FOOD PACKAGING

1. Introduction

Packaging serves a major role in the safe, acceptable delivery of plant- and animal-
derived food from its production place to its point of consumption. Together with
various processing technologies, food packaging protects its contents from deteri-
oration caused by biochemical, enzymatic, microbiological, and physical changes.
In turn, environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, and ambient
chemical gases determine the rate at which those changes occur. Packaging,
by transporting food away from the time and place of its harvest, serves as a major
enabler for the transforming agricultural economies into industrial ones. It allows
a small portion of a given population to provide nutrition for others working in
nonagricultural employment.
The origins of packaging lay in the transport of liquids and grains using jars
and baskets. The origins of food processing lay in reducing the amount of water
available for microbial growth by drying food and adding alternate chemicals such
as salt and alcohol. From those beginnings, a global market in foods, both
processed and unprocessed, represents a major component of international com-
merce. Market research estimates a US$ 139 billion worldwide market for food
containers in 2017 with 4.5% Avg. annual growth 2012–2017 and above average
growth in the Asia/Pacific South America, Eastern Europe, and Africa/Middle
East regions (1).
Food itself consists of water, various lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, and
micronutrients (vitamins and minerals). Some of these components serve as
sources of energy for the body, while others support tissue building and various
metabolic processes. They also contribute to the taste and aroma stimulations
provided by foods. Chemical changes to chemical components relative to a food’s
natural state or its condition following processing result in more or less acceptance
by the consumer. When the food is no longer acceptable to consumers, it is
considered to have reached its ‘‘shelf life.’’ In addition to this subjective
‘‘acceptable quality’’ dimension of shelf life, very real and quantitative limits to
shelf life result when the ‘‘safety’’ dimension of packaged foods acceptability is
exceeded. Foodborne pathogens (eg, Salmonella sp., E. coli O157:H7, and Clos-
tridium botulinum) represent a significant public health challenge in economies
ranging from poorest to the richest. The World Health Organization estimates 2
million deaths annually around the world from contaminated food or drinking
water, with tens of millions of cases of foodborne illness each year caused by the
pathogens listed here (2). Careful design and manufacture of food packaging
materials can influence both the quality and safety aspects of food shelf life.
The three factors, such as processing, packaging, and environment, interact
to determine the product’s shelf life, ie, the typical interval from the time of
product harvest or processing to the longest time of safe, satisfactory use.
Packaged food at a consumer level often reflects multiple shelf-life considerations:
from harvest to bulk processing; from bulk packaged products to ingredients in
complex processed foods; and from processed food to final consumer consumption.
The complex systems required to deliver a consumer product to market may have
multiple iterations and parallels for each these steps. Each step represents a

Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Copyright # 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
DOI: 10.1002/0471238961.0615150402181504.a01.pub3
2 FOOD PACKAGING

different product ‘‘shelf life’’ determined by relevant processing, packaging, and

environment factors (3).
Deterioration from biochemical, enzymatic, and microbiological factors rep-
resents chemical reactions subject to specific rate determining factors. These
together with physical factors comprise ‘‘vectors’’ of food deterioration. The
biochemical vector results from interactions of food chemicals in proximity to
each other. Enzymatic deterioration represents a special subcategory of bio-
chemical deterioration catalyzed by enzymes naturally present in food. The
microbiological deterioration vector occurs as yeasts, molds, and/or bacteria
populations grow in food, taking energy, nutrients, and moisture from the food
itself. Spoilage microorganisms impair the quality of the food, while pathogenic
ones may have no perceptible effect on product quality while posing significant
health risks to consumers. Elevated water activity in food products increases the
rate of degradation vectors. In food products with high water content, such as
fresh produce or meat, water loss negatively alters physical characteristics and
water gain can favor conditions for growth of spoilage and/or pathogenic
organisms.
Damage to food products not associated with biochemical, enzymatic, or
microbial spoilage usually results from physical factors, such as gain or loss of
water. Food packaging must prevent or minimize moisture gain or loss. When
foods experience impact forces (eg, dropped or shaken) cellular damage can result.
This may release enzymes that lead to faster, more generalized enzymatic
deterioration. Increasing temperature accelerates almost all deterioration
reactions.

2. Packaging Functions

Food packaging represents an inherently cultural necessity that results from the
separation in space and time of food producers from food consumers. The core
purpose of any packaging is to move its product from producer to consumer
including any processors between the two. To accomplish this purpose, four
functions are attributed to packaging (4):

 Contain
 Protect/Preserve
 Transport
 Inform

2.1. Function: Contain. This function indicates the basic role of a

package as a container to isolate a food system from contaminates in the
environment. The container may have a fixed volume, as do rigid cans and
bottles, or a variable volume dependent on relative pressures inside and outside
of the container, eg, flexible pouches and bags. Inside both rigid and variable
volume packages, residual gas (ie, ‘‘headspace’’) may be present, or the food
system may essentially fill all available volume. Headspace gas may represent
ambient air, or a modified gaseous atmosphere (eg, nitrogen), intended to
 FOOD PACKAGING 3

eliminate chemical reactions between food and atmospheric oxygen. Overfilling

rigid packages, in order to exclude overfill during sealing provides a package
with no headspace. Flexible packages partially sealed around their product can
be collapsed tightly around the product by pulling a vacuum on the package and
completing the sealing process. In both rigid and flexible packages with no
headspace or headspace with modified atmosphere, any reactive atmospheric
oxygen still dissolved in the food system may contribute to oxidative degradation
of the product (5).
The sealed container isolates its product from environmental influences
including ambient light, atmospheric gases (especially oxygen and water vapor),
microbial contamination, and physical contamination.
2.2. Function: Protect/Preserve. For a product contained within its
package, the basic packaging material must continue to isolate the product from
environmental influences. Metal cans typically provide a completely hermetic
(airtight) container for their products. The material itself is impermeable to light,
atmospheric gases, and microbial and physical contamination. Significant devel-
opment efforts have produced reliable and efficient can sealing methods. For
example, new ‘‘two-piece can’’ technology has largely addressed health concerns
about the use of lead solder to fabricate so-called ‘‘three-piece cans.’’ Other
chemicals used as airtight gasketing between a can body and its ‘‘lid’’ are closely
regulated and considered safe. Considerable controversy surrounds the use of
epoxy based can coatings that protect metal from the corrosive effects of food
systems. This concern involves alleged estrogen-mimicking effects of residual
bisphenol A from the epoxy materials (6,7).
Glass bottles and jars with their closures are also impermeable to atmo-
spheric gases and microbial and physical contamination. Tinting glass with
appropriate light absorbing chemicals protects specific food systems from light-
catalyzed degradation (eg, wine). Materials for flexible packaging include essen-
tially impermeable aluminum foil (with thickness less than 20 microns), very
porous paper and plastic films permeable to various degrees.
Packaged food will have a particular ‘‘shelf life.’’ The shelf life represents the
duration of time that the packaged food maintains a degree of safety and product
quality acceptable to its eventual consumer. Different food processes, packaging
formats, and storage/shipping conditions combine to determine the product’s shelf
life.
2.3. Function: Transport. Moving food from its time and place of har-
vest to its consumers imposes significant challenges to the protection afforded by
packaging to its food. Usually the most significant challenge involves isolation of
the food from physical shock and vibration that occurred during transportation. In
some food systems, these forces can initiate cellular reactions that lead to product
degradation (eg, fresh produce). For other foods, the challenge may be time itself.
In these cases, post-harvest chemical reactions in the food may deteriorate the
product. Bulk shipment of apples in particular benefit from encasing the bulk
packaged (large boxes) fruit in plastic bags having a controlled atmosphere of
enriched oxygen and carbon dioxide levels (8). Other controlled atmosphere
approaches are appropriate for different kinds of produce.
2.4. Function: Inform. At the retail level, information printed on con-
sumer packaging has become a highly regulated means of consumer protection.
4 FOOD PACKAGING

So-called ‘‘nutritional information’’ panels must inform consumers about the

caloric and vitamin/mineral profile of the packaged food. A growing number of
countries require label declarations if the product contains or could be contami-
nated with specific chemicals that cause allergic reactions in subpopulations.

