Eur J Psychol Educ

DOI 10.1007/s10212-010-0047-0

Effects of violent and non-violent computer game

content on memory performance in adolescents

Asja Maass & Kirsten Kollhörster &

Annemarie Riediger & Vanessa MacDonald &
Arnold Lohaus

Received: 29 April 2010 / Revised: 5 August 2010 / Accepted: 24 September 2010

# Instituto Superior de Psicologia Aplicada, Lisboa, Portugal and Springer Science+Business Media BV 2010

Abstract The present study focuses on the short-term effects of electronic entertainment
media on memory and learning processes. It compares the effects of violent versus non-
violent computer game content in a condition of playing and in another condition of
watching the same game. The participants consisted of 83 female and 94 male adolescents
with a mean age of 17.6 years. The dependent variables are memory for previously learnt
verbal and visual material, memory for media-related content and physiological measures of
stress (heart rate, cortisol, salivary alpha-amylase). Besides the group comparisons,
potential mediation effects and gender differences were examined. The results show that
violent content leads to a poorer memory performance for verbal material and to an
increased heart rate. The heart rate, however, does not mediate the effect on memory
performance. Genders differ regarding their abilities to memorise verbal and visual
material, with females showing a better performance (independent of the experimental
condition), and for memorising media-contents, where the males outperform females (also
independent of experimental condition). The study supports the assumption that violent and
arousing media content has a negative short-term effect on simultaneous information
processing and learning and that there are gender-specific media effects.

Keywords Media . Computer games . Violent content . Memory . Learning

Introduction

The development of children and adolescents is accompanied and affected by the use of
electronic entertainment media. Hence, there is great interest in the impact which media use
has on developmental and educational outcomes (Dubow et al. 2007; Huesmann and Taylor

A. Maass : K. Kollhörster : A. Riediger : V. MacDonald : A. Lohaus

University of Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Germany

A. Maass (*)
Department of Psychology, University of Bielefeld, Universitätsstr. 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
e-mail: asja.maass@uni-bielefeld.de
 A. Maass et al.

2006; Jordan 2004). Besides the interest in media effects on, for example, violent and
aggressive behaviour, body image and obesity or stereotype formation, one branch of
research focuses on the impact which media use has on learning and academic
achievements (Huesmann and Taylor 2006; Kirkorian et al. 2008; Schmidt and Vandewater
2008). Several studies reveal that the amount of time spent with television and computer
games is negatively related to learning performances and school achievements (e.g.
Borzekowski and Robinson 2005; Gentile et al. 2004; Hancox et al. 2005; Johnson et al.
2007; Schmidt and Anderson 2006; Shin 2004; Zimmermann and Christakis 2005), even
when other relevant variables like socioeconomic status and intelligence are controlled. The
media content should be considered in this context since a negative relation can particularly
be found for violent, non-educational or exciting content, but not for learning or educational
media formats (Hastings et al. 2009; Kirkorian et al. 2008; Schmidt and Anderson 2006;
Schmidt and Vandewater 2008; Sharif and Sargent 2006; Wright et al. 2001).
That a relation between media use and cognitive performance can be found has not only
been supported by long-term perspectives but also in experimental studies which focused
on short-term media effects (Maass et al. 2010a). It has been shown, for example, that a
singular exposure to exciting and arousing media content has an immediate negative impact
on memory performance in male children (Dworak et al. 2007). The participants in the
study of Dworak et al. (2007) were asked to learn several visual and verbal items which
were followed by either a movie or a computer game. This study was conducted during the
evening hours, and the following day, the participants were asked to recall the learnt
material. A memory decline was found for verbal but not for the visual material especially
for those participants who had played the computer game. Other results from previous
studies focusing on adults and children found negative short-term effects for violent and
action-loaded television content for the memory of embedded commercials (Bushman
1998; Mundorf et al. 1991; Prasad and Smith 1994). Studies focusing on the immediate
short-term effects which media exposure has on the learning and memory performance are
rather rare; therefore, further research is needed to confirm and verify the previous findings.
When considering the results of previous studies, it can be expected that especially violent
and emotionally arousing media content may lead to an impaired memory and learning
performance. The underlying mechanisms which might be the reason for the effects have
not yet been completely clarified. Two different approaches in explaining the negative
impact on learning processes are considered in the present study.
The first approach comes from a neuropsychological perspective and focuses on media-
induced physiological stress, which may have an influence on simultaneous learning and
information processing. Several studies reveal that the bodily processes which appear under
stress can impair the memory for previously learnt information which is not related to the
stressor (Cahill et al. 2003; Kirschbaum et al. 1996; Lupien and McEwen 1997; for an
overview, see also Joëls et al. 2006; Wolf 2006). Among others, the physiological indicators
of stress can be an increase in the heart rate and in the concentration of the hormone
cortisol. Also, an increase in the salivary enzyme alpha-amylase can occur (sAA, which is
strongly related to the neurotransmitter noradrenalin; Chatterton et al. 1996). It can be
expected that the exposure to media may induce physiological stress reactions and lead to
differential effects depending on media content and the type of media. Several studies
reveal that watching television and playing computer games can both lead to an increase in
the heart rate when compared to baseline measures (Pollack 1994; Ravaja et al. 2006). As
proposed by Wang and Perry (2006), the metabolic and physiological response is higher for
video games than for television. Accordingly, the heart rate is usually increased when
playing computer games in comparison to watching television (Calvert and Tan 1994;
Effects of violent and non-violent computer game content

