: (Ref. Appendix 3.1 in
Chapter-3)
159
Chapter-8
160
EMPIRICAL METHODS OF TUNNEL SUPPORT DESIGN
161
Chapter-8
162
EMPIRICAL METHODS OF TUNNEL SUPPORT DESIGN
163
Chapter-8
164
EMPIRICAL METHODS OF TUNNEL SUPPORT DESIGN
165
Chapter-8
166
EMPIRICAL METHODS OF TUNNEL SUPPORT DESIGN
167
Chapter-8
168
ANALYTICAL AND NUMERICAL METHODS OF TUNNEL SUPPORT DESIGN
CHAPTER-9
169
Chapter-9
170
ANALYTICAL AND NUMERICAL METHODS OF TUNNEL SUPPORT DESIGN
171
Chapter-9
172
TUNNEL EXCAVATION METHODS
CHAPTER-10
173
Chapter-10
174
TUNNEL EXCAVATION METHODS
175
Chapter-10
176
TUNNEL EXCAVATION METHODS
Jumbos.
Drilling patterns can be decided manually, but
advanced computer programs are available, which
make it easier to modify the patterns and predict
fairly accurately the effects of changes in drilling,
charging, loading and production.
3.2 Loading: During this activity, also known as
charging, the drill holes are now filled with
explosives, detonators are attached to the
explosive devices and the individual explosive
devices are connected to one another (Fig. 10.04).
177
Chapter-10
178
TUNNEL EXCAVATION METHODS
179
Chapter-10
180
TUNNEL EXCAVATION METHODS
181
Chapter-10
182
TUNNEL EXCAVATION METHODS
Fig. 10.09
Heading Benching
A ramp needs to be constructed for accessing the
heading face, if the gap between faces of top heading
and bench warrants so. If the heading and the bench
are excavated simultaneously, then the ramp must
be moved forward every now and then (Fig. 10.10).
183
Chapter-10
184
TUNNEL EXCAVATION METHODS
185
Chapter-10
186
TUNNEL EXCAVATION METHODS
187
Chapter-10
188
TUNNEL EXCAVATION METHODS
189
Chapter-10
190
TUNNEL EXCAVATION METHODS
Fig. 10.15
Fig. 10.16
Fig. 10.17
191
Chapter-10
Fig. 10.18
192
TUNNEL EXCAVATION METHODS
193
Chapter-10
194
TUNNEL EXCAVATION METHODS
195
Chapter-10
197
Chapter-10
198
TUNNEL EXCAVATION METHODS
199
Chapter-10
200
TUNNEL EXCAVATION METHODS
201
Chapter-10
202
CHAPTER-11
TUNNELLING METHODS/
PHILOSOPHIES
203
Chapter-11
grouting etc.
• Technologies to stabilize and improve the
ground ahead of the actual tunnel face like
forepoling, pipe umbrella, horizontal jet
grouting, ground freezing etc.
2. Ground (Rock) Support Interaction: The term
“tunnel lining” or “tunnel support” encompasses a broad
range of concepts, materials, construction methods and
details (Ref. 27). Several common characteristics
pervade all systems:
(i) Tunnel lining is not an independent structure
acted upon by well-defined loads, and its
deformation is not governed by its own internal
elastic resistance. The loads acting on a tunnel
are ill defined, and its behaviour is governed by
the properties of the surrounding ground. Design
of a tunnel lining is not a structural problem,
but a ground-structure interaction problem, with
the emphasis on ground.
(ii) Tunnel lining behaviour is a four-dimensional
problem. During construction, ground conditions
at the tunnel heading involve both transverse
arching and longitudinal arching or cantilevering
from the unexcavated face. All ground properties
are time dependent, particularly in short term,
which leads to the commonly observed
phenomenon of stand-up time, without which
most practical tunnel construction methods
would be impossible. The timing of lining
installation is an important variable.
(iii) The most serious structural problems
encountered with actual lining behaviour are
related to absence of support – inadvertent
voids left behind the lining – rather than to
intensity and distribution of load.
(iv) In virtually all cases, the bending strength and
stiffness of structural linings are small compared
with those of the surrounding ground. The
204
TUNNELLING METHODS/PHILOSOPHIES
205
Chapter-11
support is to control the convergence of excavated
tunnel and to prevent the loosening, which can
lead to collapse of the tunnel. The supports play a
major role in controlling tunnel deformation (Hoek
et al. 1995).