3. Environmental Health and Safety of Packaging

3.1. Disposal Concerns. Packages in general have a short service life.

Many have a single-use and are discarded by the final package receiver. Others
are designed for reuse systems and the material in others can be recycled.
Economic constraints limit the amount and nature of packaging materials suit-
able for reuse or recycling, or reduction in weight or volume. Packaging itself
reduces the amount of food that degrades before actually consumed and subse-
quently is itself wasted and discarded. (The Food and Agricultural Organization of
the United Nations has partnered with the packaging industry in an effort to
reduce global food waste.)
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency identifies 28 countries that
currently have laws designed to encourage reduced packaging and greater
recycling of packaging discards. Many of these countries are considering laws
to require manufacturers to take back packaging discards or pay for their
recycling (9). The immediate concern focuses on minimizing/eliminating toxic
materials or by-products that used packaging may release into the environment.
In particular, heavy metals (used, eg, in some color pigments) may leach into
ground water supplies from disposal by landfill or incineration. Improper com-
bustion conditions can release toxic by-products (eg, dioxins) into the air when
they fail to oxidize packaging materials completely.
In the United States, 19 state governments prohibit the intentional use of
lead, cadmium, mercury, and hexavalent chromium in packages. They also limit
the total amount of these four heavy metals to 100 parts per million by weight, for
any package or packaging component (10). Directive94/62/EC sets similar limits
in the European Union.
California adopted the Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act in
1986. This law (‘‘commonly called ‘‘Prop 65’’) requires the California to publish a
list of ‘‘chemicals known to the state to cause cancer or reproductive toxicity.’’
Products, including packaging materials, containing sufficient amounts of listed
chemicals must carry a ‘‘Proposition 65 warning,’’ notifying consumers that the
products may expose them to chemicals known to cause cancer and/or reproduc-
tive toxicity.
3.2. Migration Concerns. Regulations concerning environmental con-
cerns about packaging disposal apply to packaging for all products. Food packag-
ing in addition poses the potential for the migration of packaging material
chemicals into the food contained in it. Many national governments have enacted
laws and regulations that list acceptable packaging materials given the chemical
nature of the product and the anticipated thermal conditions experienced while
product and packaging are together. This body of law is large and complex. In spite
of these government efforts to protect the chemical integrity of food products, some
public interest groups remain suspicious of specific chemicals otherwise approved
 FOOD PACKAGING 5

by governments for uses in certain packages. The discussion below will address
some of these concerns.

4. Packaged Food Classification

Approximately one-half of all the food products in the United States are fresh or
minimally processed. Fresh food products include meats, vegetables, and fruits
that are unprocessed except for removal from the original environment and
limited trimming and cleaning. Fresh foods are handled to retard deterioration,
which is relatively rapid at ambient or higher temperature. Meats should be
chilled rapidly to <10 C (50 F) and most vegetables and fruits are generally
reduced to <4.4 C (40 F) by low temperature air, water, or ice.
Minimally processed foods include those altered to help retard deteriorative
processes. For example, pasteurization eliminates vegetative spoilage and patho-
genic organisms in dairy products. Product refrigeration delays development of
their spores, which pasteurization does not kill, into their vegetative and detri-
mental state. Salt/nitrite-cured meats must be kept refrigerated after processing
to minimize microbial growth.
Fully processed foods are intended for long-term shelf life at ambient
temperature, and include almost all heat processed, dried, etc, foods. The inter-
connected relationship of food processing, packaging, and environment leads to
the listed packaged food classification. It reflects a continuum from as-grown and
harvested, short shelf life products to highly processed, shelf-stable ones. Packag-
ing considerations along the food supply chain, from bulk commodity foods to
valued-added convenient consumer products, reflect this degree of processing,
considering relevant scale factors (Table 1).
4.1. Fresh Foods. Meat, Poultry, Fish. These high-protein foods have
varying percentages of lipid (fat). All are susceptible to microbiological, enzymatic,
and physical changes.
Beef and other ‘‘red meats’’ retain significant quantities of the blood protein
‘‘myoglobin.’’ The iron-bearing ‘‘heme’’ structure of myoglobin changes color
depending on iron’s oxidative state and the availability of oxygen. Consumer
perception generally attributes red meat ‘‘freshness’’ to a red (oxymyoglobin) color
of the meat. Retarding microbiological, enzymatic, and biochemical spoilage and
weight loss are other objectives of packaging for red meat products.

Table 1. Continuum of Food Processing

Food type by intensity of processing Examples
Minimally processed (fresh) foods Meat, Poultry, Fish
Produce
Partially processed foods Nitrite-cured meats
Dairy products
Fully processed foods Canned foods
Frozen foods
Dry foods
6 FOOD PACKAGING

In distribution channels, red meat is packaged typically in a reduced

oxygen headspace using high oxygen–water vapor barrier flexible packaging
materials to retard oxidative deterioration. In this state, its color is purple.
Transport to and storage at retail outlets using refrigerated temperatures
<10 C (50 F) similarly retards deteriorative processes. At the retail level,
exposure to oxygen in gas-permeable packaging restores the bright red oxy-
myoglobin color. Oxygen-permeable flexible packaging, such as plasticized
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) film, permits ambient oxygen into the package while
retarding the passage of water vapor. Retail ‘‘case ready’’ fresh meat may be
packaged in an elevated carbon dioxide/oxygen atmosphere using gas-barrier
package structures, such as ethylene–vinyl alcohol (EVOH) combined with trays
molded of polypropylene or polystyrene to retard microbiological growth and
retain the red color of oxidized myoglobin.
Poultry, susceptible to microbiological deterioration, is an excellent sub-
strate for Salmonella sp., a pathogen. After slaughter and dressing, the tempera-
ture of the meat is reduced as rapidly as possible. Packaging at factory level is in
soft film, ie, low-density polyethylene, which retard water vapor loss and permits
oxygen entry. Much poultry in this case-ready format ships in refrigerated
conditions to its destination.
Seafood is even more susceptible to microbiological deterioration than
poultry from both spoilage and pathogenic bacteria. Film packaging, similar to
that used for poultry can retard weight loss and maintenance of low storage
temperature is critical. Even so, packaging able to extend the shelf life of fresh fish
for significant periods has yet to be developed. Long-term distribution requires
frozen processing (see below).
Produce. Fresh fruits and vegetables require gentle handling because of
fragile cellular structures and the ubiquitous presence of microorganisms. Impact
forces and damage to product surfaces releases destructive enzymes and provides
channels through which microorganisms can enter to initiate spoilage.
Distribution packaging for fresh fruit and vegetable involves a variety of
wooden or plastic boxes and crates, and waterproof corrugated cases. Repackaging
of bulk produce at or near the retail level, involves oxygen-permeable flexible
materials, such as PVC, with or without a tray of expanded polystyrene containing
an absorbent pad to help control drip.
Consumer demand for convenience foods has supported the development of
minimally processed fresh produce prepackaged in ready to eat form. The proc-
essing involves washing the product to remove some but not the entire microbial
load. Some cutting or chopping prepares the product for easy consumer use as well
as mixtures of different produce. Fresh cut salad products are now common
packaged products where consumer disposable income levels allow. This flexible
packaging allows ingress of oxygen into the package headspace as the produce
experiences enzymatic and related respiration—an oxygen-consuming metabolic
process—during distribution. Bags allow volatile respiration by-products to leave
the package system and prevent anaerobic conditions that would encourage the
growth of anaerobic pathogens. Chilled distribution and display of these products
(about 4 C) provides shelf life of 10–14 days.
4.2. Partially Processed Food Products. Partially processed food
products have received more than minimal processing, but still require
 FOOD PACKAGING 7