Maass et al. 2010b). An increase can especially be found for a violent and arousing media
content (Fleming and Rickwood 2001; Myrtek et al. 1996). For the hormone cortisol, again,
an increase is expected for a violent and arousing content (Berger et al. 1987; Hébert et al.
2005). The studies regarding media effects on sAA are rare but again support the assumption
that violent and arousing content may lead to a rise (Maass et al. 2010b; Skosnik et al. 2000).
When applied to media effects, this would mean that a media-induced physiological stress
reaction, which is expected to be higher for violent and arousing content and also for
actively playing a game, may impair the processing and learning of information presented
before the actual media use (hypothesis of stress-induced learning impairment).
The second approach refers to research on cognitive psychology, addressing the
retroactive inhibition (also called retroactive interference). Several studies have shown that
memorising and memory consolidation of learning materials can be impeded by the
proximate learning of material presented afterwards (for an overview, see Anderson 2000;
Anderson and Neely 1996; Postman 1974). It is assumed that there is a “processing- or
storage-competition” between the different learning materials, which results in a poorer
memory performance. This is especially true if the later material is very similar and can be
associated with the previously learnt material (Keppel 1969). There is also evidence that the
memory performance for the originally learnt material might be impaired if the later learnt
material is emotionally arousing (Newhagen 1992). This may be because in general, it is
easier to learn emotionally arousing material than neutral information (e.g. Hamann et al.
1999; Kensinger and Corkin 2003). Applied to media effects, this means that media content
which is presented after a learning task may lead to an impairment of the memory for the
learnt material. In particular, this is to be expected for a disturbing and arousing media
content. It can, therefore, be assumed that the memory performance for the target material is
poorer if the memory performance for the media content is higher. This is due to the
“competition” between the two processes (hypothesis of retroactive inhibition).
Besides concentrating on general media effects, the present study also focuses on gender
differences. It is well known that habitual media use differs between male and female users:
male users usually prefer violent and action-loaded media contents and spend more time
with them (Funk 2005; Garitaonandia et al. 2001). Therefore, it can be expected that the
impact of especially violent content may differ for the genders since in general males are
more accustomed to it.
To sum up, the following hypotheses and research questions can be derived when
considering the previous theoretical approaches and empirical findings: Violent and non-
violent media content and different types of media use (passively watching versus actively
playing a computer game) differ with regard to their effects on memory performance. In the
case of significant differences between the experimental groups, an analysis was made to
determine whether these differences could be explained through physiological stress
reactions (in terms of heart rate, cortisol or sAA) or through retroactive inhibition (in terms
of memory performance for media contents). Thus, it is examined whether the data yield
evidence for the hypothesis of stress-induced learning impairment or for the hypothesis of
retroactive inhibition described above. Further, it is also examined whether there are gender
differences or interactions between the genders, media content (violent versus non-violent)
and different types of media use (passively watching versus actively playing a computer
game) regarding the effects on memory performance.
In order to consider the findings by Dworak et al. (2007), who found differential media
effects on verbal and visual memory, the two memory subsystems were examined
separately in the present study. Both memory systems belong to the semantical part of the
declarative long-term memory (e.g. Squire 1987) but are processed in different sections of
 A. Maass et al.