206
TUNNELLING METHODS/PHILOSOPHIES
207
Chapter-11
208
TUNNELLING METHODS/PHILOSOPHIES
Radial displacement, ui
Fig. 11.04: Right type of Support
The Ground (Rock) Support Interaction is
represented by “Ground Reaction Curves” and
“Support Reaction Curves”. These curves can be
plotted by using closed form solutions given by
Deere et al. (1970), Hoek & Brown (1980) etc., for
209
Chapter-11
210
TUNNELLING METHODS/PHILOSOPHIES
211
Chapter-11
212
TUNNELLING METHODS/PHILOSOPHIES
213
Chapter-11
214
TUNNELLING METHODS/PHILOSOPHIES
215
Chapter-11
216
TUNNELLING METHODS/PHILOSOPHIES
217
Chapter-11
218
TUNNELLING METHODS/PHILOSOPHIES
219
Chapter-11
220
TUNNELLING METHODS/PHILOSOPHIES
221
Chapter-11
222
TUNNELLING METHODS/PHILOSOPHIES
223
Chapter-11
224
TUNNELLING METHODS/PHILOSOPHIES
225
Chapter-11
226
TUNNELLING METHODS/PHILOSOPHIES
227
Chapter-11
228
TUNNELLING METHODS/PHILOSOPHIES
229
Chapter-11
230
INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING OF TUNNELS
CHAPTER-12
INSTRUMENTATION AND
MONITORING OF TUNNELS
231
Chapter-12
232
INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING OF TUNNELS
233
Chapter-12
234
INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING OF TUNNELS
235
Chapter-12
236
INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING OF TUNNELS
237
Chapter-12
Fig. 12.05
238
INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING OF TUNNELS
239
Chapter-12
240
INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING OF TUNNELS
241
Chapter-12
242
INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING OF TUNNELS
243
Chapter-12
244
INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING OF TUNNELS
245
Chapter-12
246
INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING OF TUNNELS
247
Chapter-12
248
INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING OF TUNNELS
249
Chapter-12
250
INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING OF TUNNELS
251
Chapter-12
252
INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING OF TUNNELS
253
Chapter-12
254
INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING OF TUNNELS
255
Chapter-12
256
INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING OF TUNNELS
257
Chapter-12
258
INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING OF TUNNELS
259
Chapter-12
260
DRAINAGE AND WATER PROOFING IN TUNNELS
CHAPTER-13
261
Chapter-13
262
DRAINAGE AND WATER PROOFING IN TUNNELS
263
Chapter-13
264
DRAINAGE AND WATER PROOFING IN TUNNELS
265
Chapter-13
266
DRAINAGE AND WATER PROOFING IN TUNNELS
267
Chapter-13
268
DRAINAGE AND WATER PROOFING IN TUNNELS
269
Chapter-13
270
DRAINAGE AND WATER PROOFING IN TUNNELS
271
Chapter-13
272
DRAINAGE AND WATER PROOFING IN TUNNELS
273
Chapter-13
274
DRAINAGE AND WATER PROOFING IN TUNNELS
275
Chapter-13
276
TUNNELLING IN WEAK/SOFT GROUNDS
CHAPTER-14
TUNNELLING IN WEAK/SOFT
GROUNDS
277
Chapter-14
278
TUNNELLING IN WEAK/SOFT GROUNDS
279
Chapter-14
280
TUNNELLING IN WEAK/SOFT GROUNDS
281
Chapter-14
282
TUNNELLING IN WEAK/SOFT GROUNDS
283
Chapter-14
284
TUNNELLING IN WEAK/SOFT GROUNDS
285
Chapter-14
286
TUNNELLING IN WEAK/SOFT GROUNDS
287
Chapter-14
288
TUNNELLING IN WEAK/SOFT GROUNDS
289
Chapter-14
290
TUNNELLING IN WEAK/SOFT GROUNDS
291
Chapter-14
292
TUNNELLING IN WEAK/SOFT GROUNDS
293
Chapter-14
294
TUNNELLING IN WEAK/SOFT GROUNDS
295
Chapter-14
296
TUNNELLING IN WEAK/SOFT GROUNDS
297
Chapter-14
298
TUNNELLING IN WEAK/SOFT GROUNDS
299
Chapter-14
300
TUNNELLING IN WEAK/SOFT GROUNDS
301
Chapter-14
302
TUNNELLING IN WEAK/SOFT GROUNDS
303
Chapter-14
304
PROBLEMS AND HAZARDS IN TUNNELLING
CHAPTER-15
305
Chapter-15
306
PROBLEMS AND HAZARDS IN TUNNELLING
307
Chapter-15
308
PROBLEMS AND HAZARDS IN TUNNELLING
309
Chapter-15
310
PROBLEMS AND HAZARDS IN TUNNELLING
311
Chapter-15
312
PROBLEMS AND HAZARDS IN TUNNELLING
313
Chapter-15
314
SAFETY ASPECTS IN TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION
CHAPTER-16
315
Chapter-16
316
SAFETY ASPECTS IN TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION
317
Chapter-16
318
SAFETY ASPECTS IN TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION
319
Chapter-16
320
SAFETY ASPECTS IN TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION
321
Chapter-16
322
