12 Chapter 6

Chapter 6: Grammatical Sturcture of Indian English
CHAPTER - 6
GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF INDIAN ENGLISH
6.1 MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES
The features, related to the formation and implementation of a morph, are known as
morphological features. Morphological features that may establish Indian English as a
distinguished variety are described under following grammatical categories:
6.1.1 Nominalization Including Case Markers
To understand nominalization including case markers, it is better to understand their

role in Standard English, Hindi and Indian English separately. English and Hindi
languages have some basic differences. The major ones are:
• English language strictly follows Subject - Verb - Object (SVO) order, whereas
Hindi, generally, follows Subject – Object - Verb (SOV) order.
• Hindi has comparatively a very richer system of morphology than English.
• Hindi language enjoys greater freedom than English, especially in word-order,

identifying constituents through case marking.
6.1.1.1 Case Markers: Markers bring meaning to the case without altering the word
to another one. Almost every human language has its own markers. In English
language, prepositions function as markers. English language also has case. “Case, in
English Grammar, is a name given to the relation which a noun [or a pronoun] has to
other word in the same sentence.”1 There are basically seven cases in English
grammar- the Nominative (Subject), the Genitive (possession), the Dative (Indirect
object), the Accusative (Direct Object), the Vocative (Direct address), the Locative
(Mentions place) and the Ablative (often used with a preposition). Ablative case
answers the questions: when? by what means? from what cause? where? from where?
in what manner? or how? The ablative case shows separation (from), instrumentality
1 Frost, John. 1829. Elements of English Grammar. P.10.
239
or means (by, with), accompaniment (with), or locality (at). It is often accompanied

with a preposition: The child played in the park with his mom. (ablative case)
Most of the Indian languages have “Case” and relationship among parts of speech
mentioned by the case markers. But English has its functional realization mostly in
the passive case. Therefore, (Indian) learners often get confuse in the use of
prepositions. In Hindi case markers are post-positional. In English, the major sentence
constituents (subject, object, etc.) can usually be identified by their position in the
sentence. In Hindi, constituents may move around within the sentence without
disturbing the core meaning; For example, the following pair of sentences conveys the
same meaning; e.g.
English Sentence Hindi Sentence
Ram killed Ravan = Ram ne Ravan ko maara (Standard Hindi) OR
Ravan ko Ram ne maara (Non-standard Hindi)
In both Hindi sentences, because of the use of the case markers ne (ne – nominative)
and ko (ko – accusative), Ram is identified as a subject and Ravan as an object.
Therefore, even though Hindi language principally follows SOV pattern in its word-
order, use of correct case marker is a crucial part.
6.1.1.2 Plural-Markers: It can be observed that English regular as well as irregular

verbs stand similar in direct and oblique plural. Whereas, in Hindi language, due to
different case markers ‘ne’, generally ‘plural direct’ (-a/ -an/ -e) and plural oblique (-
o/ -yo/ -ao/- on) occur in morphology. In English, future tense is marked with the
future form of ‘be’ (will/ shall); whereas in Hindi future tense is reflected with an
addition to the verb; e.g. ‘-enge/ -enga/-engi/ engee’ in plural direct and ‘-ne …--ege’
to the plural oblique. It is a proven fact that Hindi has richer morphology than
English. The plural-markers in Hindi are of two types:
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Plural Direct Plural Oblique (Preposition ‘ne’+ obj)

Past Tense: Past Tense:
Ladke-ladkiya khele. Ladke-ladkiyon ne khel khele.
(Boys and girls played.) (Boys and girls played games.)
Larke, ladkiyan, aadme aur aurte aaram Larko, ladkiyon, aadmiyo aur aurto ne
karne gaye. vishram kiya.
(Boys, girls, men and women went to take (Boys, girls, men and women took rest.)
rest.)
Future Tense: Future Tense:

Pita, matae, putra (larke), putriya, naukar Pita, matae, putra (larke), putriya, naukar
aur naukraneyan karyakram dekhege. aur naukraneyan karyakram dekh ne jayege.
(Fathers, mothers, sons, daughters, servants (Fathers, mothers, sons, daughters, servants
and maids will see the programme.) and maids will go to see the programme.)
Even in the Causative constructions of Hindi, ‘-aya’, ‘-vayaa’and ‘-aayaa’ suffixes are
implied to indicate towards secondary inspirator, these constructions also imply case
marker ‘ne’ and ‘plural oblique’ ‘–on’; e.g.
Their children made them laugh. = Unke bacchon ne unko / unhe hasaya.
Case markers are used according to the semantic relations and tense-aspect
information in suffixes. For example, if a clause has an object, and has a perfective
form, the subject usually requires the case marker ‘–ne’.
The director discussed the problem = ‘Nideshak mahodaya ne samasya par
vichar-vimarsh kiya’
Thus, the combination of the suffix and semantic relation generates the right case
marker.
6.1.1.3 The Process of Nominalization: The process of nominalization occurs when

in a sentence, a verb or an adjective is used as a noun. In the process of
nominalization a simple verb or an adjective is converted into a noun that needs
support from other verb.
Nominalization is one of the resources for achieving maximum thematic variation,

since it allows any set of elements to be grouped together as a constituent, and thus to
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be mapped on to any function in the discourse structure, such as Theme or New. At

the same time through the use of equative (identified-identifier) structure, the element,
combined in this way, enters into an identifying relation with remaining element or
elements of the clauses; this is an exclusive relation, one which is defining in the
1
given context, so that it constitutes a highly effective form of communication.”
English as well as Hindi both the languages belong to different stems yet allow
nominalized phrases. It, generally, occurs at the place of an abstract noun.
Nominalization in English yields basically two verbal forms, ‘V-ing’ = (Gerund) and
‘to +V’ (marked infinitive)…. English shows a number of restrictions in the selection
of the gerundial v/s the infinitival nominal that are entirely absent in Hindi.2
Nominalization in Standard English generally introduces three types of situation:
6.1.1.3.1 Conditions that only permit infinitive forms; e.g.: They desire to go. (Use
of Gerund = V +ing is not suitable).
6.1.1.3.2 Conditions that permit only gerund forms; e.g. I enjoy driving. (Use of
infinitive =‘to +V’ won’t be suitable here)
6.1.1.3.3 Conditions the indifferently permit either of the two; e.g.
i) My daughter loves to play. (Infinitive)
ii) My daughter loves playing. (Gerund)
The above mentioned types of nominalization are non-finite forms of verbs.
6.1.1.4 Nominalization and Word Formation: Nominalization also occurs by the

way of word formation i.e. by adding affixes (prefixes or suffixes) to the present form
of main verb; e.g.
Verb Affix Noun/ Nouns

inform -ation information
analyse -is analysis
renew - al renewal
1. Halliday, M.A. K. 2005. Studies in English Language. P.152.

2 Verma, M. K. 1971. Structure of the Noun Phrase in English and Hindi. P. 174.
242
require -ment, -site requirement, requisite

“The smothered-verb style is common in officialdom everywhere. In India, it is also
wide spread in journalistic and business English…”1
There is another reason why Nominalization is favoured in Indian English. Actually

most of the Indian languages have noun as the main word in a sentence; and they are
hardly convertible as verbs. In Standard English it is not so difficult. There are several
words in Standard English that can be used as nouns as well as verbs without a least
change; e.g.
Noun Meaning
Oil (verb, noun) - (to lubricatea liquid, a greasy liquid
i) “English gets constructed in well- oiled machineries of marketing and distribution

as ...” (Genres of Modernity, 67) -Past Participle
ii) “There’s a trickle of oil coming in from other small producer…” (Last Light) - Noun
iii) “These had been oiled and oiled” (The Shorter Novels of Charles Dickens, 636)-Verb
Such usages are also taken into consideration in Indian English; e.g.
Bank (verb, noun) - (to save, to collect; shore, a unit related esp. to money matters)
i) “It was the issue of bank nationalization.” (The Great Indian Novel, 346)
ii) “…king returned from a trip to the river bank…” (Ibid, 21)
iii) “Secondly, he banked on the Congress Muslims to protect them.” (Indian Political
Novel in English, 188)
Change (verb, noun) – (alter, modify, transform etc; loose-money, alteration)
i) “It is a pleasant change of pace …” (The Namesake, 277)
ii) “Plenty of people changed their names.” (Ibid, 97)
1. Cutts, Martin. 2013. Oxford Guide to Plain English. P. .74.
243
The process of nominalization including case markers is one of the most frequently
occurred phenomenons of Indian English. This is because Indian users are less direct
than British and American users. A few examples are given below:
Indian English Nominalization Case Markers in Standard English