refrigeration. These low temperatures retard the growth of viable microorganisms

that remain in the products after their processing.
Nitrite-Cured Meats. Salt, sodium nitrite, and sodium nitrate cure ham,
bacon, sausage, bologna, and other processed meats. These chemicals reduce
water available to support microbial growth. Additional ingredients include
Spices for flavor, and ingredients to provide a desired color. Most processed meats
are packaged (gas-barrier nylon-based films) in reduced oxygen atmospheres or
under vacuum using thermoform–seal systems distributed and merchandised
under refrigeration, the package meets will have shelf lives of several weeks.
Dairy Products. Pasteurization, a low heat process that destroys vegeta-
tive spoilage and disease microorganisms, does not destroy microorganisms
present as dormant spores. Distribution and storage under refrigeration retards
the emergence of these spores and their further growth. This provides pasteurized
dairy products with shelf lives of 1–2 weeks. Nonreturnable containers, such as
blow-molded high-density polyethylene bottles or polyethylene-coated paperboard
gable-top cartons package milk under refrigeration in the United States. In
Canada, flexible pouches, made from alpha olefin–ethylene copolymers are
used to distribute milk. Extended shelf life (ESL) dairy products require higher
heat processing, eg, ultra-high temperature (UHT)-short time with clean filling of
treated polyester bottles to provide up to 90 days of refrigerated shelf life.
Aseptic packaged milk requires full sterilization processing, ie, hot enough
and long enough to eliminate all microorganisms, both vegetative and dormant, or
forms, using by UHT technologies. The high temperature required to sterilize
milk makes its flavor different from that of pasteurized milk (the result of
reactions between amino acids and reducing sugars in the milk). Packaging of
the sterilized milk occurs in a sterile compartment in which hydrogen peroxide
has sterilized high barrier paperboard–foil–plastic laminations or all-plastic
packaging materials. Package and product are assembled in the sterile chamber
and the package sealed to produce sterile milk in a sterile package for distribution
at ambient temperatures.
Cheese products generally must be refrigerated in sealed plastic films, cups,
or tubs packages. Cured cheeses use high CO2 atmospheres in gas-barrier
structures.
4.3. Fully Processed Foods. Fully processed foods have a shelf life at
ambient temperature that can exceed 3–6 months. The absence of both microbes
(and/or factors necessary for their growth) and enzymes capable of degrading the
food system allow this lengthy stability. Such shelf life also favors robust flavor
and aroma chemistry with little tendency to change over time. Hermetically
sealed packaging prevents the reintroduction of microbial contamination and
environmental gases that can react with food chemistry.
Canned Foods. The canning process thermally destroys microorganisms
and enzymes present in food already packaged in hermetically sealed containers.
The sealed, oxygen- and water vapor impermeable packaging prevents subse-
quent microbial and other environmental contamination during transport and
storage. Whether a metal can, glass jar or barrier plastic tray or pouch is used, the
process begins by removing air that can cause oxidative damage from the food
before filling or by pulling a vacuum on a filled container. Such anaerobic
conditions can foster the growth of pathogenic C. botulinum bacteria if the
8 FOOD PACKAGING

thermal treatment does not destroy any cells or spores that are present. A highly
thermally conductive fluid such as brine insures complete fill of rigid containers
for thermal treatment. In particular, processors must avoid thermally insulating
pockets of air when sterilizing containers.
The hermetically sealed package is then heated, up to 100 C (212 F) for high
acid products and 127 C (260 F) for low acid products. Heat-resistant C. botuli-
num microbial spores remain dormant in high acid (low pH) conditions. The pH of
the food system complements the thermal treatment of the food system to assure
microbial safety. Packages containing low (> pH 4.5) acid foods must withstand
pressure of superheated water or steam for the time interval required for the most
remote portion of the food within the package to reach temperatures that destroy
C. botulinum spores.
During the time required to reach 127 C (260 F) at the most remote portion
of the food, the high temperatures can destroy important nutrients and taste/
aroma chemicals and affect other physical food properties in less distant
portions of the package. Because of these undesirable side effects, food proces-
sors must carefully manage thermal processes to ensure food safety while
optimizing nutritional values and consumer preferences. Rapidly cooling
of packages after high-temperature treatment retards further cooking and
biochemical degradation.
Obviously, the geometry of the package and its total volume affect the degree
of product thermal degradation. In this regard, the flexibility of flexible pouches
and sealed plastic trays reduces total package volume by removing package
headspace air and collapsing package walls onto the food volume. Currently,
these packaging systems usually have thinner cross-sectional distances for the
transfer of heat from the external heating fluids. Microwave assisted thermal
sterilization promises safe product with even less thermal degradation, as the
microwave energy can raise the temperature of remote areas of the package
independent of the thermal transfer effects of external heating fluids through
portions of the food closer to the package walls (11).
Frozen Foods. Freezing reduces temperature to below the freezing point
of water so thatmicrobiological, enzymatic, and biochemical activities are virtu-
ally halt. Commercial freezing processes move product temperatures from liquid
water to ice rapidly; this produces ice crystals that are small enough to avoid
physically damage to the cell structure of foods. Most freezing processes use high-
velocity cold air or liquid nitrogen to remove heat from bulk or individually quick-
frozen (IQF) product before packaging. Polyethylene-coated paperboard cartons,
or polyethylene or polyethylene-laminated pouches usually package the frozen
products.
Retail and institutional frozen products in the United States include pre-
cooked, processed entrees in meal-size portions packaged in microwaveable
crystallized polyester or polyester-coated paperboard trays with polyester film
closures. Printed paperboard cartons often overpackage these tray systems for
efficient transport and display.
The relative humidity of ambient air in frozen storage is low. Incidental
increases in the temperature of that air will create a moisture gradient capable of
removing moisture from frozen food systems. This occurrence is called ‘‘freezer
burn.’’ Hermetically sealed packaging prevents this transfer of moisture.
 FOOD PACKAGING 9