the working memory as described by Baddeley (1986). According to Dworak et al. (2007),
it is to be expected that there are media effects particularly on the verbal memory.

Method

Sample

The sample consisted of 177 adolescents and young adults with a mean age of 17.6 years
(SD=1.9). Of the participants, 83 were female and 94 male. All participants were older than
16 years of age, a necessity considering the media content used in this study. They were
recruited from ten different secondary or vocational schools in Bielefeld (Germany) and the
surrounding area. If the schools agreed to participate in the study, an information letter
describing the study was handed out to the students and their parents. Participation in the
study was voluntary, and informed consent was obtained from the parents of those
participants who were under age (younger than 18 years). Further, all participants provided
their assent to the study immediately prior to the beginning of the data collection.
Implementation of the study had previously been approved by the ethical committee of the
German Psychological Association.

Materials and measures

Experimental conditions Four experimental conditions were differentiated. Firstly, the type
of media use was distinguished: in two of the experimental conditions, the participants
actively played a computer game. Participants of the other two conditions watched the same
game on separate screens, without being able to influence the course of the game. Further,
in both versions, two different kinds of media content were implemented: violent and non-
violent. In order to create comparable conditions, both kinds of content were realised within
the same game. Unreal Tournament III (by Midway Games) offers the opportunity to create
a violent game version with computer-controlled opponents and a non-violent version
without any opponents. All other features like e.g. the background music, settings and story
lines are the same for both versions. The general goal is to find and capture a flag and to return
it to the home base. In the violent game condition, the protagonist has to defend and fight
against other players on his way through the game scenery; in the non-violent condition, the
player has to find the way to the flag and back to his home base without any fights or combat
scenes. Both versions of the game are played in the first-person perspective. In Germany, the
game has an age restriction and is not permitted for children and adolescents under the age of
16 years. The participants were randomly assigned to one of the four experimental groups.
Table 1 gives an overview of the sample sizes and gender distribution.

Sociodemographic data and information on habitual media use The participants were
asked to specify their gender and their age in years. Further, they were asked how long they
usually played computer games on an ordinary day with the following response scale: never
(0), 1 h (1), 2 h (2), 3 h (3), 4 h (4), 5 h (5) and more than 5 h a day (6). Further, they were
asked how often they usually played computer games with an age restriction, which are,
therefore, not permitted for children and adolescents. The response options were: never (0),
at least once in a half-year (1), at least once a month (2), at least once a week (3), almost
daily (4). This information was obtained in order to ensure that the participants in the
different experimental groups were comparable regarding their habitual media use.
Effects of violent and non-violent computer game content

Table 1 Assignment of the participants to the different experimental groups

Female Male Total

Playing of the violent game n=21 n=21 n=42

Playing of the non-violent game n=22 n=24 n=46
Watching of the violent game n=20 n=23 n=43
Watching of the non-violent game n=20 n=26 n=46
N=177