Indian Eng.
“Kailas Babu frequently Intention – from verb Of Kailas Babu frequently
expressed his intention of ‘intend’ intended to visit the Lat
going some day and paying a Sahib.
visit the Lat Shaib.” (The
Babus of Nayanjore,
Collected Stories, 196)
“Brother, just listen…. Even

the dogs and jackals are to ‘are to cross’ (instead Brother, just listen….
to
cross the holy Ganges of using ‘cross’ as Even the dogs and
without washing the dust verb it is used as an jackals cross the holy
from their feet.” (The Son of infinitive that Ganges without washing
Rashmani, Collected functions as a noun the dust from their feet.
Stories,159)
“I have prayer to make to Prayer – from verb I have to pray to him.

him.” (Untouchable,, 90) pray and to
“The breaking of coconut at Infinitive ‘to make Coconut is broken at the

the start of an important start of an important
venture.” ( India: A Million of venture.
Munities Now, 113)
Breaking (Gerund)
“She has kept her
disappointment to herself.”
(The Namesake, 30) She is disappointed.
to
“Four school students of Disappointment –

Gaziabad who had gone from verb disappoint
missing on Wednesday, were Similar Usage
found at Nagada in Ujjain on
Thursday.” ( The Times of “…that had gone
on missing from the
India, 28 Dec. 2012, p.7)
house.” (Stephen
Missing –from verb Leather: The First
“ …wash off those hair miss Novels: Pay Off, The
clippings before you bring Fireman, 185)
misfortune upon us!” (A Fine Similar usage
Balance, Rohinton Mistry,
24) Hair clippings “Hair clipping before
(Gerund) Before surgery is now
Clip : verb considered a matter of
debate.” (Wound
Healing and Skin
Integrity: Principles and
Practice)
244
It has been monitored that in Indian English nominalization occurs little bit frequently
than the Standard English. This is so because Standard English is relatively direct than
Indian English; whereas, Indian English has an inclination for implying complex noun
forms, nouns formed on the basis of nominalization and verbial phrases. Indians also
form rather long sentences with various clauses, not patterns.
This tendency of most of the Indians cannot be marked as mistake for “Each
individual creates the system for his verbal behaviours so that they shall resemble
those of the group or groups with which from time to time he may wish to be
identified.”1 Though, generally, nominalization is found in the form of derivative
(formation of noun from verb or adjective), gerund or modification of the word.
Whenever derivatives occur, they include case markers along with them. Variations in
nominalization are evidently visible between Standard and Indian English because the
grammatical categories and relations can be described in language-independent
terms”2 To form and understand sentences of a language depends upon one’s
linguistic competence. Still in some cases, Indian English and Standard English
follow the same patterns of nominalization and inclusion of case markers.
6.1.2 Pronominalization
“The process or fact of using a pronoun instead of another sentence constituent (such
as a noun or noun phrase)”3 is termed as pronominalization. It is taken as a syntactic
process. Though, Indian English has been following British grammatical pattern, yet
the growing impact of American English cannot be ignored. Along with this, the
influence of Indian languages can also be traced, here and there, in Indian English.
6.1.2.1 English and Hindi Singular Pronoun: In Indian culture to show one’s
reverence for someone, plural form of pronoun is used not as a plural but Indian
‘honorfic singular third person pronoun’.
1 Page, Le,1968, a.1979.

2 Chomsky, Noma, 1969. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. P.144.
3 http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pronominalization
245
English (Singular pronouns) Hindi (Singular Pronouns)

General/ Honorfic Similar to English Singular Honorfic Pronoun
I Mai Hum
You Tu, tum Aap
He, she Yeh, vah, us-se, us-ko, us-ne Ye, ve, un-se, un-ko, unho-ne
Even, sometimes, in the Indian cultural context ‘they’ is often used as the third person
singular pronoun to express the attitude towards the addressee; e.g.
i) Mr. Goel instructs his servant to ask something to Mrs Goel, as
“Oh Mundu, ask them to give Sajani a sweet poora.” (The Silver Bangle,
Lajwanti and Other Stories, 111)
Pronoun “them’ is used on the analogy of one of the honorific Hindi pronoun
‘un se’. There are two Hindi third person pronouns for objective case: ‘Us-se’
for singular subject of general type and ‘Un-se’ for plural and singular honorific
subject.
ii) “We don’t know, sir. He’s been coughing for a while, but we didn’t know what
it was.” (The White Tiger, 42)
Here, the speaker uses ‘We’ instead of ‘I’, on the analogy of Hindi language. In
several dialects of Hindi, first person plural pronoun ‘Hum’ is very frequently
used instead of Hindi first person singular pronoun ‘Mai’.
iii) “Our school teacher was a big paan and spat man.” (The White Tiger, 29)
While narrating some past event the speaker uses ‘our’ for’ my’, on the analogy of
Hindi Pronoun ‘humare.’ This use of plural form presents honourific attachment
Hindi speakers frequently use Hum/ humne/ hamare/ humko etc. for Mai/
maine/mera/mere/mujhe etc.
Other than personal pronoun “Sometimes, Indian English speaker omits the reflexive
pronoun in context whereas in native usage it is considered obligatory. And they also
tend to prefer the reflexive pronoun where it is not necessary. Many Indian languages
do not have a one to one correspondence with the English reflexive. In most
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Dravidian languages the reflexive pronoun is realised in the third person only. In
English, there is a parallel system of personal pronoun; corresponding to those used
with the reflexive verbs.” 1
6.1.2.2 Deletion of Pronoun / Replacement of a Pronoun by a Noun:
An extraordinary feature of Indian English is to use titles (noun) to express honour,

instead of required pronouns: “It is customary in Indian Languages to avoid the use of
second person pronoun in favour of some honorific title when face to face interaction
occurs between a person and his menial servant or some of similar low status”; e.g.
“‘Bairah.’
‘Sahib.’ The bearer came in through the wire gauze door.
‘Where have you put my charpoy for the night?’
‘Sahib’s bed has not been laid yet. It is clouded and there might be rain. Would
huzoor like to sleep on the Verandha?’” (Train to Pakistan, 105)
The honorific words ‘Sahib’s’ and ‘huzoor’ are used instead of second person
pronoun of possession (your = ‘Aapka’) and second person subjective pronoun (You
= ‘Aap’). Hence, it is quite evident that also in Pronominalization, Indian English
remains little bit similar to Standard English but wherever it is the matter of any
specific Indian trait related to culture, manner, tradition or religion, Indianness sticks
to English; paving more concrete path for Indian English.
6.1.3 Inflection
The morphological aspect inflection is category specific. It does not bring any
deviation in the part of speech. “Inflection produces from the stem (or stem) of a
given lexeme all the word forms of that lexeme which occur in syntactically
determined environments.”2 On the basis of grammatical context, the types of
1 Bandhopadhya, Suman.2010. Indianisation of English: Analysis of Linguistic Features in Selected

Post-1980 Indian English Fiction. P.P..45-46.
2 Lyon’s (1977:521-2.). Quoted in Bauer, Laurie. 1983. English Word Formation. P.22.
247
variation that words under go, are termed as Inflection or Inflection Morphology. The
base word from which all inflection variant occur is known as a Lexeme. Lexeme
may be precisely defined as: ‘a base word which is used in the sense to be found in
dictionary, and to which all the possible structures of the word belong.’ Various
morphological processes, i.e. inflection, derivation etc., generally, function on
lexeme. Lexemes are bare and un-affixed forms of word. Among the various parts of
speech, inflection occurs mainly on noun, pronoun, adjective, verb and adverb.
6.1.3.1 Inflection: Category: Inflection is, generally, studied under two categories:
i) Regular Inflection: Use of suffix ‘–s’, ‘-ed’ at lexeme ending; e.g. books (noun),
reads (Verb), Chased (Verb) etc.
ii) Irregular Inflection: Use of suffix ‘-ies’, ‘-en’ etc. at lexeme ending; e.g. babies
(noun), oxen (Noun), Spoke (Verb) etc.
6.1.3.2 Patterns of Inflection: For the sake of distinction, lexemes (abstract kind of
words) are written in small capitals; and inflected forms of words are written in
italics. Though, Indian English generally follows Standard English patterns of
inflection yet some variations may be observed. In Indian English words of Indian
languages also get inflected as per the pattern of Standard English; e.g.
6.1.3.2.1 Noun Inflection
Hindi /Indian Lexeme Inflection Word Inflected Word
(Common Noun)
BURKA /-s/ burka =>burkas (The White Tiger, 40)
LADDOO /-s/ laddoo => laddoos (The White Tiger, 64)
ASHRAM /-s/ ashram =>ashrams (The White Tiger,275)
SALAM /-s/ salam => salams (Collected Stories, Tagore, )
BABU /-s/ babu =>babus (Collected Stories, Tagore, )
MOHUR /-s/ mohur =>mohurs (Collected Stories, Tagore)
248
CHAPATI /-ies/ chapatti => chapaties (The White Tiger,189)
BEEDI /-ies/ beedi => beedies (The White Tiger,265)
CHUTNEY /-ies/ chutney =>chutnies (Collected Stories, Tagore)
(Proper Noun)
CHAKRAVARTI /-ies/ chakravarti => chakravarties (Collected Stories)
All the above given lexemes are taken from Hindi language but process of inflection
parallels to that of Standard English. This tendency has been occurring since the
languages i. e. English and Indian languages came into contact. In present times, it is
developing rapidly and is used frequently by the users of all around the globe. It is a
common feature in Hindi also. English words taken into use in Hindi are also
inflected in the same manner; e.g. TRAIN > TRAINĒ , CAR> CARĒ etc.
Translated Indian Lexeme Inflection Word Inflected Word
UNTOUCHABLE /-s/ untouchable => untouchables
(India: A Million Mutinies Now, 1)
In Standard English the word ‘untouchable’ exists as an adjective but in Indian

