KARMA

INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
Karma, Sanskrit karman (“act”), Pali kamma, in Indian religion and philosophy, the universal causal law by which
good or bad actions determine the future modes of an individual’s existence. Karma represents the ethical dimension
of the process of rebirth (samsara), belief in which is generally shared among the religious traditions of India. Indian
soteriologies (theories of salvation) posit that future births and life situations will be conditioned by actions
performed during one’s present life—which itself has been conditioned by the accumulated effects of actions
performed in previous lives. The doctrine of karma thus directs adherents of Indian religions toward their common
goal: release (moksha) from the cycle of birth and death. Karma thus serves two main functions within
Indian moral philosophy: it provides the major motivation to live a moral life, and it serves as the primary explanation
of the existence of evil.

Derived from the Sanskrit word karman, meaning “act,” the term karma carried no ethical significance in its earliest
specialized usage. In ancient texts (1000–700 BCE) of the Vedic religion, karma referred simply to ritual and
sacrificial action. As the priestly theology of sacrifice was articulated by Brahman priests over the following centuries,
however, ritual action came to be regarded as effective by itself, independent of the gods. Karma as ritual functioned
autonomously and according to a cosmic ritual law.
The earliest evidence of the term’s expansion into an ethical domain is provided in the Upanishads, a genre of
the Vedas (sacred scriptures) concerned with ontology, or the philosophical study of being. In the middle of the 1st
millennium BCE, the Vedic theologian Yajnavalkya expressed a belief that later became commonplace but was
considered new and esoteric at the time: “A man turns into something good by good action and into something bad by
bad action.” Although within the Vedic ritual tradition “good action” and “bad action” may have included both ritual
and moral acts, this moral aspect of karma increasingly dominated theological discourse, especially in the religions
of Buddhism and Jainism, which emerged about the middle of the 1st millennium BCE. Both of these religions
embraced ascetic modes of life and rejected the ritual concerns of the Brahman priests.
The connection between the ritual and moral dimensions of karma is especially evident in the notion of karma as a
causal law, popularly known as the “law of karma.” Many religious traditions —notably the Abrahamic religions that
emerged in the Middle East (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam)—place reward and punishment for human actions in
the hands of a divine lawgiver. In contrast, the classical traditions of India—Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, much
like the Vedic sacrificial theology that preceded them—view karma as operating according to an autonomous causal
law. No divine will or external agent intervenes in the relationship of the moral act to its inevitable result. The law of
karma thus represents a markedly nontheistic theodicy, or explanation of why there is evil in the world.

Once a divine judge is taken out of the equation, a new question arises: within a causal sequence, how can an act
produce an effect at a future time far removed from the act’s performance? Different Indian moral philosophies
provide different answers, but all acknowledge some kind of karmic residue resulting from the initial act. Jainism, for
example, regards karma as a fine particulate substance that settles on the soul (jiva) of one who commits immoral
actions or has immoral thoughts, making it impure and heavy and miring it in the material world of rebirth. The Vedic
ritualistic tradition that preceded Hinduismcontributed the concept of the apurva, the latent potency created within
the soul by ritual and moral actions. Much like a seed, an apurva sprouts into new realities in the distant future. Other
traditions—e.g., Yoga and Buddhism—provide psychological explanations in which karmic residue produces
dispositional tendencies (samskaras) and psychological traces (vasanas) that determine the future births and
personality traits of an individual. Each of these examples demonstrates how the concept of karma provided a bridge
between cause and effect separated by time.
The doctrine of karma implies that one person’s karma cannot have an effect on another person’s future. Yet, while
karma is in theory specific to each individual, many aspects of Indian religions reflect the widely held belief that
karma may be shared. For example, the doctrine of the transfer of merit, whereby one person can transfer his good
karma to another, is found in both Buddhism and Hinduism. Ancestral offerings and other rituals for the departed
show that acts done by the living are believed to influence the well-being of the dead. Finally, pious activities,
including pilgrimages, are often performed for the benefit of living or deceased relatives.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/karma