SAFETY ASPECTS IN TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION
323
Chapter-16
324
SAFETY ASPECTS IN TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION
325
Chapter-16
326
SAFETY ASPECTS IN TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION
327
Chapter-16
328
SAFETY ASPECTS IN TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION
329
Chapter-16
330
SAFETY ASPECTS IN TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION
331
Chapter-16
332
SAFETY ASPECTS IN TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION
333
Chapter-16
334
SAFETY ASPECTS IN TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION
335
Chapter-16
336
SAFETY ASPECTS IN TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION
337
Chapter-16
338
SAFETY ASPECTS IN OPERATION IN TUNNELS
CHAPTER-17
339
Chapter-17
340
SAFETY ASPECTS IN OPERATION IN TUNNELS
341
Chapter-17
342
SAFETY ASPECTS IN OPERATION IN TUNNELS
343
Chapter-17
344
SAFETY ASPECTS IN OPERATION IN TUNNELS
345
Chapter-17
346
SAFETY ASPECTS IN OPERATION IN TUNNELS
347
Chapter-17
348
SAFETY ASPECTS IN OPERATION IN TUNNELS
349
Chapter-17
350
SAFETY ASPECTS IN OPERATION IN TUNNELS
351
Chapter-17
352
SAFETY ASPECTS IN OPERATION IN TUNNELS
• Luminosity
Enable a safe walking as far as possible also
under smoke conditions and poor visibility
• Height of lights
Above walkway, as low as possible, depending
on free space
• Autonomy and reliability:
(a) Guaranteed power supply for emergency or
alternative concepts to ensure high reliability.
(b) Supply cables protected against mechanical
impact and fire
(c) It is recommended to build sections for power
supply/lighting
• Other specifications:
Possibility to switch on from operating centre,
portals and inside the tunnel.
Minimum distance between portal and first
switch is 250 m if security aspects are relevant.
Under normal operation, lighting is switched off.
(B) Assessment: New Tunnels: Reco-mmended for
new tunnels as specified in the specifications.
Existing Tunnels: Tunnel lighting is generally
recommended for tunnels of about >1 km. Decisions
should be based on a risk assessment considering
at least operations data and tunnel length. In order
to keep a good cost-effectiveness ratio, specifications
may be less stringent: lighting on one side only,
lower requirements for luminosity and reliability.
3.13 Emergency Telephones/Communication
Means: Emergency telephones or similar means of
communication so that passengers, too, can use
them in emergencies, connected with operations
centre (independent of train radio or mobile
phone). Emergency telephones shall permit
353
Chapter-17
354
SAFETY ASPECTS IN OPERATION IN TUNNELS
355
Chapter-17
356
SAFETY ASPECTS IN OPERATION IN TUNNELS
357
Chapter-17
358
SAFETY ASPECTS IN OPERATION IN TUNNELS
359
Chapter-17
360
SAFETY ASPECTS IN OPERATION IN TUNNELS
361
Chapter-17
362
SAFETY ASPECTS IN OPERATION IN TUNNELS
363
Chapter-17
364
SAFETY ASPECTS IN OPERATION IN TUNNELS
365
Chapter-17
366
TUNNEL PORTALS
CHAPTER-18
TUNNEL PORTALS
367
Chapter-18
368
TUNNEL PORTALS
369
Chapter-18
370
TUNNEL PORTALS
371
Chapter-18
372
SHAFTS
CHAPTER-19
SHAFTS
373
Chapter-19
374
SHAFTS
375
Chapter-19
376
SHAFTS
377
Chapter-19
378
SHAFTS
379
Chapter-19
380
SHAFTS
381
Chapter-19
382
SHAFTS
383
Chapter-19
384
SHAFTS
385
Chapter-19
386
SHAFTS
387
Chapter-19
388
SHAFTS
389
Chapter-19
390
SHAFTS
391
Chapter-19
392
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
CHAPTER-20
393
Chapter-20
394
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
395
Chapter-20
396
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
397
Chapter-20
398
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
399
Chapter-20
400
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
401
Chapter-20
402
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
403
Chapter-20
404
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
405
Chapter-20
406
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
Exposed Reinforcement - E
Corrosion - C
Honeycomb- H
Hollow Area - HA
Debris - D
Buckle- B
Efflorescence - EF
Leakage - LK
For example, a moderate crack should be labeled
as CR2, a severe leakage as LK3 etc. This
designation should be placed on the sketch/
photograph.