English it is used as an adjective as well as a noun. In Indian context ‘Untouchable’
refers a person of lower caste who was even refused to be touched. Hence, such
inflections (though translated) belong to Indian English.
6.1.3.2.2 Pronoun Inflection: Pronoun also has its inflected forms as various other
pronouns related to the base/stem pronoun; e.g. he => his, she=> her etc. In Indian
English pronoun inflection may also occur but in some different Indian sense; e.g.
“…but we didn’t know what it was.” (The White Tiger, 42)
Lexeme Inflection (Indian Pattern)
WE I, we
‘We’ is used as inflection for first person singular nominative pronoun.
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Following extract also highlights the most common of the Indian tendencies of
inflection: e.g.
“…when you (Indian) use the plural pronoun, asked a woman hunter with short white
hair, does that mean that you are talking for all Indian people?” (Chancers: A Novel, 93)
6.1.3.2.3 Verb Inflection: “The use of English has reduced slowly over centuries
….There was a second person singular inflection ‘-est’ and the third person singular
inflection was ‘-eth’.”1 Now in several varieties, these second person singular
inflection and third person singular inflection have not been in use. Though verb
inflection of regular verbs, is moreover similar in Indian English, British English and
American English; but usage of some verb inflections are different from one another.
In Indian English along with British inflections, American inflections are also being
used for several irregular verbs; e.g.
Lexeme
GET get, got, got, getting (Standard English)
get, got, gotten, getting (American English)
get, got, got/ gotten, getting (Indian English)
FORGET forget, forgot, forgot, forgetting (Standard English)
Forget, forgot, forgotten, forgetting (American English)
Forget, forgot, forgot/forgotten, forgetting (Indian English)
Several Indian base verbs are also used in transliterated form and the process of
inflection occurs in English pattern; e.g.
i) “…he salaamed everyone.” (A Dying Banyan, 8)
ii) “He cringed and namasted me in apology.” (The White Tiger, 115)
1. Kirkpatric, Andy. 2007. World Englishes Hardback with Audio CD: Implications for International
Communication and English Language Teaching.
250
iii) “Gone out on a blind date that has been engineered by my mom.” (The
Namesake, 194)
iv) “Men have collapsed half-dead from exhaustion and dehydration in Calcutta
after being gheraoed in the blazing sun for the best part of a day by perpetually
fresh mobs operating a shift system.” (Calcutta, G.Moorhouse, 212-213)
Indian Verb Lexeme Inflection
i) SALAM Salam, salamed, salaamed (A Dying Banyan, 8)
ii) NAMASTE Namaste, Namasted, Namasted (The White Tiger, 138)
iii) ENGINEER Engineer, engineered, engineered (The Namesake, 194)
iv) GHERAO Gherao, Gheraoed, Gheraoed (Calcutta, 212-213)
6.1.3.2.4 Adjective and Adverb Inflection
Indian English follows Standard English Pattern for Adjective and Adverb inflection.
Hence no variations are found.
6.1.4 Derivation
Formation of new words on the basis of an already existing word is known as

derivation. It may also be explained by using various affixes (prefix & suffix
etc.).When a new word is derived out from a word that may belong to some other part
of speech or may have some different meaning, is called derivation. In Indian English
derivation follows three patterns; e.g. Indian (Hindi) Word/ Head + English
Derivative, English Word/Head + Indian Derivative; and English Prefix of Negation +
Indian Word / Head. Most of the newly formed words exist just because of
derivatives.
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6.1.4.1 Indian Word + English Derivative
Indian Derivation Base Eng. Der. Change of Part of Speech

word Suffix
Ayurvedic (India: A Million Mutinies Now, 67) Ayurved -ic Noun =>Adjective
Baboohood (Party System & Parties in India, 58) Baboo -hood Common Noun=>Abstract Noun
Brahminical (India, 246) Brahmin - ical Noun =>Adjective
Brahminically (Ibid) Brahmin -ically Noun =>Adjective => Adverb
Chaprasihood (Coolie, 5) Chaprasi -hood Common Noun=>Abstract Noun
Cooliedom (Ibid, 94) Coolie -dom Common Noun=>Abstract Noun
Dravidian (India: A Million Mutinies Now, 238) Dravid -ian Noun =>Adjective
Hinduism (India: A Million Mutinies Now, 168) Hindu -ism Common Noun=>Abstract Noun
Sadhuhood (Untouchable, 59) Sadhu -hood Common Noun=>Abstract Noun
Sanyasihood (R.K. Narayan: Critical Essays,149) Sanyasi -hood Common Noun =>Abstract Noun
Sikhism (Sikhism: An Introduction, xi) Sikh -ism Common Noun=>Abstract Noun
Vedic (India: A Million Mutinies Now, 67) Ved - ic Noun =>Adjective
6.1.4.2 English Word + Indian Derivative
Derivation(Source) English Hindi Part of Speech

Word Derivative
Bioscopewali (Stardust, Dec.2012) Bioscope -wali Common Gender =>Feminine Gender
Boxwallah (India: A Million Mutinies Box -wallah Neuter Gender =>Masculine Gender
Now)
Doctor-sahib (Midnight’s Children, 25) Doctor -sahib Addressing noun=> Honorific addressing
1
Lord-sahib/Laat-Saab (Two Novellas, 6) Lord -sahib Title (Noun) => Honourific address
(Laat)
Madamji (Just the Fact, Madamji, 11) Madam -ji Simple Noun=> Honorific Noun
Story-wallah (Story-Wallah:A Story -wallah Common Gender=> Masculine Gender
Celebration, 237)
6.1.4.3 English Prefix of Negation + Indian / Hindi Head
New Word (Source) English Prefix of Negation Indian Word

Non-Sidha (Newsweek,Vol.110, 278) Non- Sidha
Non-Brahmin (India: A Million Mutinies Now) Non- Brahmin
Non-Punjabi (Sikhs in Britain, 176) Non- Punjabi
Non-Manglik (Love Faith Death, 2) Non- Manglik
1 Hankin, Nigel B. 2003. Hanklyn-Janklin. P. 293. (‘Lat’ word can also be applied to the man at the
top; ‘a Lat Sahib’ in this case, originally a mispronunciation of ‘Lord Sahib’ to Governor General.)
252
Hence, it is quite obvious that Indian English also contributes a lot in enriching the
English vocabulary by supplying new words formed by the help of Indian words with
English derivative or vice-versa. Several times, to use derivative words of Indian
English, especially for Indian contexts and purposes, becomes an immediate need
because several Indian expressions and meanings like ‘non-manglik’, ‘vedic’ etc.
necessarily require such formations.
6.1.5 Compounding
The process of compounding in English word formation, chiefly, came into practice
during the period of English Renaissance and the Industrial Revolution. During this
period, it was a very common trend to use classical elements of Greek and Latin
together, to form a new word e.g. photograph, telephone, etc. This practice was not
limited to the study of language or literature but had a very extensive area including
science, mathematics and technology etc.
In compounding two or more lexemes/ words are used together to make another
longer unit of vocabulary. It is one of the highly productive means of word formation.
In the process of compounding, two sub-structures or free morphemes are integrated
to form a structure. These morphemes that help in the formation of a brand new word
may be nouns, adjectives or verbs.
With the development of various varieties of English language, two or more shorter
words from two or more different languages are fused together to form various
compound words of enriching vocabulary of English; e.g. airbus, airport, seahorse,
seashore, fireworks, fireplace, footstep, footwear, wristwatch, landslide, landmark,
flowerpot, etc. Compound word formation out of Indian and English words and vice
versa, occur in Indian as well as in Standard English. These formations serve various
specific purposes of language. The following compounds are extracted from Indian
English writings and are categorized below on the basis of their compounding with
different parts of speech:
6.1.5.1 Hybridized Compound Words: The compounds that possess words from
two or more languages may be termed as Hybridized Compounds. In Indian English it
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generally occurs in two ways: e.g. ‘Hindi + English Compound’ and ‘English + Hindi
Compound’; e.g.
6.1.5.1.1 Hindi + English Compound (Hindi word + English word): Under this, the
first word of the compound appears in transliterated form because it belongs to Hindi
language where as the second to English. Though, all these words may be of different
or same parts of speech. Some examples from various writings of Indian English are
given below under various parts of speech groups; e.g.
NOUN + NOUN= pan-maker ( The White Tiger, 250) ‘panwari, cahurasiya’;