YOGA

Yoga, (Sanskrit: “Yoking” or “Union”) one of the six systems (darshans) of Indian philosophy. Its influence has been
widespread among many other schools of Indian thought. Its basic text is the Yoga-sutras by Patanjali (c. 2nd
century BCE or 5th century CE).
The practical aspects of Yoga play a more important part than does its intellectual content, which is largely based on
the philosophy of Samkhya, with the exception that Yoga assumes the existence of God, who is the model for the
aspirant who seeks spiritual release. Yoga holds with Samkhya that the achievement of spiritual liberation (moksha)
occurs when the spirit (purusha) is freed from the bondage of matter (prakriti) that has resulted from ignorance
and illusion. The Samkhya view of the evolution of the world through identifiable stages leads Yoga to attempt to
reverse this order, as it were, so that a person can increasingly dephenomenalize the self until it reenters its original
state of purity and consciousness. An aspirant who has learned to control and suppress the obscuring activities of
the mindand has succeeded in ending attachment to material objects will be able to enter samadhi—i.e., a state of
deep concentration that results in a blissful ecstatic union with the ultimate reality.
Generally, the Yoga process is described in eight stages (ashtanga-yoga, “eight-membered Yoga”). The first two stages
are ethical preparations. They are yama (“restraint”), which denotes abstinence from injury (see ahimsa), falsehood,
stealing, lust, and avarice; and niyama (“discipline”), which denotes cleanliness of body, contentment, austerity, study,
and devotion to God.
The next two stages are physical preparations. Asana (“seat”), a series of exercises in physical posture, is intended to
condition the aspirant’s body and make it supple, flexible, and healthy. Mastery of the asanas is reckoned by one’s
ability to hold one of the prescribed postures for an extended period of time without involuntary movement or
physical distractions. Pranayama (“breath control”) is a series of exercises intended to stabilize the rhythm of
breathing in order to encourage complete respiratory relaxation.

The fifth stage, pratyahara (“withdrawal of the senses”), involves control of the senses, or the ability to withdraw the
attention of the senses from outward objects.
Whereas the first five stages are external aids to Yoga, the remaining three are purely mental or internal
aids. Dharana (“holding on”) is the ability to hold and confine awareness of externals to one object for a long period of
time (a common exercise is fixing the mind on an object of meditation, such as the tip of the nose or an image of the
deity). Dhyana (“concentrated meditation”) is the uninterrupted contemplation of the object of meditation, beyond
any memory of ego. Samadhi (“total self-collectedness”) is the final stage and is a precondition of attaining release
from samsara, or the cycle of rebirth. In this stage the meditator perceives or experiences the object of his meditation
and himself as one.
The prehistory of Yoga is not clear. The early Vedic texts speak of ecstatics, who may well have been predecessors of
the later yogis (followers of Yoga). Although Yoga has been made into a separate school, its influence and many of its
practices have been felt in other schools.
In the course of time, certain stages of Yoga became ends in themselves—notably, the breathing exercises and sitting
postures, as in the Yoga school of Hatha Yoga. Patanjali’s Yoga is sometimes known as Raja (“Royal”) Yoga, to
distinguish it from the other schools.
Yoga, in a less technical sense of achieving union with God, is also used, as in the Bhagavadgita, to distinguish the
alternate paths (margas) to such a union.
Beginning in the early 20th century, the philosophy and practice of Yoga became increasingly popular in the West.
The first important organization for practitioners in the United States was the Self-Realization Fellowship, founded
by Paramahansa Yogananda in 1920. Within 50 years, instruction emphasizing both the physical and spiritual
benefits of Yogic techniques was available through a wide variety of sectarian Yoga organizations, nonsectarian
classes, and television programs in the United States and Europe.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yoga-philosophy

NIRVANA

Nirvana (Sanskrit nirvaṇa, fallen nibbāna – extinction, extinction) – in the Indian religious thought (Jainism) the
ultimate goal of all living beings; one of the key concepts of Buddhism, denoting the transcendental state attained by
the Buddha as a result of the knowledge of the four noble truths and the passage of the eight stages of dhyana
(meditation).