Similarly hermetically reclosable packages prevent the occurrence of freezer burn

in once opened packages returned to freezer storage.
Dry Foods. Dry foods include a variety of food systems with generally <1%
moisture. Many analytical techniques based on determining the mass of water
present in a known mass of sample measure the ‘‘moisture content’’ of foods (12).
These differ in temperature, duration, and method of heat energy transfer (eg,
forced air and infrared heat). The 1% figure is a general reference, not a precise
definition.
Seasoning mixes contain herbs and spices with their volatile flavoring and
aroma components. Dense packaging materials (eg, glass, metal cans, and alumi-
num foil) usually serve to stop the loss of these compounds from the food product.
Dried foods derived from liquid form include instant coffee, tea, and milk. The
liquid is spray-, drum-, or air-dried to remove water to <1% moisture above which
enzymatic browning may occur.
Engineered mixes consist of various dried components mixed to provide a
complex food system. Engineered mixes include beverage mixes (eg, sugar, citric
acid, color, and flavorings); and soup mixes (eg, dehydrated soup stock, noodles,
and some fat products) that become heterogeneous liquids on rehydration.
The packaging for dried foods must have hermetic seals and relatively
impermeable body material to provide a barrier to oxygen and particularly water
vapor. The packaging materials must also prevent the escape of volatile flavor and
aroma compounds from packaged food. Many such compounds whether in both
dry and moist foods can dissolve in packaging’s polymeric layers in direct contact
with food. This effect (called scalping) does not represent a net loss of the
compounds from the packaged food, but does result in diminished consumer
perceptions. In packaged products having relatively high lipid content (eg, bakery
and soup mixes), lipid molecules may follow the smaller volatile ones into the
polymer matrix, causing it to swell.
Fats and Oils. Cooking oils and hydrogenated vegetable shortenings
contain no water and are stable at ambient temperatures. Unsaturated fats
and oils (see FATS AND FATTY OILS) are subject to oxidative rancidity. Packaging
these with oxygen barrier materials under inert atmospheres such as nitrogen
prevents these reactions. Opaque packaging excludes light energy need to initiate
photo-oxidative degradation.
In many cases, opacity to light with ‘‘ultraviolet’’ wavelengths (400 to 10 nm)
will stop photo-oxidation. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) in film or rigid bottle
form can provide the needed degrees of protection. Hydrogenated vegetable
shortenings generally are packaged in composite paperboard cans with nitrogen
to ensure against oxidative rancidity. Blow-molded polyester bottles now package
edible oils, replacing glass bottles and metal cans previously used.
Margarine, butter, and other ‘‘yellow fats’’ contain fat and water and water-
soluble ingredients, (eg, salt and milk solids) to impart flavor and color to the
product. Generally, these products are distributed at refrigerated temperatures to
retain their quality. Greaseproof, ie, fat-resistant packaging, such as poly-
ethylene-coated paperboard, aluminum foil/wax/paper, parchment paper wraps,
and polypropylene tubs package these butter and margarine.
Cereal Products. Ready-to-eat breakfast cereals are susceptible to mois-
ture absorption and require good water vapor and fat barrier packaging that also
10 FOOD PACKAGING

retains volatile flavor and aroma compounds. Breakfast cereals are packaged in
the form of pouches or bags (made from coextruded polyolefin films (high-density
polyethylene for water vapor barrier and polyethylene copolymers as sealants)
within paperboard carton outer shells. Sugared and artificially flavored cereals
sometimes require packaging in aluminum foil or barrier plastic (eg, ethylene
vinyl alcohol laminations/coextrusions) to retard water vapor and flavor
transmission.
Soft-baked goods such as breads, cakes, and pastries are highly voided
structures, the result of biological (eg, yeast) or chemical (eg, sodium hydrogen
carbonate) leavening agents. They are subject to dehydration and staling (the
latter is a crystalline rearrangement of starch molecules). In moist environments,
baked goods are also subject to microbiological deterioration from mold and other
microorganisms. Polyethylene film bags or polyethylene-coated paperboard pre-
vent moisture loss, but no packaging technology can currently slow the staling
process.
Good water vapor barrier films package hard baked goods, such as
cookies and crackers. These have relatively low water and high fat content.
As initially packaged such products are not able to support microbial growth or
lipid oxidation. When water is absorbed, the product loses its desirable crisp
texture and becomes subject to rancidity. Packaging for cookies and crackers
includes coextruded film pouches within paperboard carton shells, and poly-
styrene trays overwrapped with polyethylene or oriented polypropylene film.
Soft cookies are packaged in high water vapor-barrier laminations containing
aluminum foil.
Salty Snacks. Salty snacks include dry grain or starch products such as
potato and corn chips, and roasted nuts. These snacks usually have low-water
content and relatively high-fat content. Salt, a catalyst for lipid oxidation, and
typically in the product formulations compounds snack-packaging challenges.
Snacks are often packaged in pouches derived from oriented polypropylene,
metallized oriented polypropylene or polyester film structures that have low
water vapor transmission, relying on rapid and controlled product distribution
to obviate fat oxidation problems. As the water vapor barrier performance of
available snack packaging films has increased, the practice of back flushing
pouches with inert gas (usually nitrogen) retards oxidative biochemical changes.
Similarly light barrier packaging for snacks retards these changes. In effect
extending the distribution/storage interval during which salty snacks keep their
acceptable moisture content changes the limiting shelf-life factor for the food
products from moisture content to oxidative state of the lipids. Experience has
shown that nitrogen gas back flushing not only extends shelf life, but also provides
an enhanced ‘‘first day freshness’’ experience for the packaged product well before
its shelf-life expires.
Candy. Chocolate is subject to flavor or microbiological change. Inclusions
such as nuts and fillings such as caramel are susceptible to water gain or loss.
Chocolates, which are stable, are packaged in greaseproof papers and moisture–
fat barriers, such as polypropylene film (see CHOCOLATE AND COCOA). As the cocoa fat
in chocolate ages it can crystallize and eject sugar and fat from the food matrix
onto the surface causing ‘‘bloom.’’ Here again no package solution is available to
retard this effect.
 FOOD PACKAGING 11

Hard sugar candies have very low moisture content. They are sealed in low
water vapor transmission packaging such as aluminum foil or oriented poly-
propylene film to avoid absorption of moisture onto the candy surface.

5. Beverages

Beverages may be still or carbonated, alcoholic, or nonalcoholic. Still beverages

require containers with the strength to withstand high internal hydraulic pres-
sures if the packages are dropped. Glass containers have historically bottled still
beverages. High acid beverages (eg, apple juice) use hot fill processes that until
recently exceeded the thermal stability (ie, set temperature) of polyester bottles.
Advance process techniques for such bottles have extended the range of hot fill
beverages suitable for packaging in them. Standup pouches made with flexible
film laminations have long been compatible with the hot fill process. Such pack-
ages as well as pouches made with high barrier materials now package wine and
other noncarbonated alcoholic beverages.
The largest quantity of packaging in the United States is for carbonated
beverages, ie, beer and soft drinks. Both contain dissolved carbon dioxide creating
pressure within the package. The package must withstand the internal pressure
of carbon dioxide and at the same time prevent the egress of carbon dioxide from
the beverage. Coated aluminum cans, and glass and polyester plastic bottles
typically package carbonated drinks.
Beer is more sensitive than nonalcoholic carbonated beverages to oxygen,
loss of carbon dioxide, off-flavor, and light-induced favor changes. Most American
beer undergoes thermal pasteurization performed after sealing in the package. In
recent years have seen attempts to package beer in composite plastic bottle
systems. Polyester bottles containing added oxygen barrier layers and oxygen
scavenger chemicals have found only limited applications because of short shelf
lives. The internal pressure within the package can build to well over 690 kPa
(100 psi) at 63 C (145 F), the usual pasteurization temperature. Beer and other
carbonated beverages are generally packaged at relatively high speeds; requiring
uniform containers, free of defects, and dimensionally stable.