Before placing any information on Supplementary
Tunnel Information Register, always ensure that
the structural element (that the defects pertain to)
is correctly identified.
4.2 Condition Rating System: The tunnel
components mentioned in Proforma of Tunnel
Inspection Register should be rated as below:
407
Chapter-20
408
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
409
Chapter-20
• Critical
• Priority
• Routine.
5. Role/Duties of Inspecting Officials
5.1 Inspection by SSE/P.Way or SSE/Works
(i) As per Indian Railway Bridge Manual
provisions “Senior Section Engineer in-charge
of tunnel shall inspect every tunnel on his
section once a year during the prescribed
month after the monsoon season but where
specified by the Chief Engineer, the structural
part shall be inspected by the SSE/Works”.
But it is advisable that the inspection by SSE
in-charge of tunnel or SSE/Works is carried
out before monsoon, as is done in case of
bridges.
(ii) Senior Section Engineer shall record the
results of their inspection in prescribed tunnel
inspection register.
(iii) Senior Section Engineer shall submit to the
Assistant Divisional Engineer (ADEN) by the
prescribed date a list of important defects
with a certificate in duplicate to the effect.
“I certify that I have personally carried out
tunnel inspection of my section in accordance
with standing orders for the year ending…..
and append herewith a list of important
defects.”
(iv) The ADEN shall issue such orders as deemed
necessary to the Section Engineer and
counter sign and forward one copy of the
certificate of inspection to the Senior
Divisional Engineer with remarks if any.
(v) The Section Engineer shall accompany the
assistant Engineer on the latter’s annual
inspection of tunnels.
410
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
411
Chapter-20
412
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
413
Chapter-20
414
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
415
Chapter-20
416
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
417
Chapter-20
418
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
419
Chapter-20
420
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
421
Chapter-20
422
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
423
Chapter-20
424
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
CHAPTER-21
METRO TUNNELS
425
Chapter-21
426
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
427
Chapter-21
428
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
429
Chapter-21
430
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
431
Appendix - 21.1
Building Damage Classification
(Burland et al., 1977 and Boscardin & Cording, 1989)
432
Chapter-21
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TUNNELS
433
Chapter-21
434
MISCELLANEOUS
CHAPTER-22
MISCELLANEOUS
435
Chapter-22
436
MISCELLANEOUS
437
Chapter-22
438
MISCELLANEOUS
439
Chapter-22
440
MISCELLANEOUS
441
Chapter-22
442
MISCELLANEOUS
443
Chapter-22
444
MISCELLANEOUS
445
Chapter-22
446
MISCELLANEOUS
447
Chapter-22
448
MISCELLANEOUS
449
Chapter-22
450
MISCELLANEOUS
451
INDEX
Abrasivity- 28 Daylighting- 307
Cerchar Abrasivity Index- 28 Density- 27
Access Control- 348 Detailed Design Consultant (DDC)-
Access Control Systems- 317 144
Action Level- 255 Diamond Cut Drilling Pattern- 176
ADECO-RS Method of Tunnelling- Differential Settlement- 257, 397,
216 429
Stages of- 225 Digital Ortho Mapping- 94
Advance Supporting- 287 Digital Topographic Mapping- 94
Air Column Method- 180 Dimpled Mats- 264
Alarm Level- 255 Direct Shear Test- 23
Alert Level- 255 Displacement Grouting- 283
Artificial Ventilation- 342 Displacement Velocity- 256