The state of nirvana presupposes the complete eradication of affects and egocentric attachments (klesha, Asya), which
“feed” the process of rebirth (samsara, karma), so its offensive is often compared with the extinction of fire on
exhaustion of fuel. In the texts, nirvana is often described in purely negative terms as the absence of some
fundamental properties of samsaric existence – primarily spirit.

Concerning the Buddha, one can see a certain adaptation to the level of the audience. He aspired to ensure that
nirvana not only served as a contrast to the habitual practice of its listeners but also seemed to them an attractive
 goal. It is unlikely that most of the followers of the Buddha would be inspired by the ideal of nothingness (that is how
many European thinkers who saw in Buddhism interpret nihilism interpreted Nirvana), he speaks of bliss, for the
more “advanced” – about the cessation of consciousness.

Nirvana does not necessarily entail physical death. The death of an arhat who has already experienced nirvana is
called parinirvana (supreme nirvana). It is believed that those who have attained it completely disappear from all
existences, worlds and times, therefore bodhisattvas, who care for the good of other beings, postpone their final care
to help them alleviate their fate.
In Mahayana, nirvana is identified with shunyata (emptiness), dharma-kaya (the immutable essence of the Buddha),
and dharmadhatu (ultimate reality). Nirvana is not here the result of the process (otherwise it would be another
transitory state), but the supreme eternal truth that is implicit in the empirical existence (the idea of the identity of
nirvana and samsara).
https://simplyphilosophy.org/study/nirvana-definition/

BASICS OF HINDUISM

Nine Beliefs of Hinduism

Our beliefs determine our thoughts and attitudes about life, which in turn direct our actions. By our actions, we create
our destiny. Beliefs about sacred matters--God, soul and cosmos--are essential to one's approach to life. Hindus
believe many diverse things, but there are a few bedrock concepts on which most Hindus concur. The following nine
beliefs, though not exhaustive, offer a simple summary of Hindu spirituality.

1. Hindus believe in a one, all-pervasive Supreme Being who is both immanent and transcendent, both Creator and
Unmanifest Reality.
2. Hindus believe in the divinity of the four Vedas, the world's most ancient scripture, and venerate the Agamas as
equally revealed. These primordial hymns are God's word and the bedrock of Sanatana Dharma, the eternal religion.
3. Hindus believe that the universe undergoes endless cycles of creation, preservation and dissolution.
4. Hindus believe in karma, the law of cause and effect by which each individual creates his own destiny by his thoughts,
words and deeds.
5. Hindus believe that the soul reincarnates, evolving through many births until all karmas have been resolved, and
moksha, liberation from the cycle of rebirth, is attained. Not a single soul will be deprived of this destiny.
6. Hindus believe that divine beings exist in unseen worlds and that temple worship, rituals, sacraments and personal
devotionals create a communion with these devas and Gods.
7. Hindus believe that an enlightened master, or satguru, is essential to know the Transcendent Absolute, as are
personal discipline, good conduct, purification, pilgrimage, self-inquiry, meditation and surrender in God.
8. Hindus believe that all life is sacred, to be loved and revered, and therefore practice ahimsa, noninjury, in thought,
word and deed.
9. Hindus believe that no religion teaches the only way to salvation above all others, but that all genuine paths are facets
of God's Light, deserving tolerance and understanding.

Hinduism, the world's oldest religion, has no beginning--it precedes recorded history. It has no human founder. It is a
mystical religion, leading the devotee to personally experience the Truth within, finally reaching the pinnacle of
consciousness where man and God are one. Hinduism has four main denominations--Saivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism
and Smartism.

https://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/nine-beliefs

Hinduism: Basic Beliefs

The fundamental teaching of Hinduism, or Vedanta, is that a human being's basic nature is not confined to the body or the mind.
Beyond both of these is the spirit or the spark of God within the soul.

How did Hinduism begin?