6. Other Food Classification Systems

The complexity and wide range of chemistry inherent in food systems results in
many different classification systems. In the context of food packaging, the ability
of food systems to interact with packaging materials presents a food safety
challenge for food processors. During the distribution and storage of packaged
foods, components of the packaging material may migrate into the food system.
The chemical identity and magnitude of such migration can result in adulteration
of the food. Regulatory agencies in many countries have established classification
systems that identify the allowable packaging materials for specific food types.
For example the ‘‘Food Migrosure’’ project of the European Union is the latest and
most comprehensive effort to quantify the effects of such ‘‘migration’’ and the
‘‘exposure’’ it represents in the food supply (13).
12 FOOD PACKAGING

Table 2. US FDA Food-Type Classification

Types of Raw and Processed Foods: US Food and Drug Administration 21 CFR176.170
‘‘Table 1’’
I. Nonacid, aqueous products; may contain salt or sugar or both (pH above 5.0).
II. Acid, aqueous products; may contain salt or sugar or both, and including oil-in-water
emulsions of low- or high-fat content.
III. Aqueous, acid, or nonacid products containing free oil or fat; may contain salt, and
including water-in-oil emulsions of low- or high-fat content.
IV. Dairy products and modifications:
A. Water-in-oil emulsions, high- or low-fat.
B. Oil-in-water emulsions, high- or low-fat.
V. Low-moisture fats and oil.
VI. Beverages:
A. Containing up to 8 percent of alcohol.
B. Nonalcoholic.
C. Containing more than 8 percent alcohol.
VII. Bakery products other than those included under Types VIII or IX
of this table:
A. Moist bakery products with surface containing free fat or oil.
B. Moist bakery products with surface containing no free fat or oil.
VIII. Dry solids with the surface containing no free fat or oil (no end test required).
IX. Dry solids with the surface containing free fat or oil.

6.1. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) Food

Classification. Table 2 presents the nine major food classifications, some
with subcategories, used by the US FDA to regulate acceptable packaging
materials for the classes of food.
Table 2 presents the nine major food classifications, some with subcatego-
ries, used by the US FDA to regulate acceptable packaging materials for the
classes of food.
6.2. European Union (EU) Food Classification. The European Union
regulates plastic materials intended to contact food with food classifications as
listed in Table 3. European regulators applied the findings of the ‘‘Food
Migrosure’’ research to justify this rather more involved system. It reflects
scientific evaluation of the tendency of various plastic packaging materials to
transfer some of their component chemicals to packaged food systems. The
categories described in the table each refer to specific food simulants used for
laboratory evaluations of overall migration of any components as well as the
migration of ‘‘specific’’ components from identified plastic materials. Standard
food simulants determined by the European regulatory research effort
‘‘Framework Program 5’’ (1998–2002) are

 Ethanol 10% (v/v)

 Acetic acid 3% (w/v)
 Ethanol 20% (v/v)
 Ethanol 50% (v/v)
 Vegetable oil (specified by fatty acid profile)
 poly(2,6-diphenyl-p-phenylene oxide), particle size 60–80 mesh, pore size 200 nm
 FOOD PACKAGING 13

Table 3. EU Food Type classification

Specific food categories COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) No 10/2011: ‘‘Table 2’’
ANNEX III
01. Beverages
01.01 Nonalcoholic beverages or alcoholic beverages of an alcoholic strength lower than or
equal to 6% vol.:
A. Clear drinks:Water, ciders, clear fruit or vegetable juices of normal strength or
concentrated, fruit nectars, lemonades, syrups, bitters, infusions, coffee, tea,
beers, soft drinks, energy drinks and the like, flavored water, liquid coffee
extract
B. Cloudy drinks: juices and nectars and soft drinks containing fruit pulp, musts
containing fruit pulp, liquid chocolate
01.02 Alcoholic beverages of an alcoholic strength of between 6%vol. and 20%
01.03 Alcoholic beverages of an alcoholic strength above 20% and all cream liquors
01.04 Miscellaneous: undenaturated ethyl alcohol
02. Cereals, cereal products, pastry, biscuits, cakes, and other
bakers’ wares
02.01 Starches
02.02 Cereals, unprocessed, puffed, in flakes (including popcorn, corn flakes
and the like)
02.03 Cereal flour and meal
02.04 Dry pasta, eg, macaroni, spaghetti, and similar products and fresh pasta
02.05 Pastry, biscuits, cakes, bread, and other bakers’ wares, dry:
A. With fatty substances on the surface
B. Other
02.06 Pastry, cakes, bread, dough, and other bakers’ wares, fresh:
A. With fatty substances on the surface
B. Other
03. Chocolate, sugar and products thereof Confectionery products
03.01 Chocolate, chocolate-coated products, substitutes and products coated with
substitutes
03.02 Confectionery products
A. In solid form:
I. With fatty substances on the surface
II. Other
B. In paste form:
I. With fatty substances on the surface
II. Moist
03.03 Sugar and sugar products
A. In solid form: crystal or powder
B. Molasses, sugar syrups, honey, and the like
04 Fruit, vegetables and products thereof
04.01 Whole fruit, fresh or chilled, unpeeled
04.02 Processed fruit:
A. Dried or dehydrated fruits, whole, sliced, flour, or powder
B. Fruit in the form of puree, preserves, pastes, or in its own juice
or in sugar syrup (jams, compote, and similar products)
C. Fruit preserved in a liquid medium:
I. In an oily medium
II. In an alcoholic medium
14 FOOD PACKAGING

Table 3. (Continued )

04.03 Nuts (peanuts, chestnuts, almonds, hazelnuts, walnuts, pine kernels and others):
A. Shelled, dried, flaked or powdered
B. Shelled and roasted
C. In paste or cream form
04.04 Whole vegetables, fresh or chilled, unpeeled
04.05 Processed vegetables
A. Dried or dehydrated vegetables whole, sliced, or in the form of flour or powder
B. Fresh vegetables, peeled, or cut
C. Vegetables in the form of puree, preserves, pastes, or in its own juice
(including pickled and in brine)
D. Preserved vegetables:
I. In an oily medium
II. In an alcoholic medium
05 Fats and oils
05.01 Animals and vegetable fats and oils, whether natural or treated (including cocoa
butter, lard, resolidified butter)
05.02 Margarine, butter, and other fats
06 Animal products and eggs
06.01 Fish
A. Fresh, chilled, processed, salted or smoked including fish eggs
B. Preserved fish:
I. In an oily medium
II. In an aqueous medium
06.02 Crustaceans and molluscs (including oysters, mussels, snails)
A. Fresh within the shell
B. Shell removed, processed, preserved, or cooked with the shell
I. In an oily medium
II. In an aqueous medium
06.03 Meat of all zoological species (including poultry and game):
A. Fresh, chilled, salted, smoked
B. Processed meat products (such as ham, salami, bacon, sausages, and other) or in
the form of paste, creams
C. Marinated meat products in an oily medium
06.04 Preserved meat:
A. In an fatty or oily medium
B. In an aqueous medium
06.05 Whole eggs, egg yolk, egg white
A. Powdered or dried or frozen
B. Liquid and cooked
07 Milk products
07.01 Milk
A. Milk and milk-based drinks whole, partly dried and skimmed or partly skimmed
B. Milk powder including infant formula (based on whole milk powder)
07.02 Fermented milk such as yoghurt, buttermilk, and similar products
07.03 Cream and sour cream
07.04 Cheeses
A. Whole, with not edible rind
B. Natural cheese without rind or with edible rind (gouda, camembert, and the like)
and melting cheese
 FOOD PACKAGING 15

Table 3. (Continued )