Memory performance for verbal and visual material For the verbal learning material, a list
of 18 different German words (nouns) on one single slide was presented for 60 s. The list
contains neutral (e.g. term) and positive as well as negative emotional words (e.g. kiss,
sorrow). The list consisted of six neutral, positive and negative words each. This learning
material has already been used in other studies on memory performance (Kuhlmann,
Kirschbaum and Wolf 2005; Kuhlmann, Piel and Wolf 2005). As visual material, 18 colour
photos were also presented the same way for 60 s. The pictures were taken from the
International Affective Picture System (Lang et al. 2005) containing six neutral (e.g. a
picture of clothes pins), six positive and six negative pictures (e.g. pictures of a chocolate
bar or of a bleeding boxer). The memory testing was operationalised through a free recall,
in which the participants were asked to write down all words and pictures they had
memorised in the 4 min time span. The order in which the pictures and words were
presented was balanced: one half of the sample first learned the pictures and then the words,
the other half in reversed order. The number of correctly recalled items was summed up
and, in a first step, six subscales (verbal: neutral, positive and negative as well as visual:
neutral, positive and negative) were differentiated.
In order to assess the factorial structure of these six subscales, an exploratory factor
analysis was conducted and revealed two factors which represented the verbal and visual
memory performance. The different classes of valence were not represented by the factorial
structure and were, therefore, not independently considered in the following analysis. The
internal consistency for the 18 verbal items was α=.63 and for the 18 visual items α=.58.

Memory performance for media contents While the game was running, screenshots of the
game were taken at frequent intervals and saved on the computer. This was not noticeable for
the participants. After the game had finished, a random selection of ten screenshots and ten
distractor screenshots, which were taken in advance from the same game in a different match,
were combined in mixed order and presented consecutively one at a time after the game. The
participants were asked to decide for each screenshot whether they had seen the picture in the
game they had played or watched by marking “yes” or “no” on a questionnaire. The number of
the correctly answered items was summed up to obtain a single score on the memory
performance for the media contents. The internal consistency of the 20 items was α=.74.

Physiological measures Heart rate was measured by a Polar RS800 heart rate monitor. The
monitor consists of a transmitting belt that is fastened around the chest and a wrist receiver.
The measurement unit for HR is beats per minute. Artefacts were controlled through the
Polar software Pro Trainer 5. Cortisol and sAA were measured through saliva samples
which were collected using Salivette collection devices (Sarstedt, Nuembrecht, Germany).
Free cortisol levels were measured using an immunoassay (IBL, Hamburg, Germany).
Inter- and intra-assay variations were below 15%. For sAA, a quantitative enzyme kinetic
 A. Maass et al.

method was used as described elsewhere (van Stegeren et al. 2006). The level of cortisol
was measured in nmol/l and the concentration of sAA in units per millilitre. Baseline levels
were assessed in order to statistically control natural interindividual differences in the
physiological measures. Outliers with extremely high or low levels of cortisol or sAA were
deleted and not considered for the statistical analyses.

Procedure

The data collections were conducted in rooms provided by the participating schools and
started between 11 and 12 o’clock in the morning. The daily time was kept at a constant
because the cortisol level underlies natural circadian variations (Kiess et al. 1995).
The participants were tested in small groups each consisting of four subjects. Two of
these four adolescents actively played a game; the other two watched the game being
played by the others. This was realised by connecting the screens and transferring the game
from one screen to another. To avoid distractions among the participants, they were set
apart from each other in front of separate computer screens with headphones. Eye contact
was not possible due to the visual barriers used. The participants were randomly assigned to
one of the four experimental groups.
After a short introduction the participants were asked to answer some questions
regarding their sociodemographic background and habitual media use. Afterwards, the
baseline measures of all physiological measures were assessed. This was followed by a
learning phase in which the visual and verbal learning material was presented on the
screens for 60 s each. The baseline measure of memory performance was determined using
a subsequent four-minute period of free recall for the presented items. Subsequently, both
visual and verbal learning materials were again presented to the participants for 60 s each.
This was followed by the media use phase in which the participants either played or
watched the violent or the non-violent version of the computer game for 27 min on average.
During the media use, the heart rate was continuously assessed and the concentration of
cortisol and sAA were determined immediately after the use of media. The participants
were again asked to recall all the memorised visual and verbal items, once the media use
had ended, and cortisol and sAA were determined (which took approximately an additional
3 min). The time between the last learning phase and the recall was exactly 30 min for each
experimental condition. After finishing the recall, the memory performance for media
contents was assessed as described above.