Austrian Method- 279 Drainage during Construction- 263
Drainage Mats- 264
DRESS Method- 290
Ballastless Track in Tunnels- 435 Drill and Blast Method- 173
Bedding Planes- 6 Drilling- 175, 330
Belgian Method- 277
Borehole Extensometer- 237, 238
Bottom-Up Construction- 440 Earth Pressure Balance TBM- 199
Blasting- 179, 330 Efflorescence- 399
Brazilian Tensile Strength Test- 21 Electric Resistivity Survey- 73
Buckles and Kinks- 401 Electronic Distance Measuring- 97
Building Condition Survey- 428 Emergency Tunnel Lighting- 344,
Burn Cut Drilling Pattern- 176 362
Engineering Seismograph- 246
English Method- 279
Cables- 328, 345 Escape Distance- 101, 354
CCTV System- 324 Escape Routes- 352
Chimney Formation- 307 Excavation Support Ratio- 127
Compaction Grouting- 283 Explosives- 334
Compressed Air TBM- 197 Accountal- 334
Compressive Strength- 18, 25, 33, Choice of- 177
59 Disposal- 333
Concrete Lining- 130 Requirement of- 178
Cast in-situ- 131 Extrusion- 219
Precast Segmental- 134
Condition Rating System-407
Cone Cut Drilling Pattern- 175 Face Collapse- 308
Connection Bolts- 403 Face Consolidation- 286
Controlled Blasting- 179 Face Plugging- 309
Control Systems- 360 Failure Criteria of rock materials-
Control Limits- 254, 255, 257, 258 31
Conventional Tunnelling- 203 Mohr Coulomb Criterion- 31
Corrosion- 400 Hoek-Brown Criterion- 33
Cracking- 398 Faults- 5
Cracks- 401 Fire Extinguishing System- 350
Cross Passages- 355 Fire Protection- 324
Cut and Cover Tunnelling- 438 Fire, Smoke and Gas detection-
350
452
Floor Bolting- 130 Inspection by DEN/Sr.DEN- 411
Folds- 6
Asymmetric, Symmetric- 6
Anticline, Syncline - 6 Jet Grouting- 284
Forepole- 292 Joint Alteration Number- 45
Full Face Excavation- 182 Joint Roughness Number- 45
Fully Drained Tunnel- 270 Joint Set Number- 45
Joint Water Reduction Factor- 45
Joint Volume Count- 45
Geological Strength Index (GSI)-
47, 48, 49
Geothermal Gradient- 312 Lab Test Samples- 17
German Method- 278 Lateral Exits- 102, 355
Glass-fiber Reinforced Plastic Lattice Girder- 117
Anchors- 124 Leakage- 400
Global Positioning System- 98 Leaky Feeder- 346
Grouted (Friction) Bolt- 121 Liner Plates- 381
Gripper TBM- 194 Lines of Influence- 252
Ground Freezing- 262, 285 Load Cell- 243
Ground Improvement- 279 Loading of Explosives- 177
Ground Reaction Curve (GRC)-
205
Ground Support Interaction- Maintenance and Repair of Tunnels-
Grouting- 281 413
Compaction Grouting- 283 Maximum Unsupported Span- 157
Jet Grouting- 284 Measuring Anchor- 245
Location for- 282 Mechanical Bolts- 121
Materials- 284 Mechanical Pre-cutting- 222, 287
Permeation Grouting- 283 Mechanical Support TBM- 197
Mechanized Tunnelling- 187
Medical Facilities- 320
Hardness- 28 Micro-tunnelling- 446
Rebound Hammer Test- 28 Mock Drills- 366
Hard Rock TBMs- 192 Modified Terzaghi’s Theory- 147
Heading and Benching- 183 Mortar- 402
Hollow Area- 400 Mucking- 181, 333
Honeycomb- 400 Multiple Drift Advance- 184
Horizontal Ribs and Vertical Multiple Point Borehole
Lagging- 383 Extensometer- 237
Housekeeping- 327
453
Norwegian Method of Tunnelling Rocks- 1
(NMT)- 215 Discontinuities- 4
Igneous- 1
Joints- 4
Observational Method of Mass- 7
Tunnelling- 210 Material- 7
Onboard Fire Detection- 362 Metamorphic- 3
Onboard Fire Extinguishing Origin of- 1
Equipment- 362 Sedimentary- 3
Optical Targets 3-D- 242 Rock Bolt- 117
Length- 157
Rock Bolting Pattern- 129
Parallel Cut Drilling Pattern- 176 Rock Bolts Reinforcement- 124
Partial Face Excavation- 182 Rock Burst- 305
Partially Drained Tunnel- 269 Rock mass- 7
Permanent Drainage System- 268 Compressive Strength- 59