= ajowan-water (The Namesake, 86) ‘ajwain ka paani’;
= ghat steps (The White Tiger,16) ‘ghat ki seedhiyan;’
= elaichi tea (The Dance of Death, 73) ‘elaichi wali chai’.
NOUN + VERB= rangoli- strewn (The Last Labyrinth, 65) ‘rangoli se saja’
ADJECTIVE + NOUN =pan-red lips (The Last Labyrinth, 29) ‘paan se lal hooth’
6.1.5.1.2 English + Hindi Compound (English word + Hindi word): In this the first
word is of English where as second word is from Hindi language.
NOUN + NOUN = potato vada (Bond Forever,127)

= family guru (Collected Stories, The Son of Rashmani, 138)
= mango kulfi (New York Magazine, 64)
= spinach chutney (Indian: Made Simple, 182)
ADJECTIVE + NOUN = reedy jheel (Light of Asia, 44)
= Hush plush nikah (Stardust, Dec.28)
Explanation: In all the examples of ‘hybridized compounding’ Hindi terms are used
as it is at any of the three stages (initial, medial and final) of compound words. To
most of the cultural (beliefs, food items, rituals and practices etc.), geographical and
religious terms English equivalents may not be found; e.g. ‘vada’ (It is an Indian food
item, uncommon in other countries; hence, it has no English equivalent). But, to
several others, English equivalents are available; e.g. pan=> betel, nikaah => marriage
etc. still the authors have used them in their transliterated form. It is so because the
254
available English terms may not be eligible enough to present the actual Indian
meaning. Though, sometimes, they are used just for the sake of style; e.g. ‘reedy
jheel’. The word ‘jheel’ has its English equivalent as ‘lake’; still the poet ‘Sir Edwin
Arnold’ has used this for the sake of style.
6.1.5.2 Non-hybridized Compound Words: Non-hybridized compounds are those in

which both or all the words of the compound belong to same language. Though, they may
be translated terms. Non-hybridized compound may be categorized as follows:
6.1.5.2.1 English Compound (English word + English word): In this type of

compounding all units of compound word belong to English language. In Indian
English it is quite possible that one item or both may be in translated form but the
contained expression depicts some Indian meaning. These compound may also have
various combinations of Parts of Speech; e.g.
NOUN+ VERB = Ash-smeared sadhus (The Last Labyrinth, 88) ‘bhasm-ranjit sadhu’
NOUN + ADJECTIVE=iron-lunged(Collected Poems1952-1988,119)‘faulaadi kaleejae wala’
NOUN+NOUN/ S = gourd flute (The Guide, 66) ‘been’
= betel-chewer (The Saturday Magazine, 78) ‘paan ke shouken’
= betel leaf box (The Castaway, Collected Stories,119)‘paandan’
= head-cloth (The Silver Bangle, 111) ‘palla, ghoogat’
= tea-man (The Apprentice, 60) ‘chaiwala’
= hind-side wisdom (Nissim Ezekeil) ‘buddhi peeche hona’
Explanation: In Indian English, English compound words are also used frequently.
Several translated forms are also implied among them. These translated compounds
also advocate Indian English because the imbibed meaning generally discloses
meaning directly associated to some Indian culture specific sense; e.g. head-cloth = A
culture specific cloth to be worn on head especially by ladies, that symbolizes shyness
and respect to elders etc. This may be a separate cloth or the loose end of a ‘sari’ or
255
‘duppatta’ etc. Similarly, ‘hind side wisdom’ presents Indian idiomatic meanings as
‘buddhi pichhe hona’ respectively.
6.1.5.2.2 Indianized English Compounds: In the world famous novel, ‘The Gods of
Small Things’, the author introduces several English words in a very Indian manner.
She mentions them as compound words but with no space or hyphen in between. By
this she, perhaps, wants to highlight a very common Indian tendency of pronouncing
words, on the basis of one’s own understanding. In which, they assume and
pronounce different words as a single word; e.g. flatfeet (139), carsmile (153),
deadlypurposed (304) etc.
6.1.5.2.3 Hindi Compound (HINDI WORD + HINDI WORD): In this the Hindi
compound words are used in transliterated form. Though, existence of Hindi
compound is there due to the process of code-mixing only.
ADJECTIVE+ NOUN = Churidaar pyjamas ( A Dying Banyan, 11)
=Swachh Bharat (The Economic Times, 27 Dec. 2014)

‘swachh Bharat’
NOUN + NOUN =rath yatra (The Week, 17 June, 2012)
=dabbawalas (The Economic Times,27 Dec. 2014)
In Indian English also the root word may run together with no separation; e.g. flatfeet (The
Gods of Small Things, 139), or they may be hyphenated e.g. tea-man (The Apprentice, 60)
or even left as separate words e.g. family guru (Collected Stories, The Son of Rashmani,
138), although the rules for such constructions are unclear at best. Hence, it can be clearly
observed that Indian English creates a great impact on compounding.
6.1.6 Adverbial Forms
Adverbial forms play several significant roles in English language. Adverbial forms
consist of “a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another
adverb.”1 Similarly, a phrase or a clause that modifies or tells something about an
1 Wren, P.C. & H. Martin. 1997. High School English Grammar and Composition. P.100.
256
adjective, a verb, another adverb or the sentence is known as adverbial phrase or

adverbial clause respectively.
Adverbs are divided as Simple Adverb, Interrogative Adverb, and Relative Adverb.
Simple Adverbs are divided under following classes: time, frequency, place, manner,
degree or quantity, affirmation or negation, reason. “Nesfield, moreover, divides his
interrogative adverb into those of time, place, number, description, quality or degree,
and cause or reason.”1 Interrogative adverbs ask question on any simple adverb
whereas relative adverbs modify some word and refer back to the mentioned
antecedent.
6.1.6.1 Position of Adverb: Though, Indian English follows patterns of Standard

English even in use of adverb yet a few cases ascertain deviation in the position of
Adverb between Standard English and Indian English. Indian English writers imply
this deviation, generally to create rhetorical effect on their readers. Position of various
kinds of adverbs used in Indian English are mentioned below:
 Adverbs of Frequency: In Standard English, adverb of frequency occurs at mid

position, but “are normally put before the verb or between helping verb and the
main verb if there is any helping verb”;2 whereas in Indian English it may occur
in the given manner, e.g. “A moment comes, which comes but rarely in
history…” (Midnight’s Children, 114)
 Adverbs of Time: In Standard English “the general pattern show that the …
adverb of time normally precede”3 the word it modifies or it may appear at the
end of a sentence whereas in Indian English due to fused sentences it may also
be at middle position; e.g.
“In the renewed silence , I return to sheets of paper which smell just a little of
turmeric, ready and willing to put out of its misery a narrative which I left yesterday
hanging in midair, just as Scheherazade, depending for her very survival on leaving
1. Palmer, Frank. 1978. Grammar. P. 61.

2. Das, P.C., K. K. Goswami and S. D. Sharma. 2012. Applied English Grammar and Composition.
P. 203.
3 Davis, David. P. Studies in New Testament Language and Text. Ed. George Dunbar Kilpatrick, J.
James Keith Elliott. P.112.
257
Prince Shahryar eaten up by curiosity, used to do night after night!” (Midnight’s

Children, 24-25)
“Indian English literature is today a fast growing discipline at the levels of

creativity and criticism.” (The Novels of Arun Joshi: A Critical Study, 81)
 Adverb of Place: Adverb of place generally modifies a verb. That is why it may
also be categorised as a Phrasal Verb. In Standard English an adverb of place or
direction occurs after the verb to which it is related whereas in Indian English
variation is found; e.g.
Indian English Standard English

“The gardener came and drew its eyelids “The only son known of John Sr. of
down with two horny thumbs…” (Cry, The Cambridge is mentioned below…” (New
Peacock, 7) England Families, Genealogical and
Memorial, Vol.3)
“All day it had come in with the slow breeze “Three cars went by.” (Adverbs, 2)
that sucked the curtains in, then slowly drew
them out.” (Cry, The Peacock, 8)
 Adverb of Manner: Generally, in Standard English “adverbs of manner come

after verb”1 or may occupy end position but never occur at the beginning of the
sentence. Indian English “shows deviations in the use of adverbials”2 and among
all the kind of adverbs, Indian English, also deviates in the positioning of adverb
of manner; e. g.