Statistical analysis

Group and gender differences were analysed with separate univariate ANOVAs with three
independent variables (type of media use: watching versus playing, media content: violent
versus non-violent and gender). The baseline measures of the relevant dependent measures
were included as covariates in the analyses of memory performance for verbal and visual
material, heart rate, cortisol and sAA in order to control for baseline differences.
In the case of significant group differences, mediation analyses were conducted to
analyse if the differences could be explained through potential mediator variables. These
analyses were based on multiple regressions. In particular, it was examined whether the
relation between the predictors (which equate to the independent variables considered in the
ANCOVAs) and the outcome measures would be reduced if the mediator was added to the
Effects of violent and non-violent computer game content

regression model as described by Frazier et al. (2004). In order to consider the baseline
measures of memory performance and physiological measures, standardised residuals of
these variables were determined in a first step and then used in the mediation analysis. The
residuals contain the parts of the outcome measures which cannot already be explained or
predicted by the baseline measure.

Results

Group and gender comparisons

In a first step, the comparability of the groups in terms of sociodemographic data and their
habitual media use was analysed. The groups did not differ significantly regarding their
mean age, the general habitual use of computer games (grand average: M=1.6, SD=1.4) or
the habitual use of age-restricted games (grand average: M=1.8, SD=1.5).
Table 2 provides the means and standard deviations for memory performance, heart rate,
cortisol and sAA after media use relevant for the following analyses.

Memory performance for verbal and visual material The first ANCOVA regarding verbal
memory performance revealed a main effect for media content (F(1,168) =4.22, p<.05,
eta2 =.02) and for gender (F(1,168) =22.04, p<.01, eta2 =.12): violent content leading to a
poorer memory performance than non-violent content (see Fig. 1) and females showing
better memory performance than male participants. It should be noted that there were no
gender differences in the baseline measure of the verbal memory performance (t(219) =1.31,
n.s.). No effects regarding the type of media use (watching vs. playing; F(1,168) =.01, n.s.)
and no interaction effects were found. The second ANCOVA on visual memory
performance also shows a main effect for gender (F(1,168) =5.54, p<.05, eta2 =.03); again,
there were no gender differences in the baseline measure of the visual memory performance
(t(219) =1.28, n.s.). Neither for the type of media use (F(1,168) =.62, n.s.) nor for the media
content (F(1,168) =2.75, p=.10.) could main effects be found, although a content effect is
supported by trend. Finally, again no interaction effects were found.

Memory performance for media content An ANOVA reveals a main effect neither for
media content (F(1,165) =.03, n.s.) nor for type of media use (F(1,165) =.81, n.s.) but does for
gender (F(1,165) =4.86, p<.05, eta2 =.03): males showed a better memory performance for
media contents than females. None of the interactions reached statistical significance.

Physiological measures When controlled for the baseline measure, the heart rate was
higher for the violent than for the non-violent content (F(1,163) =4.01, p<.05, eta2 =.02). No
significant differences were found for type of media use (F(1,163) =2.24, n.s.) and gender
(F(1,163) =3.22, n.s.). There was no significant interaction effect. Moreover, no main or
interaction effects were found for cortisol or sAA.