C. Processed cheese (soft cheese, cottage cheese, and similar)

D. Preserved cheese:
I. In an oily medium
II. In an aqueous medium (feta, mozarella, and similar)
08 Miscellaneous products
08.01 Vinegar
08.02 Fried or roasted foods
A. Fried potatoes, fritters, and the like
B. Of animal origin
08.03 Preparations for soups, broths, sauces, in liquid, solid, or powder form (extracts,
concentrates); homogenized composite food preparations, prepared dishes
including yeast and raising agents
A. Powdered or dried:
I. With fatty character
II. Other
B. any other form than powdered or dried:
I. With fatty character
II. Other
08.04 Sauces
A. With aqueous character
B. With fatty character, eg, mayonnaise, sauces derived from mayonnaise, salad
creams and other oil/water mixtures, eg, coconut-based sauces
08.05 Mustard (except powdered mustard under heading 08.14)
08.06 Sandwiches, toasted bread pizza, and the like containing any kind of foodstuff
A. With fatty substances on the surface
B. Other
08.07 Ice creams
08.08 Dried foods
A. With fatty substances on the surface
B. Other
08.09 Frozen or deep-frozen foods
08.10 Concentrated extracts of an alcoholic strength equal to or exceeding 6% vol.
08.11 Cocoa
A. Cocoa powder, including fat-reduced and highly fat reduced
B. Cocoa paste
08.12 Coffee, whether or not roasted, decaffeinated or soluble, coffee substitutes,
granulated or powdered
08.13 Aromatic herbs and other herbs such as camomile, mallow, mint, tea, lime blossom,
and others
08.14 Spices and seasonings in the natural state such as cinnamon, cloves, powdered
mustard, pepper, vanilla, saffron, salt, and other
08.15 Spices and seasoning in oily medium such as pesto, curry paste

7. Paper, Glass, Metal Food Packaging Formats

Following are very general descriptions of packaging used for food products.
They address the spectrum of packaging applications from transport packaging
of bulk products to consumer-ready retail packaging. Paper, metal, and glass
packaging have a longer history of packaging food than do plastic materials,
16 FOOD PACKAGING

and will receive first consideration here. Wood as a material for packaging
is currently limited to specialty packaging and widespread use as pallets
for unitizing packages for shipment and storage. Other materials have
largely replaced the former common kinds of wooden containers (eg, crates
and barrels).
7.1. Paper Packaging for Food. ‘‘Paperboard’’ is generally considered
paper having a basis weight (‘‘grammage’’) greater than 224 g/m2. Its most
familiar packaging use is in the ‘‘folding carton’’ format. The carton itself is
not a hermetically sealed package. Where that degree of protection is required,
an inner pouch of heat-sealed plastic can contain the food. Folding cartons
represent an important consumer package format because they will inefficiently
fill (‘‘cube out’’) corrugated shipping cartons. Such cartons represent composite
structures of a core material consisting of fluted paper laminated on one or both
sides with flat paper. The combination of materials and physical shape of
corrugated cartons resist compression from forces perpendicular to the fluted
dimension. So-called ‘‘micro-fluted’’ corrugated materials often substitute for
paperboard in cartons requiring high-strength for compression resistance or
holding strength.
The corrugated shipping carton has become a ubiquitous packaging format
for combining (secondary packages) individual packages (primary packages). The
system is cost-effective, lightweight, and easily recycled. These cartons are
stacked in rectangular patterns 6–8 boxes high on wooden pallets and then
‘‘stretch wrapped’’ with slightly elastic thin plastic film to form a unitized load
for storage and shipping.
If the compressive strength of corrugated boxes is not necessary, (eg, the
primary packages are comprised of microfluted cartons) a corrugated tray may
combine a number of cartons and a shroud of heat-shrunk plastic film unitizes the
assembled cartons with the tray.
The fibers in paper products (derived from plant fibers) are able to absorb
and desorb moisture in response to environmental relative humidity. This
equilibrium moisture content affects the strength properties of the paper and
composite containers. Additives to paper fibers before papermaking and coat-
ings on formed paper can increase the hydrophobic nature of paper fiber and
decrease the effects of changes in moisture content. In the extreme, wax and
plastic coatings on paper and paperboard make the materials essentially
waterproof.
Similarly, paper fibers can absorb oil and grease. Various additives and
coatings to paper help mitigate this effect. Perfluorochemicals (PFCs), a group of
manmade chemicals (eg, Scotchguard1, the product line of the 3M Company),
provided the functionality for many of these additives and coatings. Some PFCs
are carcinogenic and persistent environmental pollutants. Paper packaging
treated with these chemicals leach PFCs into the environment. Industry has
found less harmful and less persistent PFCs (those having shorter carbon
chains) for use in formulating acceptable paper additives and coatings.
Recycling fiber from used paper packaging remains a major objective of
many public interest groups and government agencies. Chemicals used in proc-
essing the packaging (including inks and adhesives) may contaminate recycled
 FOOD PACKAGING 17

fiber intended for use in new food packaging material. European food safety
authorities detected both mineral oil saturated hydrocarbons (MOSH) and min-
eral oil aromatic hydrocarbons (MOAH) in the diet of consumers (14). Some but
not all of these potentially carcinogenic materials migrate into food from packag-
ing materials. Other sources include food additives processing aids and lubricants.
Because of the concerns over mineral oils in paper packaging materials, the
Europeans recommended reducing allowable levels of food grade mineral oils from
food processing itself.
7.2. Glass Packaging for Food. Glass bottles and jars have the advan-
tage of being essentially unreactive to the range of chemistries found in food
systems. They are also very heat resistant, easy-to-open, reclosable, transparent,
and made from readily available raw materials. Their fragility and the weight and
cost of overcoming that with thicker container walls represent a major dis-
advantage. As the result of this disadvantage, glass containers are the target
of substitution by a variety of plastic containers.
7.3. Metal Packaging for Food. The so-called ‘‘sanitary food can’’ rep-
resents what is widely considered the most significant advance in food safety and
preservation in human history. ‘‘Fully processed foods’’ thermally sterilized in
cans have made both common and specialty foods available around the world
throughout the year. Nicolas Appert (1749–1841) won the 12,000-French franc
prize in January 1810 (during the Napoleonic wars) for his well-researched
technique to preserve food. His method was to fill thick, large-mouthed glass
bottles with various food types, and leave them in boiling water for an arbitrary
period.
Concurrently, an English system independently matched the empirical
Appert approach. Also for military uses, this approach used lighter weight tin-
plated steel cans (15). Not until studies in 1895–96 did Dr. Samuel Cate Prescott of
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology recognize that heat-resistant bacteria
spores that were able to survive thermal processes used then germinate grow and
cause swollen and exploding food cans and cases of botulism (16). In the United
States, food and can industry representatives and government officials then
worked to develop reliable time/temperatures protocols for and regulation of
the thermal sterilization of various foods (17).
Aluminum beverage cans are able to withstand high internal pressures but
their thin walls (0.012 in.–0.3 mm) do not have high compressive strengths.
Overpressurizing still beverages in aluminum cans with nitrogen gas provides
enough strength to withstand the compressive forces experienced in stacking and
shipping filled cans.
The corrosive contents of both tinplated steel and aluminum cans may react
with the metals to disintegrate the containers and contaminate the contents. In
such cases, various polymeric coatings protect the insides of the cans. These
coatings include several basic polymeric types, but epoxy-based coatings are the
most durable and versatile. With epoxy-chemistry comes the possibility of
bisphenol A (BPA) migrating from the coating into the product. Both United
States and European food safety authorities have studied the potential health
effects of such migration and at the present time conclude that it poses no public
health concerns (6,7).
18 FOOD PACKAGING