“Formlessly, before I began to shape them, the fragrances Before, I began formlessly to shape
poured into me…” (Midnight’s Children, 316) them, the fragrances poured into me.
 Repeated Use of Adverb of Manner: In Indian English use of more than one
adverbs of manner may also be found in continuation; e.g. “Inwardly,
unsmilingly, Shaheed observed various CUTIA…” (Midnight’s Children, 352)
1 Thomson, A.J. and A.V. Martinet. 1985. A Practical English Grammar. P. 52.
2 Bandyopadhyay ,Sumana . 2010. Indianisation of English: Analysis of Linguistic Features. P.42.
258
6.1.6.2 Formation of Adverb
Noun =>Adjective + - ly (suffix) = >Adverb
In Indian English, adverbs are very frequently formed from those adjectives or
participles which are formed out of any noun or adjective respectively. Sometimes,
this tendency is also visible even in some other varieties. A few examples of such
adverbial forms ise4mplied by renowned authors or from dignified sources are
selected for discussion; e.g.
i) “She lay dustily on her bed; we waited and feared. (Midnight’s Children, 273)
ii) “…with my whole family trooping amazedly behind us…”( Ibid, 280)
iii) “The last bachelors and spinsters sun themselves toothlessly in the childless
Mattancheorilanes.” (Moor’s Last Sigh, 119)
All the above mentioned adverbs of manner are formed from adjectives which are
made out of some nouns or non-finite form of verb (participle); e.g. dust (noun)=>
dusty (adjective) => dustily (adverb); similarly, amaze (verb) => amazed (Past
Participle) => amazedly (adverb), etc. In Indian English these types of adverb are
used very frequently and at different positions.
 Use of –ly suffix even to Adverb: According to OALD the word ‘Still’ may be
used as an adverb, adjective, noun, and verb; but the given example acclaims a
more modified usage. Indian English often implies the use of suffix to form
adverb even to an adverb; e.g.: “At Methwold Estate goldfish hang stilly in
ponds while…” (Midnight’s Children, 155)
The word ‘stilly’ does not exist nor may it be formed in Standard English. As in
some cases, Indian English follows American English; hence, it also implies the
deviated formation of some adverbs used in American English; e.g. ‘stilly’1. Here,
‘stilly’ is used to mention the manner in which the goldfish hang itself in pond.
 Use of –ly suffix directly to Noun
Indian English not only comprises traditional adverbs of Standard English but
also introduces several recent and innovative adverbial forms; e.g.
1 http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/stilly
259
“…she had become so sheetly white that it was difficult to see her against the
bed clothes” (Midnight’s Children, 59)
The word ‘sheetly’ is fully Indianized formation of adverb which is derived from a
noun word ‘sheet’. On the grammatical criteria it is inappropriate but on the basis of
the implied usage and contained meaning, it is a formed adverb. In the sentence “she
had become so sheetly white”, ‘white’ is an adjective that is qualifying the pronoun
‘she’; and ‘sheetly’ is implied here as an adverb that modifies the meaning of ‘white’.
6.1.6.3 Adverb Compounds: In Indian English the formation of adverbial

compounds is often found; e.g.: “…greenly-blackly, she sails into my cell…”
(Midnight’s Children, 437)In the sentence (i) ‘blackly’ (adverb) means “dealing with
unpleasant or terrible things, such as murder, in a humorous way.”1
In Standard British English, the word ‘green’ is basically considered and used as an
adjective, a noun and a verb; but never as an adverb. While in Indian English
‘greenly’ is a formed as an adverb on the analogy of adding ‘-ly’ to an adjectives; e.g.
calm (adj.) + -ly (suffix) = calmly (adverb), etc.
6.1.6.4 Code – mixing of Hindi Adverbs: Indian English frequently recognizes and
takes into account code mixing of Hindi adverbs; e.g.
“A few days later, I told Asha bua that I wanted Badi Ma to meet Avanti. ‘Dheere,
dheere,’ Yash, ‘dheere, dheere’, is all she said in reply. (On a Prayer, eBook)
“Hey coolie, slow down your pace. Do not move so fast. Ahista, zara, dhere se…”
(One Year for Mourning, 119)
These examples also ascertain the use of code mixed adverbial forms of Indian
English. The first example has adverb of manner in Hindi for twice in its reduplicated
form for emphasis; where as in the second example the code-mixing is implied as a
result of Indian tendency of repetition. First time, the coolie is instructed in an
affirmation then through a negative sentence. Later, the same expression is repeated in
Indian languages (Urdu and Hindi).
1 http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/blackly
260
6.1.6.5 Translated Hindi Adverbs: Many a times, Indian English also employs
word to word translation of Hindi adverbs. On the analogy of Hindi grammar, in
Indian English one can very frequently observe repetition in the use of translated
adverb, e.g.

“And he jogged along, slowly, slowly, step by And he jogged along, slowly, step by
step….” (Classic Mulk Raj Anand, 1) (dhire-dhire) step….
“Slowly, slowly, gentleman, Franceville is not Gentleman, Franceville is not running

running away…” (Across the Black Waters, 10) away slowly…
(dhire-dhire)
“A wild world to the south and another to the north A wild world to the south and another
are slowly, slowly, being tamed….Slowly, slowly, to the north are slowly being
the conquest moves ahead.” (The Enchantress of tamed….The conquest moves slowly
Florence, 338) (dhire-dhire) ahead
“And slowly slowly the arms of a peasant rise up as The arms of a peasant rise up slowly as
though in prayer; knees knell in paddy water…” though in prayer; knees knell in paddy
(The Midnight’s Children,355) (dhire-dhire) water…
All the mentioned examples exhibit the Indian tendency of reduplication (especially
of certain adverbs, like ‘slowly- slowly’ etc.). Standard English does not prefer
reduplication of adverbs. “Repetition and reduplication of words and larger utterance
elements can be observed at several level in Indian English discourse….A direct
influence from Indian languages appears in the reduplication of single words to effect
a slight change in meaning.”1 Gumperz (1982) and et. el. have observed the same fact
in the case of adverbs. Other than this, the given examples also highlight the deviation
of adverbs of Indian English to British English, in respect of their positioning.
Hence, it is observed that Standard English follows a fixed word pattern. Any change
in the word sequence brings change in the contained meaning in respect of emphasis,
comparison etc. While “Indian English speakers, at the upper end of the bilingualism
cline show little deviation in the area in spite of the striking difference between the
SVO word order of English and the SOV order of most of the Indian languages.
1. Gumperz, John J. 1982. Language and Social Identity. P 49
261
Indian English users show deviation in their use of the adverbials.” 1 Indian English
writers freely use adverbs. Sometimes, they strictly follow the rules of Standard
English; but sometimes, due to necessity and style, they don’t follow. As most of the
Indian languages enjoy freedom in respect of positioning of adverb; thus, for Indian
users difficulties lie in the complexities of adverb positioning. This cause brings all
the mentioned deviations in the use of various adverbs.
6.1.7 Causativization
Different languages exhibit various connections and co-relations between

grammatical categories and in their role. Introducing and marking linguistic
components of participants with specific grammatical markers is one of the most
important devices that any language may use. In causativization, a person or a thing
(First inspirator) does not execute any action or work directly, but indirectly. The first
inspirator gets the work accomplished by second inspirator.
6.1.7.1 English Verbs Used as Causatives: Basically, in English language, there are
five verbs that are used as causatives. These are: MAKE, GET, HAVE, HELP,
CAUSE and LET. These verbs depict various forces.
 Make = force or require someone to take an action
(Make + Person + Verb (Base Form); e.g. “The sudden influx of air and dust
made me realize, with a start, that the window had been flung open.” (Cry, The
Peacock, 119)
 Get = convince/encourage somebody to do something
(get + person + to + verb); e.g. “Slowly but surely, I got them to come to me,
and began to make a handsome income.” (Best Loved Indian Stories, 39)
*In some cases ‘to’ may be hidden.
 Have = give someone else the responsibility to do something
Active Structure: (have + person + verb [base form]) e.g.
1. Bandyopadhyay, Suman. 2010. Indianization of English: Analysis of Linguistic Features in