Mediator effects

To test the hypothesis of a stress-induced learning impairment, a mediator analysis was

conducted. The group comparisons described above reveal that violent and non-violent
Table 2 Means and standard deviations (in parentheses) for violent vs. non-violent content, for playing vs. watching of a computer game and for both genders (independent of
experimental condition) after media use

Violent content Non-violent content Playing of the computer Watching of the computer Female participants Male participants
(n=85) (n=92) game (n=88) game (n=89) (n=83) (n=94)

Memory performance for 7.96 (3.16) 9.36 (3.31) 8.61 (3.45) 8.76 (3.17) 9.82 (3.17) 7.69 (3.11)
verbal material
Memory performance for 12.08 (3.19) 13.14 (3.04) 12.16 (2.85) 13.10 (3.36) 13.30 (2.78) 12.04 (3.34)
visual material
Memory performance for 17.05 (2.21) 17.16 (3.22) 17.29 (2.77) 16.92 (2.83) 16.60 (2.78) 17.54 (2.71)
media contents
Heart rate 75.74 (11.57) 74.93 (8.97) 76.55 (10.05) 74.10 (10.36) 77.84 (9.73) 73.07 (10.23)
Cortisol 7.51 (3.86) 8.14 (3.92) 8.09 (3.99) 7.61 (3.80) 7.61 (3.90) 8.06 (3.89)
Salivary alpha-amylase 142.83 (82.89) 123.41 (74.97) 139.93 (83.83) 125.74 (74.36) 145.95 (87.27) 120.58 (69.38)
A. Maass et al.
Effects of violent and non-violent computer game content

12,00

Number of correctly recalled words 11,00

10,00
9.36 (3.31)

9,00

7.96 (3.16)
8,00

7,00

6,00

5,00
Violent Content Non-Violent Content

Fig. 1 Verbal memory performance in the experimental conditions of violent and non-violent media content
(independent of type of media) after media use. Means and standard deviations (in parentheses) of number of
correctly recalled words out of a total of 18 words

content differs significantly with regard to memory performance for verbal material.
Further, they differ in heart rate but not in cortisol or sAA. Therefore, heart rate is a possible
mediator variable in line with the hypothesis of a stress-induced learning impairment. For
cortisol and sAA, no mediator analyses were calculated because neither media content
(violent versus non-violent) nor type of media use (playing versus watching) have an
influence on these physiological parameters. Therefore, they cannot serve as mediators. A
mediation analysis was conducted with the predictor media content [violent (1) versus non-
violent (0)], the outcome measure memory performance for verbal material and the
potential mediator heart rate.
The results can be seen in Table 3 and show that the relation between media content and
verbal memory performance does not significantly decrease once the mediator heart rate is
included in the last step of the regression analysis. Contrary to expectation, the relation
between predictor and outcome is even increased (as indicated by the significance level)
once the mediator is included. This might be due to possible suppressor effects. Therefore,
the heart rate does not mediate the relation between media content and verbal memory
performance. In addition, the analysis was conducted separately for males and females in
order to examine whether any gender-specific mediator effects could be found. Again, for
both genders, the heart rate did not serve as a mediator.
The hypothesis of retroactive inhibition does not need to be tested with the procedure of
the mediation analysis described above, since the memory performance for media contents
differs neither between violent and non-violent media content nor between the different
types of media use. Therefore, the memory performance for media contents cannot serve as
a mediator and the hypothesis of retroactive inhibition must also be rejected.
An additional analysis was conducted to further analyse the gender differences found in
this study. The gender comparisons revealed that the females and males differed
(independent of media content or type of media use) with regard to verbal and visual
memory performance after media use. They also differ with regard to memory performance
for media contents. Therefore, two additional mediation analyses were conducted to test if
the retroactive inhibition might be an explanation for the gender difference. They consider
 A. Maass et al.

Table 3 Results of the multiple linear regressions of the mediation analyses

B SE β R2

Mediation analysis 1
Outcome: verbal memory performance
Predictor: media content −.26 .15 −.13* .02
Outcome: heart rate
Predictor: media content .29 .15 .14* .02
Outcome: verbal memory performance
Mediator: heart rate .17 .08 .16**
Predictor: media content −.32 .15 −.16** .04
Mediation analysis 2
Outcome: verbal Memory performance
Predictor: gender −.66 .14 −.33*** .11
Outcome: memory performance for media contents
Predictor: gender .94 .42 .17** .03
Outcome: verbal memory performance
Mediator: memory performance for media contents −.01 .03 −.03
Predictor: gender −.66 .15 −.33*** .11
Mediation analysis 3
Outcome: visual memory performance
Predictor: gender −.33 .15 −.16** .03
Outcome: memory performance for media contents
Predictor: gender .94 .42 .17** .03
Outcome: visual memory performance
Mediator: memory performance for media contents .07 .03 .19**
Predictor: gender −.37 .15 −.19** .06