Hinduism or Sanatana Dharma ("eternal spiritual path") began about 4000 years ago in India. It was the religion of an ancient people known as
the Aryans ("noble people") whose philosophy, religion, and customs are recorded in their sacred texts known as the Vedas. These texts were
initially handed down by word of mouth from teacher to student. It was not until much later that they were actually written down. Archeological
evidence from the Indus Valley civilization of northwestern India helps to establish Hinduism as the world's oldest living religion. Today,
worldwide, there are almost one billion people professing some aspect of Hinduism. The fundamental teachings of Hinduism, which form the
foundation of all its different sects, are contained in the concluding portion of the Vedas, and are therefore known as the Vedanta (the "end or
concluding portion of the Vedas"). This part of the Vedas is also known as the Upanishads.

What do Hindus believe and practice?

The fundamental teaching of Hinduism, or Vedanta, is that a human being's basic nature is not confined to the body or the mind. Beyond both of
these is the spirit or the spark of God within the soul. This spirit is within us and also within everything we see. All beings and all things are really, in
their deepest essence, this pure or divine spirit, full of peace, full of joy and wisdom, ever united with God. This is not just theory, but it can actually
be experienced. Anyone who takes the trouble to undergo the necessary training to purify and refine the mind and senses can begin to feel the
truth of this. This training can take various forms and is known as yoga ("union"- union of the individual self with this inner spirit).

There are four main types of yoga, meant for the four main types of human temperaments:

Karma Yoga or the discipline of right actions is for those of active temperament, striving to eliminate selfishness, and to cultivate universal
sympathy by seeing the divine reality in all.

Bhakti Yoga is the path of devotion to God whose presence can be felt in all things. God can be worshipped as present in an image in a Temple.
God can be worshipped also as present in suffering humanity by service.

Jnana Yoga, preferred by those of analytical bent of mind, is the discipline of trying to see the divine reality within all things directly, by mentally
brushing aside all the obstructing physical and mental coverings that hide it.

Raja Yoga is the process of mental control, purity, and meditation to make the mind very calm and quiet. In that profound quiet, the inner divine
light reveals itself.

What are the manifestation(s) God in Hinduism?

What are the different sects of Hinduism? The general name for God in Hinduism is Brahman. The name of the divine essence within us is Atman.
They are one and the same, infinite and eternal. However, God is also present in all creation. God's manifestation in creation goes by many names.
It is the one infinite, eternal, Divine Being that is manifesting in countless ways. It is like a person at the same time being called "father" by his son,
"friend" by his friend, "son" by his own father, "husband" by his wife, etc. A special relationship goes with each name. So the same Divine Lord has
been addressed as Shiva, Vishnu, etc and as Divine Mother, Kali, Durga, etc. God can also manifest as an extraordinary being in human form, who is
then known as an incarnation of God, such as Krishna, Rama, etc. Since it is the one infinite God alone that is being looked at in different ways, all
these manifestations can be prayed to for help and protection. This is the underlying principle behind all the different sects of Hinduism. Those
who prefer a particular manifestation of the divinity will form a sect devoted to the contemplation and worship of that manifestation. All the sects,
however, will accept the ancient teachings of the Vedas and the Vedanta as the foundation of their practice.

What is reincarnation?

In this world every cause must have its effect. We are responsible for the results of our actions. Long ages ago, human beings first asked
themselves, why are some people born in happy circumstances, whereas others are born to suffer all their lives? The events of this present life are
not enough to account for such suffering. To reasonably explain an excess of suffering or of enjoyment in this life, it was assumed that we all have
had previous existences, and that we are now reaping the results of those previous actions. It must also be true then that we can take charge of our
destiny right now. We can create a better tomorrow by resolving do better actions today. However, as long as desires remain in the mind, the
tendency toward rebirth will exist.

What is Maya?

In this life we do not see things very clearly. We are constantly faced with contradictions. Though we know what is right, we have trouble doing it.
Our thoughts soar high, but our actions cannot rise to the level of our thoughts. The world is full of misery and injustice; as quickly as we remove
some, more seems to rush in to take its place. We are told by the saints, and we also feel, that a loving God is at work in this creation, but we cannot
reconcile this with what we see around us. This complex situation in which we find ourselves is called Maya.
The way out of this, according to Hinduism or Vedanta, is that we are not really seeing the world properly. If we saw it properly, we would see that
it is God alone before us. Instead, we superimpose all this complex world on that divine reality.