8. Plastic Materials for Food Packaging

Polymers used as packaging materials offer some advantages over other materials
while presenting unique challenges of their own. The heat sensitivity of many of
these thermoplastic polymers limits their suitability for some food processes. In no
case, can plastic containers prevent the interchange of container headspace gases
with environmental gases to the degree provided by rigid metal and glass pack-
ages. Matching the solubility in and permeability through plastic packaging
materials to various gases and vapors important to food shelf life becomes a
major design constraint for plastic packaging development. These ‘‘barrier’’
properties result from the relatively low material density (around 1 g/cc) that
makes plastic containers lighter weight than comparable glass metal or paper
containers. Filled plastic packages are often less stiff and weaker than comparable
metal or glass packages. Providing sufficient strength for stacking during trans-
portation and storage may require additional secondary packaging elements.
8.1. Polyethylene. Polyethylene is the most common polymer produced
in the world. Various processes polymerize ethylene monomers using high tem-
peratures, pressures, and catalysts to break the monomers’ double bonds and bond
to adjacent monomers to form polymer chains. So-called ‘‘linear’’ polyethylenes
use alpha-alkenes (ie, butane, hexane, or octane) for some of the monomer units.
The temperature and pressure conditions of polymerization determine the
number and pattern of ‘‘side-chain branches.’’ These chains interrupt linear
polymer chain formation. With a greater number of side chains, the polymer’s
ability to form tightly packed crystals decreases. This effect results in a range of
densities for polyethylene resins ranging from about 0.85–0.95 gm/cc. This crys-
tallinity effect results in greater stiffness and moisture vapor barrier for high-
density polyethylenes.
8.2. Polypropylene. Polypropylene, made by polymerization reactions
similar to those for polyethylene, represents polymer chains of propylene mole-
cules. The material finds use in both rigid and flexible packaging applications
when co-polymerized with a few percent of ethylene, the ethylene–propylene
copolymer serves as a flexible packaging heat sealant able to withstand the
temperatures of food sterilization (285 F or 140 C). Homopolymer polypropylene
is manufactured into thin, ‘‘oriented’’ film form by stretching a sheet in both the
cross and down sheet directions, and then annealing the material with these
stresses still present. Oriented polypropylene film has increased stiffness and
crystallinity (and reduced water vapor permeability).
8.3. Polyester. The most common polyester resin used in packaging is
‘‘polyethylene terephthalate (PET).’’ Terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol react
in condensation polymerization to make the plastic. Thermal conditions during
the cooling of molded PET determine if it will be more or less crystalline. Extrusion
processes similar to those used for oriented polypropylene manufacturer oriented
PET film. Test tube-shaped PET ‘‘preforms’’ are ‘‘stretch blow-molded’’ into
complex shapes using air pressure, molds, and cooling processes. The details of
those cooling processes determine if PET containers will withstand the thermal
energy challenges present during hot fill liquid packaging processes.
PET bottles, especially those used for carbonated soft drinks, represent the
plastic packaging format with the highest levels of recycling. Recovered polyester
 FOOD PACKAGING 19

resin may be used as insulating fiberfill or woven- or knit fabric. With adequate
cleaning and removal of contaminants recycled PET bottles are also used in the
manufacture of new beverage bottles.
8.4. Polyamide. Polyamides in packaging (mostly nylon 6, ‘‘poly-
caprolactam’’) are primarily used as thin films. When caprolactam (a six-carbon
ring molecule) is heated at about 533 K in an inert atmosphere of nitrogen for
about 4–5 h, the ring breaks and undergoes polymerization. The polymer has a
high degree of toughness and can resist puncture forces that would otherwise
break through tear open packaging containers. The same toughness allows it to
easily thermoform and then, while still heated, to conform to package products as
a vacuum is pulled on the package.
8.5. Polyvinyl Chloride. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is produced by polym-
erization of chloroethene, also called vinyl chloride monomer (VCM). This product
is relatively inexpensive producing a low cost polymer. PVC can be molded into
rigid forms and containers, and when plasticized can be formed into thin, flexible
film form. VCM is a recognized carcinogen. Residual VCM in PVC is so low that no
studies have indicated that PVC is itself carcinogenic. These health concerns
combined with environmental fears that PVC when burned or buried in landfills
can release toxic dioxins to the air and groundwater have greatly diminished the
demand for PVC in packaging.
8.6. Barrier Resins. For packaging applications, ‘‘barrier resins’’ are
considered those that have low permeability to molecular oxygen. Such perme-
ability depends on the initial solubility of oxygen in the polymer and then the
subsequent diffusivity of it through the polymer in response to partial pressure
concentration gradients. Polyester and polyamide resins have ‘‘moderate’’ oxygen
barriers. Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC or ‘‘saran’’) and ethylene vinyl alcohol
(EVOH) provide good oxygen barrier. The two are used in rigid and flexible
packaging formats either as coatings or as thin polymer layers coextruded with/
laminated to other functional packaging materials. Table 4 presents example
oxygen barrier values.
PVDC presents many of the same environmental concerns as does PVC, so it
too is out-of-favor for packaging applications. Absorbed moisture, resulting from
high-temperature exposure to a high relative humidity conditions, significantly
impairs the barrier performance of ethylene vinyl alcohol. As a result special
design and/or processing considerations are necessary for using EVOH barrier
layers in plastic packaging for thermally processed foods.

Table 4. Example Oxygen Barrier Values

Barrier polymer Oxygen transmission ratesa
Oriented nylon-6 0.05–0.18
Oriented polyester 2.6
EVOH 2.1
PVDC 0.15–0.90
a
(cm3-0.001 in./100 in.2/24 h @ 25 C & 65% rH)
Source: Eur. Pat. EP 1,807,033 A2 (2007), D. Kanios, J. Mantelle, V. Nguyen (to
Noven Pharmaceuticals, Inc.).
20 FOOD PACKAGING

8.7. Inks, Coatings, and Adhesives. Packages use a variety of chemi-

cal systems for the inks that decorate and label them and the coatings and
adhesives that protect and hold them together. Unreacted components of these
systems and by-products of the chemical reactions used to attach them to other
packaging materials can migrate from the containers themselves into the prod-
ucts packaged. As a result, many governments have established limits on the
composition and application of inks coatings and adhesives used for food packages.

9. Plastic Food Packaging Formats

Lightweight and low-cost plastic packages have replaced metal and glass con-
tainers for many food systems. Continual materials and process improvements
allow plastic applications to serve as primary food packaging for increasing
numbers of food types and package sizes.
9.1. Rigid Plastic Packaging for Food. Rigid plastic packaging for-
mats include bottles, jars, tubs, and trays molded from a variety of plastic
polymers. By convention, bottles and jars represent three-dimensional containers
with a spiral ‘‘finish’’ on which a closure is affixed. The blow molding process
manufactures such containers by ‘‘blowing’’ molten plastic into a mold where it
cools and solidifies into their final form. The process usually uses polyester and
polypropylene resins. A subsequent ‘‘stretch’’ process step may further mold
polyester forms, anneals them with stretch forces still applied and produce a
highly crystalline container with added tensile strength and barrier.
The injection molding process can mold various grades of polyethylene
polymers ‘‘shot’’ under pressure into three-dimensional molds most. Most con-
tainers manufactured with this method have wide openings and use friction fitted
rather than screw-on closures.
Trays and tubs usually made of polypropylene or polyethylene are manu-
factured with injection molding or thermoforming techniques. Thermoforming
involves first extruding a flat, relatively thick, sheet of plastic. The sheet is
heated to a temperature between its glass transition point and its melt tempera-
tures and then subjected to pressure to either push or pull the material into an
open mold.
9.2. Flexible Plastic Packaging for Food. Flexible packaging materi-
als are as simple as a single thermoplastic film layer or as complex as 12 or more
layers of plastic materials in a coextruded film. ‘Coextrusion’’ refers to a process by
which multiple layers of molten plastic simultaneously exit an extrusion die to
form a single multilayered film. Design of such films must assure adequate
adhesion between the different polymers throughout the film.
Various adhesives between layers of plastic film produce multilayer lami-
nations. Such laminations may also include paper and aluminum foil, but the
latter materials cannot inherently provide hermetic seals to maintain the product
inside its package. Flexible packaging allows the selection of different materials
for a single package in order to reach an optimal balance among cost, weight, and
functionality. Rigid plastic containers may also comprise multiple layers of
different polymers (18). In spite of many commercial applications, the technology
has not found the widespread acceptance enjoyed by multilayered flexible
 FOOD PACKAGING 21