*p<.10, **p<.05, ***p<.01 (two-tailed)

the predictor gender [female (1) versus male (2)], the outcome measures memory
performance for verbal material, memory performance for visual material (in separate
analyses) and the potential mediator memory performance for media contents (mediation
analyses 2 and 3).
Both mediation analyses show that neither for verbal nor for visual memory performance
does the memory of media contents mediate gender differences since the relation between
gender and verbal or visual memory does not decrease in the last step of the mediation
analyses (see Table 3).

Discussion

In line with the results from previous studies (Dworak et al. 2007; Maass et al. 2010a), this
study supports the assumption that that the effects of violent versus non-violent media
content on cognitive performances differ. The memory performance for verbal material was
significantly better if participants were exposed to a non-violent content. For the visual
learning material, this effect was supported by trend but did not reach statistical
Effects of violent and non-violent computer game content

significance. No differences were found for the different types of media use. Thus, it does
not seem to matter whether somebody actively plays or merely watches somebody else
playing the computer game. Whether these results can be transferred to watching television (as
an equivalent to watching a video game) is open to discussion since the television content may
differ from the game content, although the type of reception is comparable. Nevertheless, the
present study points out that media content seems to be a key factor for the analyses of media
effects and that other conditions of media use are presumably subordinate.
In terms of physiological measures, the heart rate was increased for violent as compared
to non-violent content. This corresponds with other findings (e.g. Fleming and Rickwood
2001; Myrtek et al. 1996). Again, there were no differences between the two types of media
use. Further, no differences were found for the other physiological measures of cortisol and
sAA. This might be due to the fact that the presented violent media content was neither
arousing nor stressful enough to initiate a meaningful physiological stress reaction. It is
well known that especially for the release of cortisol major and serious stressors are
required (Dickerson and Kemeny 2004).
The question of how the group differences found for memory performance can be
explained cannot be answered by the present study. The hypothesis of stress-induced
learning impairment was not supported. Neither the heart rate nor the concentration of
cortisol or sAA can be used as an explanation for the reported effects of the violent versus
non-violent media content. The negative effect on memory performance does not seem to
be a result of an increased physiological arousal through violent media content. In addition
to this, the hypothesis of retroactive inhibition was not supported since there were no
differences between the experimental conditions in memory performance for media
contents, which, therefore, does not serve as a mediator.
Genders differed regarding their memory performance for verbal and visual material:
females did better in both tests. The opposite was true for memory performance regarding
the media contents: males did significantly better in this test. This might imply that females’
memory performance is less affectable by media use (independent of content and type of
use) and that males are presumably more absorbed by and focused on the game used in the
present study, thus leading to an improved performance in memorising the media contents.
Nevertheless, the memory performance for the media contents does not explain the gender
differences regarding the memory for verbal and visual material. This is rather surprising
and it should be considered that this might be due to the method used for measuring the
memory for media contents. It may be more efficient if content-relevant information were
memorised, rather than the retrieval of randomly taken visual pictures from the actual game.
Further, this finding may be limited to the used media products in this study and may not be
representative for other types of games. Most likely, the content of a first-person-shooter
game is more attractive and exciting to males than to females. Therefore, males might be
more interested in and affected by this game, whereas the reverse could be true if a game
with a content more attractive for females had been used.
The limitations of the present study have already been partly mentioned above. Besides
this, it should be considered that the presented media content may have been harmless in
comparison to other contents to which children, adolescents and young adults are usually
exposed. Other games (e.g. with an age restriction of 18 years) contain a lot more violence
and are, therefore, probably more arousing and stressful. Therefore, the reported results may
underestimate the real effects of violent media content.
Moreover, only one game out of a vast variety of games was used for this study.
Therefore, it is certainly in question how strong and representative the reported findings of
this single study are and if similar studies containing different kinds of games could lead to
 A. Maass et al.