Selected Post-1980 Indian English Fiction. P. 42.
262
“The businessman had his secretary make copies of the report.”
Passive Structure: (have + thing + past participle of verb) e.g.
“And the most delightful injuries which he had ever sustained was to have had
his teeth knocked out, for he had had them replaced with a row of false ones
mounted with gold, which had led to many a joke…” (Untouchable, 96)
 Help = assist someone in doing something
(help + sub. + verb [base form]); e.g.
“Priya Duryodhani helped me run in.” (The Great Indian Novel, 310)
 Cause = (cause + agent + to + verb [base form]); e.g. “Jealousy and

suspicion caused him to send Mansaram away to live in a hostel , a decision
they all soon came to regret”1
 Let = permit something to happen
(let + agent + verb [base form]); e.g.
“He had let her believe it was…” (Better Let Him Sleep, 344)
As per the force and authority ‘Make’ is most powerful, ‘Get’ occupies second place
and ‘Have’ occupies the third place. ‘Help’ seems to be less powerful; whereas
‘cause’ seems to be used just to highlight causativization. ‘Let’ depicts permission.
6.1.7.2 Causative Verbs in Hindi Language: In Hindi language case assignment to

various nouns or noun phrases (that exhibit the participants) are exponent of
participants. Participants play roles as agent, patient, recipient and beneficiary in
transitive, intransitive and causative sentences. “Indian languages typically have
morphologically marked causative verb stems.”2 It is quite obvious that in Hindi
language (as well as in other Indian languages and dialects) causal verbs exist in
concrete form; e.g. Maa bache ko botal se doodh pilate hai. (The mother makes the
child drink milk with a bottle.) OR Maa aaya se bachhe ko botal se doodh pilwati
hai. (The mother makes the aayah feed milk to the child with a bottle.)
1 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirmala_(novel)
2 Masica, Colin P. 2005. Defining a Linguistic Area: South Asia. P.41.
263
6.1.7.3 Causativization in Indian English: Causativization is used in Indian

English also. Some examples of Indian English extracted from various sources are
presented below for further discussion:
Extracts Explanation
PRESENT: Her mother often scolds and makes her shut up.” ‘chup karati hai’
(Best Loved Indian Stories, 51)
PAST:“He spoke to a well known firm of traders in Delhi and got him a dilwaaye’
job in their office at Rs. 60 a month.” (Best Loved Indian Stories, 223)
“Gautama enquired, for she had made him stumble and nearly fall” (Cry, ‘ladkadwaaya’
The Peacock,170)
FUTURE: “We will make you close down your factory.” (Best Loved ‘kawaayege’
Indian Stories, 119)
CONDITIONAL SENTENCE: “…even if they make me walk the
wooden stairs to the hangman’s noose, I’ll never ….” (The White Tiger, ‘chalwaayge’
320)
6.1.7.4 Variation: Generally, the use of causal verb in Indian English is similar to the
Standard English. But, at certain times a few variations are found due to the impact of
Indian languages; e.g.
Extracts Explanation
ACTIVE STRUCTURE
“In fact, if you must know, Pandu helped choose the In these examples, causal verb
genetic mix his sons would inherit. (Great Indian ‘helped’ and main verbs ‘choose’
Novel, 86) (in Active Structure) and
PASSIVE STRUCTURE ‘established’ (in Passive Structure)
are used together without the agent
“..Narayan began his career as a rebel, as a realistic in between. In these sentences agents
fiction writer in English, and with Mulk Raj Anand are mentioned either after object (the
and Raja Rao helped established the Indian Novels genetic mix) or just after the main
in English on new track.” (The Hindu, Sunday, July, verb (established).
5, 1998.)
On the basis of queer observation and comparative study, it is quite obvious that in
Hindi language and in several other Indian languages and dialects, causal verbs exist
in some inflected form (- waa - + main verb; e.g. khilwaati, khilwaata etc.); whereas
Indian English does not reflect any such tendency. In Standard English causal verbs
264
do not exist in concrete form. Verbs like - get, help, have, make, cause etc. are used
additionally (other than the main verb and helping verb) to satisfy the need for causal
verbs. Though, at structural level a few exceptions may be found which are not
drastically away from Standard English. Hence, it can be said that Standard English
and Indian English follow almost similar patterns and rules for causal verbs and
causativization.
6.1.8 Reduplication
Reduplication is that linguistic feature which may often be seen in several Indian
languages. Several times, repetition and reduplication are taken as similar, but in
reality they “are superficially similar phenomena characterised by the iteration of
linguistic material.”1 Reduplication, “a topological feature”2 (a feature in which the
parts of something are arranged and related), is found in high frequency in several
Indian languages.
Reduplication is also a unique characteristic of Indian English. It may be defined “as a

morphological process that allows speaker to form new word from old words by
adjoining the latter in entirely (complete reduplication) or some recognizable and
definable part of it to itself (partial reduplication).3
Reduplication, in any part of speech, other than verb, is generally, used for emphasis;
whereas reduplication in verb indicates emphasis along with continuation of some
process. Reduplication “results in the intensification of meaning of the item.”4
Reduplication also helps in creating the effect of colloquial speech that helps to
present a particular scene or character. Reduplication of words and phrases is one of
the characteristics of Indian English. Sridhar (1989) mentions two types of
reduplication that have different functions in Indian languages and which are
imported into the English of the character as well. According to him, “full
1 Gil, David. 2005. From Repetition to Reduplication in Riau Indonesian. Studies on Reduplication. P.31.
2 Kachru, Braj B. 1969. Current Trends in Linguistics, Volume 1; Volume 9. Ed. Thomas Albert
Sebeok. P.653.
3 Singh, Rajendra. 2005. Reduplication in Modern Hindi and the Theory of Reduplication, Studies
on Reduplication. P. 263.
4 Bhatt, Rakesh M.2009. Expert Discourse, Local Practices , and Hybridity: The Case of Indian
Englishes; Reclaiming the Local in Language Policy and Practice. P. 45.
265
reduplication emphasizes or intensifies the meaning or scope of the reduplicated

element where as partial reduplication has a generalizing (“and so on and so forth”)
function.”1 Reduplication may occur in two types in Indian languages but on the basis
of origin, nature and function, it can be categorised in following ways: e.g.
6.1.8.1 Complete Reduplication: In complete reduplication, the item or the word is

repeated as it is. Generally, this repetition is used just after the main word which is
reduplicated; e.g.
“Oh! I am getting burnt-burnt my maid!” (Urvashi,107)
“I am very-very thirsty” (Urvashi,109)
Explanation: Complete reduplication, in Indian English is done on the analogy of

Hindi language, but it is non-translated. If these usages are written in Hindi, these are
presented only in base form or in some different form; e.g. “Oh! I am getting burnt-
burnt my maid!” (‘mai jali ja rahe hu’) or “I am very-very thirsty” (‘Mai bahut
pyasi hu’) etc.
6.1.8.2 Translated Reduplication: In translated reduplication, words of Hindi

reduplication are translated literally. This kind of reduplication may be divided into
two categories:
 Single Lexical Units: In this category, only one word is repeated and that is the
literal translation of some Hindi word. Generally, under this category, adjectives are
reduplicated; e.g.
Extract (Translated Reduplication) Hindi Base Word

“hot, hot coffee” (The Cow and the ‘garam, garam’/‘garmagaram
Barricades 1) kehva’
“long, long hair” (Ibid, 71) ‘lambe, lambe baal’
“big, big books” (Ibid, 72) ‘badi, badi kitabe’
1 Sridhar, Kamal K. 1989. English in Indian Bilingualism. P.142.
266
Standard English does not support the tendency of reduplication yet it is one of the
major characteristics of Indian and some other varieties of English. Though, it is an
irregularity yet highlights the important feature of Indian English that cannot be
avoided.
 Larger (Longer Lexical) Units: In this kind, reduplication is done of more than
one translated word; e.g.
Extract (Translated Reduplication) Hindi Base Word

With these very eyes, with these very eyes, I have seen ghosts of ‘inhi aakhon se, inhi
more than a hundred young men and women. (Javni, 84) aakhon se’
…all killed by magic by magic (Ibid, 84) ‘jaadu ke dwaara,
jaadu ke dwaara’
6.1.8.3 Transliterated Reduplication: This kind of reduplication is taken as it is

from Indian languages. This kind of reduplication occurs due to cultural, traditional
and religion based aspects, hence, cannot be translated; e.g. Ram-Ram” (Coolie, 129)
Explanation: It is not repetition here, but it is an invocation to God and a Hindu

manner of greeting or wishing one another
6.1.8.4 Reduplication at Various Parts of Speech in Indian English:
6.1.8.4.1 Noun: Except Indian English, “Reduplication of nouns is not allowed,

except in a few items in children’s speech, where they function as adjectives, for
example, house-house game (= ‘a game involving houses’) lie-lie (= ‘in jest,
artificial’).”1 In Indian English, reduplication of various nouns, especially proper or
common noun, is very commonly used; e.g.
“Shanti! Shanti” (Coolie, 81,133) for ‘an invocation and chanting for peace that is the
name given to a situation.’
“Sir sir please sir will they put up a cross?” (Midnight’s Children, 344)
1 . Rajend, Mesthrie. 2006. English in Language Shift: The History, Structure and Sociolinguistics of
South African Indian English. P. 55.
267
6.1.8.4.2 Verb or Verb phrase: Other than nouns, verbs are also reduplicated
frequently in Indian English; e.g. She burr-burred” (The Silver Bangle, 115). Here,
the verb ‘burr’ is reduplicated but in its inflected form.
6.1.8.4.3 Interjection: In Indian English, sometimes, reduplication also occurs in