Table 5. Cross-Sections Example of Flexible Packaging Materials

Function Case 1: Example Lamination Case 2: Example Coextrusion
Layer Comment Layer Comment
Appearance OPET film (printing) ‘‘Surface’’ printed
Appearance (printing) ‘‘Reverse’’ printed LDPE Extruded resin
Adhesion Adhesive layer Liquid coating Adhesive resin Extruded resin
Barrier Aluminum Opaque foil EVOH Transparent
Adhesion Adhesive layer Liquid coating Adhesive resin Extruded resin
containment LLDPE film LLDPE Extruded resin

packages. The barrier performance of heat set stretch blow-molded polyester

bottles and jars often provides superior value in use, and results in a single-
material ‘‘recyclable’’ package when discarded.
Plastic films used in flexible packages ranging in thickness from 0.001 to
0.01 in. (25–250 mm) generally provide high clarity and gloss desirable for retail
food packaging. Many flexible applications involve printing on the ‘‘reverse’’ side
of the plastic film (ie, the side that will be laminated to other films) so that the
printed image is seen by a viewer through the film thickness. Another layer of
material (laminated or coextruded) may provide adequate barrier to oxygen,
moisture vapor, and light. A sealant layer for sealing the package into the
form of a gas-tight container is present. Table 5 presents stylized cross-sections
of composite flexible packaging materials.
Plastic films do not match the barrier properties of aluminum foil. Various
coatings improve the intrinsic barrier properties of polymer films, PVDC, and
submicron-thick vacuum-deposited aluminum being the most common in food
packaging (some EVOH-coated films are available, but they suffer from the same
oxygen barrier sensitivity to relative humidity manifested by thicker extruded
layers). Vacuum-deposited transparent barrier coatings of silicon and aluminum
oxides improve barrier performance of base films at substantially higher cost than
aluminum-coated ones. In some packaging applications, the transparency pro-
vides marketing and preparation (eg, microwave heating) advantages that justify
the extra cost.

10. Packaging and Shelf Life

The introduction to this article identified processing, packaging, and environment

as factors determining the shelf life of various foods. The following discussion
summarizes those vectors of food deterioration for which a packaging system may
improve shelf-life performance. None of the three factors behaves independently
of the others, so shelf-life improvements from packaging may be greater or less
depending on processing and environmental factors.
10.1. Biochemical Degradation. Because this degradation vector
results from interactions of food chemicals in proximity to each other, pack-
aging’s role becomes one of separating sensitive food chemicals from reactive
environmental ones. The barrier of packaging material to oxygen transmission
22 FOOD PACKAGING

limits the amount of oxidative degradation to that supported by the initial

amount of oxygen in the package headspace. ‘‘Modified atmosphere packaging’’
(MAP) involves replacing that initial oxygen mass with alternate gases (typi-
cally molecular nitrogen). Antioxidants in packaging material can react with
headspace oxygen before food system interactions take place. The effectiveness
of such a strategy depends on the ongoing ability of the packaging material to
prevent ingress of atmospheric oxygen (ie, low oxygen transmission rate). The
nature of the food chemistry itself may require an energy source to realize
oxidative reactions. For example, lipids are typically subject to photo-oxidative
effects catalyzed by ultraviolet light. Light barrier packaging will exclude this
energy source and free radical scavengers may minimize light-induced
degradation.
‘‘Controlled atmosphere packaging’’ (CAP) represents a related concept
with the added complexity of controlling a targetted distribution of gaseous
partial pressures in the package headspace. As various metabolic processes
continue (eg, enzymatic respiration of fresh produce or temperature-related
changes in the oxygen-holding ability of blood and muscle tissue in fresh red
meat), a mechanism associated with the packaging must remove newly formed
gases and replace recently lost ones to maintain the target partial pressures. In
theory, gas absorbing and gas emitting packaging components could maintain
the desired equilibrium but in practice, such combinations are not commercially
feasible.
10.2. Microbial Degradation. The basic ‘‘containment’’ function of
packaging prevents ongoing contamination of packaged food and the introduction
of additional spoilage and or pathogenic bacteria load. For those food and package
combinations that are not sterile, control of water activity in the food system
provides the most effective strategy for minimizing microbial growth. The water
vapor barrier of packaging materials affects the movement of water vapor into or
out of the food system. Desiccant materials in the packaging can reduce both
initial water vapor levels and levels otherwise increased by inward water vapor
migration.
Antimicrobial functionality of packaging materials represents a difficult
challenge. The antimicrobial agents must be sufficiently volatile and mobile in
the package headspace to retard microbial activity on all of the product’s contam-
inated surfaces. Otherwise, the antimicrobial effect is present only where the food
mass contacts and antimicrobial agent in or on the surface of the packaging
material. Excess carbon dioxide concentrations in the package headspace can
provide an antimycotic effect by absorbing on moist food product surfaces (eg,
baked goods) and forming carbonic acid to lower the pH of the food below a value
that will support mold growth.
10.3. Physical Degradation. Packaging can isolate its products from
shock and vibration, reducing enzymatic degradation caused by physical cell
disruption in certain food products (eg, fruits and vegetables). The water vapor
barrier of packaging materials protects the crispness of dry foods.
In-package crystallization of food system components (eg, soft baked goods
staling and lipid blooming on chocolate surfaces) depends primarily on processing
and environmental factors. No effective packaging strategies can alter the onset of
this deterioration, rather product formulation and processing can delay it.
 FOOD PACKAGING 23

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‘‘Packaging Materials, Industrial’’ in ECT 3rd ed., Vol. 16, pp. 714–724, by S. J. Fraenkel,
Container Corp. of America; ‘‘Food Packaging’’ in ECT 4th ed., Vol. 11, pp. 834–856, by A. L.
Brody, Rubbright-Brody, Inc.; Online posting date: December 4, 2000; ‘‘Packaging, Food’’ in
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FURTHER READING

Institute of Packaging Professionals, Fundamentals of Packaging Technology, 5th ed.,

IOPP, Naperville, IL, 748 pp.
24 FOOD PACKAGING

D. Kilcast and P. Subramaniam, eds., The Stability and Shelf-Life of Food, Woodhead
Publishing by CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2000, 352 pp.
S. Damodaran, K. L. Parkin, and O. R. Fennema, Fennema’s Food Chemistry, 4th ed., CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2007, 1144 pp.
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Journal. http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/
efsajournal/about.htm (accessed March 15, 2015).

THOMAS J. DUNN
Flexpacknology LLC, Atlanta, GA, USA