comparable results. Hence, further studies should include a diverse range of games to
replicate the results.
To conclude, the present study yields evidence that violent media content has a negative
short-term impact on learning and memorising abilities when compared to non-violent
content. Since the considered possible mediators do not explain the differences, other
approaches have to be considered. Further studies should concentrate on other short-term
mechanisms which could explain the reported effects. For example, there might be a higher
mental workload when being exposed to violent media content. This workload might
occupy more cognitive capacities and, therefore, inhibit the processing of simultaneous
learning and memorising mechanisms. The memory of media content measures in terms of
correctly remembered pictures of the game conducted in this study does not appropriately
measure the cognitive workload but only a single aspect of it. Therefore, other methods should
be developed to ensure a more detailed measure of cognitive workload during media use.
Due to the limitations of the present study, practical implications of the findings can only
be conditionally stated. With regard to cognitive and academic performance it seems to be
unfavourable to consume violent media formats immediately after the learning of other
information such as subject matter for school. This appears especially true for verbal
learning material such as vocabularies or informational texts. Besides the effects on
cognitive outcomes, the question whether violent media content and media use in general
can have other harmful effects on children and adolescents with regard to, for instance,
aggressive behaviour, stereotype thinking and health is a general point of discussion
(compare e.g. Huesmann and Taylor 2006; Kirsh 2010). Therefore, parents, teachers and
other significant caregivers should carefully watch and monitor the media use habits of
children and adolescents and inform them about possible negative effects.

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Asja Maass. Department of Psychology, University of Bielefeld, Universitätsstr. 25, 33615 Bielefeld,
Germany. E-mail: asja.maass@uni-bielefeld.de

Current themes of research:

Effects of electronic entertainment media on children, adolescents and young adults. Stress and stress
prevention in adolescents.

Relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education:

Vierhaus, M., Maass, A., Fridrici, M. & Lohaus, A. (2010). Effects of a school-based stress prevention
programme on adolescents in different phases of behavioural change. Educational Psychology, 30, 465-
480.
Maass, A. Klöpper, K. M., Michel, F. & Lohaus, A. (2010a). Does media use have a short-term impact on
cognitive performance? A study on television viewing and video gaming. Journal of Media Psychology.
Effects of violent and non-violent computer game content

Arnold Lohaus. University of Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Germany

Current themes of research:

Health promotion in childhood and adolescence. Stress and stress prevention in adolescents. Coping in
children and adolescents. Effects of media use in childhood.

Relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education:

Lohaus, A., Klein-Heßling, J., Ball, J. & Wild, M. (2004). The prediction of health-related behaviour in
elementary school children. Journal of Health Psychology, 9, 375-379.
Lohaus, A., Elben, C.E., Ball, J. & Klein-Heßling, J. (2004). School transition from elementary to secondary
school: Changes in psychological adjustment. Educational Psychology, 24, 161-173.
Lohaus, A., Ball, J., Klein-Heßling, J. & Wild, M. (2005). Relations between media use and self-reported
symptomatology in young adolescents. Anxiety, Stress and Coping, 18, 333-341.
Vierhaus, M. & Lohaus, A. (2008). Children and parents as informants of emotional and behavioural
problems predicting adolescents’ health risk behaviour: A longitudinal cross-informant study. Journal of
Youth and Adolescence, 37, 211-224.
Fridrici, M. & Lohaus, A. (2009). Stress prevention in secondary schools: Online versus face-to-face-training.
Health Education, 109, 299-313.

Kirsten Kollhörster, Annemarie Riediger & Vanessa MacDonald. University of Bielefeld, Bielefeld,
Germany

Current themes of research:

Effects of electronic entertainment media on children, adolescents and young adults.

No further publications in the field of Psychology of Education.