Interjection; e.g. “Good, Good, Menake!” (Urvashi, 24)
Though, ‘good’ is an adjective, but here it communicates the meaning of an

interjection.
6.1.8.5 Code Mixed Varieties of Reduplication: In Indian English, under this

category those items of reduplication fall that can be translated but due to style or
fluency, are expressed in Hindi or any other Indian language; e.g
“Acha, acha, you two can have fifteen rupees a month.” (Coolie, 174)
Here, Hindi adjective ‘acha’ is used as reduplication in the form of code mixing. The
reduplication communicates ‘Okay’ instead of ‘good’ that is its literal meaning.
6.1.8.6 Hybrid Reduplication: This kind of reduplication may occur only in non-
native varieties of English, in which one item is from English language and another is
from some other language. In this kind of reduplication, English word is generally used to
clarify the Hindi word. For Indian (Hindi) users, only these Hindi words are intelligible;
thus, need no extra word for further explanation. But to English native users such Hindi
terms may be unintelligible thus requires similar English word for clarification.
Examples Explanation
“Shiva-ratri, Shiva’s night” (India: A Millon ‘Shiva-ratri’ a Hindu religious occasion is literally
Mutinies Now, 194) translated and reduplicated here as ‘Shiva’s night.’
‘Come’ is also translated reduplication of Hindi
“ Ao ji ao, come.” (The Silver Bangle, 111) word ‘aao’.
Similarly, ‘zakat’ is an Urdu word for ‘charity’.
Hence, it is also a translated reduplication.
“Zakat, charity” (A Dying Banyan,8)
Kush’ is the Indian name of a kind of grass which
is considered very pious and suitable for religious
ceremony.
“Kush, grass” (Urvashi, 100) Similarly, ‘Tandav’ refers to the dance performed
in immense anger by Lord Shiva..
“Tandav dance” (Stardust,39)
268
6.1.8.7 Onomatopoetic Reduplication: Every language has some words specific to

some particular sound. In Indian English onomatopoetic and reduplication of
onomatopoetic words may also be seen. These are the reproduction of some Indian
perception of any particular sound in form of word and these words generally occur in
reduplication. As these words are sound specific they can’t be translated thus often
presented in their transliterated reduplicated form; e.g. “Gud-Gud” (Urvashi, 104),
“Chug-chug of the train” (The Guide, 139)
Explanation: ‘Gud-gud’ is the Indian (Hindi) perception of a specific sound of water

and similarly ‘chug- chug’ is sound of train engine.
6.1.8.8 Reduplication of Meaning: Under this category those words are taken which
are used together for a single expression; and for the same expression any of the two
words may be used; e. g. “Servant maid” (India: A Millon Mutinies Now, 232)
Explanation: ‘Maid’ means ‘a female servant for domestic work’. Here, ‘servant’
and ‘maid’ are used for a female servant.
Hence, it can be said that though Indian English follows Standard English in
reduplication; yet it is slightly different from Standard English. Reduplication occurs
in more than one way in Indian English. Sometimes, it has also been observed that in
Indian English reduplication, pauses like: commas, full stops etc. are used; e.g.
“Come, come, brother” (Coolie, 198); “…he settles down to strip the bananas, neatly
and deftly, and swallow them quickly, quickly.” (Cry, the Peacock, 76); “No, no, he
will want money...” (Coolie, 5) etc.
6.1.9 Echo Formation
Echo formation, a linguistic process, means the formation of a word (sometimes,

meaningless) to be used along with some meaningful word with similar acoustic
structure. It simply means formation of a word similar to the sound of any meaningful
word. The meaningful base word may belong to any part of speech and may begin
with any vowel or consonant. It always has two items in which the initial one is
always meaningful and the latter one generally does not carry any meaning in specific
but corresponds to the meaning of the initial word as -‘etc,’ , ‘and such’ and ‘things
269
like that.’ It is a specific condition of reduplication; i.e. when reduplication occurs

partially, not fully. Though it works on the basis of sound yet it never corresponds to
any sound; hence, it can never be onomatopoeic. In the echo word, length of a vowel
sound correspondence to the length of the vowel sound of the model word. The echo
word differs mostly at any one phoneme of the model word. It may be an addition or a
replacement; e.g. Love – shove (/lʌv/-/ʃʌv/). Here, letter ‘l’ is replaced by letters ‘sh’
that denotes the replacement of sound /l/ with sound /ʃ/.
This linguistic process is widely used almost in every language of South Asia. Words
of echo formation are characterized by reduplication of a complete word or phrase,
with the initial segment or syllable of the reduplicant being overwritten by a fixed
segment or syllable. Echo word formation is also found in several Indian languages
including Hindi. Even, in Indian English, echo formation is found in a great degree.
Echo word formation in Indian English can be categorised as follows:
6.1.9.1 Meaningless Echo Word Formation: The echo words that don’t carry any
meaning in particular, may be termed as meaningless echo words. To maintain
lucidity and natural flow in the language, Hindi grammar has been equipped with a
very wide range of meaningful and meaningless words; e.g. chai-vai, paisa-vaisa etc.
In Hindi language, echo words may be formed from almost every noun. In Hindi
grammar, these are used collectively to communicate some specific meaning.
Meaningless echo word may occur under following ways:
 Appreciative Echo Word Formation: In Indian English echo formation is

implied to appreciate and express powerful words; e.g.
i) “Don't use big/shig words that only Shakespeare can understand. Go marry
Shakespeare…” (Love on Velocity Express, 34)
ii) “Don't use big/shig words that only Shakespeare can understand. Go marry
Shakespeare…” (Love on Velocity Express, 34)
iii) “You know, disco-shisco,’ he said, …” (Gods, Graves, and Grandmother, 217)
Explanation: In the both examples, the echo word ‘-shig’ is performing the function of
an echo word of ‘big’ that positively enhances its meaning. Letters ‘b’ and ‘d’ changed to
letters ‘sh-’; and sounds /b/ of ‘big’ and /d/ of ‘disco’ are changed to sound /ʃ/ as ‘–shig’
270
and ‘-shisco’ in all the three examples. Indian English also witnesses a change from the
base word, generally, at the initial sound or the letter of the echo word.
Depreciative Echo Word Formation: In Indian English, several times, echo

formation is implied in such a way that it depicts the tone that depreciates the
meaning of the base word; e.g.
i) “Love-shove is okay, ji. But a girl needs security first…” (Superstar India: From
Incredible To Unstoppable, eBook)
ii) “Sir, I don't know any English-Vinglish…." (The Unofficial Joke Book of
Sheikh Chilli, 108)
iii) “The whole of Hollywood is going to be there, all the big-shig directors, actor-
vactors.”(How I Got Lucky, eBook)
Explanation: In the given examples, the echo word ‘-shove’, ‘-Vinglish’ and ‘-
vactors’ are performing the function of echo words of ‘love’, ‘English’ and ‘actor’
respectively, that convey depreciative meaning.
 Echo Formation of Transliteration: In Indian English, code mixing can also

be seen in the use of echo word formation; e.g.
i) “…pyaar-vyaar automatically follows.” (Superstar India: From Incredible To

Unstoppable, eBook)
ii) “…I accidently got onto and from where I did not get off until Nagercoil where
a great mara-mari (combat, struggle) took place between two politicians.
(Another India, 212.)
Explanation: Echo Formation of Transliterated word often occurs whenever any

Indian becomes informal and wants to communicate the original Indian sense during
communication.
 Echo Words Denoting Casual Meaning: In Indian languages as well as in