The illustration given is that of a rope, mistaken in semi-darkness for a snake. The snake of this world frightens us. What is the solution? Bring a
light and you will see its real nature. It is only a rope. Likewise, the real nature or essence of this world is divinity alone. Bring the light of spiritual
wisdom through yoga, and you will see God alone everywhere. This is what constitutes spiritual freedom or liberation, Moksha. When this
knowledge dawns, there is complete satisfaction; no desire remains in the mind, and no further impulse for rebirth remains.

What code of behavior do Hindus follow?

The code of behavior is one's dharma. This is determined by the place in society and the duties associated with it. There are four main social
positions or varna; Brahmins (priests and teachers) Kshatriyas (rulers and soldiers), Vaishyas (merchants) and Shudras (workers).

There are four ideal stages of life described in Hindu scriptures: the student, the family man, the recluse, and the wandering holy man. For most
Hindu people these represent a metaphorical path, not an actual path.

What are the Hindu sacred texts?

Hindu ancient, sacred texts were written in Sanskrit, the language of ancient India. The Vedas are the oldest - about 3000 years old. They are a
collection of hymns, prayers, and magic spells. The Upanishads are stories and parables told by gurus (teachers) to their students
The Mahabharata is a story of a war between two royal families. The Bhagavad Gita is a very popular part of this text. The Ramayana is a story
of the god Rama and the rescue of his wife Sita from Ravana, the evil demon king.
https://uri.org/kids/world-religions/hindu-beliefs

Mahatma Gandhi, the famous nonviolent Hindu reformer, explained that Hinduism is not an exclusive
religion. Gandhi said, “If a man reaches the heart of his own religion, he has reached the heart of the others too.
There is only one God, and there are many paths to him.” Although some ideas unify Hinduism, it is an extremely
tolerant religion that allows its followers full freedom to choose their own belief system and way of life.
It’s rare that two Hindus believe exactly the same thing. What follows is a general summary of Hinduism, but it’s
always best to ask individuals what they personally believe.
What Do Hindus Believe about God?

Hinduism has traditionally been considered polytheistic—the worship of many gods—but may better be
described as henotheistic—the worship of one particular god without disbelieving in the existence of others.
Hinduism recognizes up to 333 million gods, but many Hindus believe this vast number represents the i nfinite
forms of god—god is in everyone, god is in everything.
Many Hindus believe in and worship three gods that make up the Hindu “trinity”: Brahma the creator of the
universe, Vishnu the preserver of the universe, and Shiva the destroyer of the universe . These gods, along with the
other millions of deities, are considered manifestations of either one supreme god or a single, transcendent power
called Brahman (not to be confused with Brahmins, the priestly social class). Many Hindus would even say Jesus
was a manifestation of one of their gods.
No matter what form of Hinduism they follow, most Hindus are also active animists. They attempt to appease good
and bad spirits by worshiping at auspicious times, studying horoscopes, and wearing amulets to guard ag ainst
diseases and evil.
Hindu Holy Texts

Many Hindu practices today somewhat rely on the spiritual literature and authority of the Vedas—texts of sacred
truth revealed from an absolute power to the inhabitants of northern India. The Sanskrit texts that make up the
Vedas were composed and orally transmitted by ancient poets and sages as early as 1700 BC. However, many
people neither read, adhere to, nor know how to interpret these holy texts. Hi gh-caste Brahmins—members of the
priestly social class by birth—have closely guarded knowledge of the Vedas to preserve their dominant position in
society. Therefore, many Hindus instead choose to follow family traditions and guidance provided by their
spiritual teachers, called gurus.
Salvation According to Hindus
 Hindus believe in the soul, or true self, called atman. According to Hindus, the soul goes through reincarnation—a
rebirth of the soul into a new body after death. Life, birth, death, and rebirth is an endless cycle called samsara.
Rebirth is affected by karma—the result of deeds or actions—in the present life.
There is no concept of sin in Hinduism as it is perceived in Western thought.
Instead, there is the law of karma that says every good thought, word, or deed
affects the next life favorably while every bad thought, word, or deed leads to
suffering in the next life. The law of karma does not allow for the possibility of
forgiveness but only the accumulation of inescapable consequences—good or
bad, according to right or wrong action. Karma does not affect a Hindu’s
relationship with the universal power, Brahman. Whether a person’s karma is
good or bad has no impact on their intrinsic oneness with Brahman.
Individuals are born into a particular caste depending on their actions in the
previous life. Good karma leads to rebirth in a higher caste and bad karma to a
lower caste. One can only become a member of a different caste through death
and rebirth. Eventually, the soul will attain moksha—alternately called
salvation, enlightenment, or liberation from rebirth—and become one with the
universal power, Brahman.
What Is the Purpose of Life for a Hindu?