Permeation Grouting- 283 Squeezing Behaviour of- 57
Permeability- 29 Tensile Strength- 59
Personal Protective Equipment Rock mass classification Systems-
(PPE)- 316 37
Piezometer- 246 Geological Strength Index
Point Load Index Test- 25 (GSI)- 47
Poisson’s Ratio- 21 Rock Mass Quality (Q)- 44
Pop-outs- 399 Rock Mass Rating (RMR)- 43
Porosity- 27 Rock Quality Designation (RQD)-
Portal- 346, 367 39
Construction of- 368 Ruling Gradient- 104
Design of- 367
Need for- 367
Portal Collapse- 312 Safety Management and Training-
Pyramid Cut Drilling Pattern – 176 319
Pre-drainage- 261 Safety walkway- 346
Pre-supporting- 287 Scale Effect- 8
Preliminary Survey- 70 Scaling- 181
Pressure Cell- 243 Seismic Refraction Survey- 71
Pressure Transient Hazards- 341 Service and Safety Tunnel- 356
Principal Monitoring Sections- 249 Shaft excavation in Soft and Wet
Project Safety Plan (PSP)- 315 Ground- 386
Protection System- 401 Shaft excavation in Soft Ground-
Protective Intervention- 221 376
Shaft excavation in Rock- 388
Shafts- 373
Qualifications of Inspecting Design of- 374
Officials- 393 Location of- 373
Lining of- 390
Need for- 373
Raises- 389 Shapes of- 374
Reinforced Rock Arch- 125 Shapes of tunnels- 107
Repair Priority Classification- 408 Circular- 109
Rib Reinforced Shotcrete (RRS)- D-Shape- 107
156 Elliptical- 109
Road header- 185 Horse Shoe Shape- 108
Shear strength- 23
454
Shielded TBM- 195 Top Down Construction – 443
Shotcrete- 137 Toxic Gases- 312
Shotcrete Strain Meter- 245 Train Control- 348
Sidewall Drift- 185 Train Detection- 347
Signage- 317 Train Radio- 347
Slurry Shield TBM - 197 Trend Lines- 253
Slurry Walls- 384 Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM)-
Soft Ground TBMs- 196 189
Soldier Piles and Lagging- 380 Tunnel Illumination System- 343
Spalling- 398 Tunnel Inspection Register- 396
Special Inspection- 412 Tunnel Inspection Unit- 393
Special Purpose TBMs- 200 Tunnelling in Seismic Area- 301
Special Rocks- 11 Tunnelling in Squeezing Grounds-
Crushed Rock- 12 297
Weathered Rocks- 11 Tunnelling in Swelling Grounds-
Soft Rocks and Hard Soils- 12 294
Swelling Rocks- 12 Tunnelman’s Ground
Speed Monitoring System- 346 Classification- 49
Spiles- 288 Tunnel Rescue Train- 360
Sprayed Waterproofing layer- 275 Tunnel Seismic Prediction- 87
Stabilization of cavity- 111 Tunnelling Shield- 188
Stable Core Face- 223
Staining- 399
Standard Monitoring Section- 248 Umbrella Arch- 289
Stand-up time- 334 Uniaxial Compressive Strength
Steel Fiber Reinforced Shotcrete Test- 18
(SFRS)- 139 Unstable Core Face- 224
Steel Ribs (sets)- 115 Utility Surveys- 95
Steel Sheet Piling- 378
Stress Reduction Factor (SRF)- 45,
46 “V” Cut Drilling Pattern- 176
Supplementary Tunnel Information Vector Diagrams- 251
Register- 396 Ventilation- 321, 340, 350, 405
Support Reaction Curve (SRC)- 205 Ventilation System- 342
Support Design- 145, 169 Vibration Limits- 428
Analytical Method- 169
Empirical Method- 145
Numerical Method- 170 Warning Signs- 323
Surface Monitoring- 250 Water Content- 27
Swellex Bolts- 122 Water Ingress- 309
Water Level Sounder- 246
Waterproofing Systems- 273
Tape Extensometer- 240 Watertight (Waterproof) Tunnels-
Telephone System- 324 268
Tensile Strength- 22 Wave Velocity- 30
Tri-axial Shear Test- 19 Wedge Cut Drilling Pattern- 176
Terzaghi’s Rock Load Factors- 145 Wellpoint System- 387
Thermal Environment Hazard- 341
Threshold Values- 235
Tilt- 243 Young’s Modulus- 21
Tilt meter- 243
Timber Sheet Piling- 377
Time Displacement Diagram- 251
455
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456
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