Hindus have four specific goals in human life.

1. Dharma: pursuing virtuous behavior and fulfilling one’s duty in life
2. Artha: pursuing and acquiring success and wealth
3. Kama: pursuing pleasure in all its forms
4. Moksha: pursuing salvation
The first three goals of human life deal mainly with the quality of life and are very important to Hindus.
But moksha is arguably the most significant goal. Hinduism offers at least three paths to pursue moksha: the way
of ritual and action, the way of knowledge and meditation, and the way of devotion. Hindus usually prioritize or
adopt one path over the others.
The way of ritual and action claims that performing one’s duty in this life is the sacred and moral responsibility
of the individual. Each caste has a duty or function that helps to sustain society as a whole. If someone deviates
from fulfilling his or her function, it is interpreted as bringing disaster to both the individual and to society.
Similar to Buddhism, the way of ritual and action focuses on detachment from desire in order to attain salvation.
This path is primarily followed by high-caste Hindus, such as Brahmins.
The way of knowledge and meditation says that humans are trapped in an illusion that keeps us from realizing
we are a part of god. When this illusion is dispelled, we will reach salvation by becoming one with the ultimate
reality. Followers of this path practice yoga, meditation, and are also encouraged to study philosophy in their
pursuit to dispel illusion. Modern-day gurus of this path claim they are god and suggest all of us can be god too.
This path is followed mainly by the intellectual elite, and its philosophy has been widely embraced by non -Hindus
with New Age beliefs.
The way of devotion is characterized by acts of devotion to one’s personal god in the hopes of receiving mercy
and instant salvation. These acts range from ascetic practices, singing hymns, and repeating the name of god (the
word om), to pilgrimages and sacrifices. This path is open to all—even low-castes, outcasts, women, and children.
Holy Cows, Vegetarianism, and Yoga

Despite the broad spectrum of faith and practice, Hinduism has several common cultural elements: the veneration
of cows, vegetarianism, and yoga.
During the Vedic Period of northern India, the cow was a symbol of wealth and prosperity, as well as one of the
animals offered in ritual religious sacrifices. But over time, possibly through the influence of Buddhism and
Jainism, animal sacrifices waned, and the cow emerged as a sacred symbol to Hindus. The five products of the
cow—milk, curds, butter, urine, and dung—are used in purifying and healing rituals. One popular Hindu god,
Krishna, spent his early life as a cowherd, further elevating the status of the cow. In some states of India, there are
bans and strict regulations concerning the slaughter of cows and eating of beef.
Many rules concerning food govern a Hindu’s life—when to eat, what to eat, and who can prepare food for whom.
The preparation and consumption of food are central to a Hindu’s notion of ritual purity and, ultimately, their
liberation from rebirth. Not all Hindus are vegetarians, but vegetarianism is seen as an indicator of purity. Many
high-caste Hindus are vegetarians.
In Hinduism, yoga is a discipline to transform the individual and become one with the universal power. It takes
many different forms according to the traditions or methods under which it is practiced. At its most basic, yoga
consists of a particular set of techniques, usually including meditation, to control the body, the breath, and the
mind. The practice of using yoga to alter one’s conscious state and suppress the senses has roots going back to the
Vedic Period. By contrast, yoga has become popular in the West as a way to achieve physical and m ental fitness.

https://www.imb.org/2018/08/10/the-basics-of-hinduism/