Indian English, an approach for communicating casual meaning through echo words
may also be often seen; e.g.
271
i) “Go and drink your Coke-shoke /in your AC vehicle. (Satanic Verses, 478)
ii) “Mobile-shobile, this instrument I also have, she says, instantly drop- ping the
cover story with a shrug, her voice rising a couple of notches.” (The Ground
beneath Her Feet, 511)
Example: The words ‘-shoke’ and ‘-shobile’ are used as echo words to bring a very
casual meaning to the respective base word.
6.1.9.2 Meaningful Echo Word Formation: In this category, both the words, i.e.
base word and the echo word are meaningful but the second word either compliments
the initial word (base word) or carries the similar meaning to the base word. This
tendency of (Meaningful-Meaningful) echo formation is also found in Hindi
language. Some examples are presented as follows:
Hindi Word + Hindi Word: Both the items of echo formation are meaningful words
of Hindi language; e.g.
“I am so afraid of rona dhona…” (complaining) (The Dance of Death, 73)
“…we have gaana bajana [making merriment by singing and playing instrumental
music], khana peena [enjoying by eating and drinking varieties of edibles], these
people get ignored, and that is not fair.” (American Karma: Race, Culture and Identity
in Indian Diaspora, 124)
“The boy was cherry but homesick (he missed the ‘khelna kudna’ [making merriment
by involving oneself in physical activities], the abandon, of his village); and Munna
was a bully. (Calcutta: Two Years in the City, eBook)
Explanation: Both of the Hindi words of these echo formations are meaningful and
even when they are used together they also communicate some idiomatic meaning.
The respective Indian idiomatic meaning is mostly mentioned within parentheses by
the authors to communicate the actual cultural meaning related to the echo formation.
 English Word +English Word: Both the items of echo formations are
meaningful words of English language; e.g.
272
“You are talking about that zero- In these sentences, it can be noticed that the word for echo
hero.” (Gods, Graves, and formation may not always meaningless. It may be a meaningful
Grandmother, 163) word of the same language. Here, the words of echo formation;
“Then the gristly-bristly face i.e. ‘- hero’ and ‘-bristly’ compliment the base word ‘zero’ and
contorted…” (The Gods of Small ‘-gristly’. These echo words have their own meaning, in
Things, 104) particular, similar to the meaning of the base words.
6.1.9.3 Echo Word with Changed Final Sound and Letter/s: In Indian English,
various variations can be observed in echo formation. As a result, in Indian English,
echo words may also be found with changed letter/s and sound at the final stage; e.g.
“Here Sundar put his foot down, saying that The example presents that the letters <-ow> and the
neither of them were of the age for such vowel sound /əʊ/ of the base word ‘show’ is replaced
‘show-sha -giri’. (Gods, Graves, and to letter <a> and sound /ɑː/ of the echo word ‘-sha’ at
Grandmother,179) the final position.
6.1.9.4 Echo Word with a Changed Medial Sound and Letter: Indian English also
involves a change in the sound at the medial stage of the echo words. For instance,
“the English word fit can render an echo word fit-vit (fit etc.). The echo formation
with v is an unmarked productive process of Standard Indian English…another echo
word fiT-faaT (fit etc.) can be witnessed in the regional varieties of (Indian)
English….”1 Such kind of word formation provides a local touch as well as natural
regional tone and intonation to the language.
6.1.9.5 Echo Formation in Standard English: Though, Standard English also

possesses a few echo formation compounds; yet sometimes, some onomatopoetic
English words are confusingly considered as echo words because of their structure;
e.g. <ding-dong> /ˈdɪŋ dɒŋ/, <See-saw> /ˈsiːsɔː/ and <teeter-totter> /ˈtiːtətɒtə/.
Explanation: ‘Ding-dong’, ‘see-saw’ etc. are the words mentioned in Standard

English dictionaries with some definite meaning; e.g. ‘ding-dong’ is generally used as
an uncountable, abstract noun to represent the sound made by a bell; or sometimes, it
may be used informally in Standard English to depict ‘an argument or fight’.
1 Bhatia, Tej K and William C. Ritchie. 2008. Bilingualism in South Asia Ed , Tej K Bhatia and
William C. Ritchie. The Handbook of Bilingualism. P.799.
273
Similarly, all such compound words look as echo formations, but have their own
specific meanings.
Hence, it can be asserted that the tendency of echo word formation is very little in
Standard English, and it is generally found in some children oriented pieces; whereas
it is very richly and vibrantly visible in Indian English, making Indian English a
powerful variety of its own style.
6.1.10 Verbal Strategies
The strategies in intercultural communication that improve the ability to create or

comprehend speech between the persons of different cultures may be termed as
Verbal Strategies. Every language has its own verbal strategies. These strategies are
moreover decided by the tendencies, practices and behavioural approach of any
culture. These features of any community or culture are naturally reflected, in a high
frequency, through intercultural communication by the medium of some language.
Various varieties of any language possess some unique features of verbal strategies
that cut shine it from the rest of the varieties as well as from the parent language.
Even the features of verbal strategies become the special characteristics of that
concerned variety. Indian English also has its own verbal strategies that reflect the
silent features of Indian culture, tradition and language. The key features of verbal
strategies of Indian English are Politeness, Respectful tone, Code Mixing,
Explanation, Roundabout description, Superficial Translation of specific and bound
Indian Expression, Use of Question Tags in Indian Way.
6.1.10.1 Politeness and Respectful Tone: There are various devices and means in
every language to encode politeness. It may be encoded through intonational pattern,
lexicon or syntactic structures other than speech forms. In most of the Indian
languages politeness occurs (if required) in all the possible ways. This feature of
Indian languages is clearly reflected in Indian English in various ways; e.g.
6.1.10.1.1 Use of Affectionate and Polite Terminology: It has been an Indian

tendency to use affectionate and polite terminology, in communication. Indian
English has also acquired this tendency; e.g.
274
“Shyam beta, talk normally, this is not convent school debate you won…” (Love on
Velocity Express, 34)
In Indian English, ‘beta’ ‘beti’ type of Hindi address / relation terms are generally
used in common discourse. These terms may be used at either side of the proper noun
as per the meaning; e.g. ‘Shyam Beta’ or ‘Beta Shyam’ whereas when used in English
(in translated form) these address terms always occur before the Proper Noun; e.g.
‘Son, Shyam’
6.1.10.1.2 Address and Reference Terms: Every language implies address and
reference terms in its common discourse but Indian English implies it in somewhat
different manner from that of Standard British English. These are as follows:
6.1.10.1.2.1 Use of Hindi Suffixes with Titles and Professional Address Terms: In
Indian English, Hindi suffixes are used very fluently along with English and Hindi
terms; e.g.
i) “Tell doctor sahib and he’ll prescribe a medicine.” (Nirmala, 119)
ii) “Sarika hung her head and felt the tears rising. He sounded so formal. 'Master
sahib,' she said.” (Divine Music, 238)
iii) “…conducting the affairs of the Marris Music College in far off Lucknow as
Principal, precisely as Panditji ...” (Between Two Tanpuras, 157)
iv) “Then he said, "Salaam, Maulvi ji..." (The Fourth Direction and Other Stories, 41)
v) "Some simply came in to ask 'Madamji, no class today?', ( (No Way Home, 86)
6.1.10.1.2.2 Use of ‘–ji’ Suffix with English Relation Terms: Indian English has
a very common tendency of using English words, especially the relation terms, as its
own. Hence as the consequence, even with English words and terms Indian suffixes
are used fluently; e.g. “Auntyji, I am not going to marry this dictionary.” (Love on
Velocity Express, 34)
6.1.10.1.2.3 Use of Pet Names: Almost every Indian culture and religion implies
the concept of ‘pet name’ along with a ‘good name’ or ‘official name’. “…good
275
names (are) used in public, and pet names (are) used by families…” 1; e.g.“Ashima’s
pet name is Monu, Ashoke’s Mitthu,and,,,”(The Namesake, 26)
6.1.10.1.2.4 Kinship Terms for Honorific Address: In almost every Indian

language, kinship terms are used very frequently to address the persons of
neighbourhood or society; e.g.
“‘No, Beybey, it is I – Nooran. Chacha Imam Baksh’s daughter,’ answered the girl
timidly.” (Train to Pakistan, 137)
Here, in this example, it can be seen that a daughter is mentioning her father’s name
along with the kinship term ‘Chacha’ that is used as an honorific address for Imam
Baksh by almost all the persons in the neighbourhood and society. Such terms are also
commonly used by Indians even to address some stranger or less familiar persons.
Selection of term is, generally, based on the age of the addressee and the speaker.
These are generally the terms of moral respect and regard. “Mother as a term of
respect, sister of regard…bhai is used for any male of equal age…uncle may be
referred to as father.”2
6.1.10.1.2.5 Use of Plain Honorific Terms: Use of various honorific terms without
any title or name, in translated, transliterated, hybridized or code-mixed form, is also
one of the major tendency of verbal strategies of Indian English; e.g.
Example Category Explanation

1. ‘Bairah.’ ‘Huzoor.’ ‘Tell the Code Mixing for honorific Indian English implies
driver.’(Train to Pakistan, 94) address honorific terms in a variety
2. No, Sahib, we cannot say Code Mixing of ways. Sometimes, the
anything” (Ibid,142) literal translation is given
English honorific
within parenthesis of any
3. What honourable noun does your address Hindi word. This is
honour bear? (Ibid,42)
Transliterated (code mixed) generally done to
4. ‘The Sarkar (Government) is honorific address term is communicate the desired
afraid of him,’ said a lalla followed by translated with in meaning. In Hindi, term
standing by Bakha. (Untouchable, parenthesis. ‘sarkar’ may also be used to
129) address any powerful and
superior person.
1 Joshi, Suchita. 2005. The Namesake Account of a Name, Looking for its Bearer, Indian Women
Novelists in English. P.114.
2 Gramley, Stephan and Michael Patzold. A Survey of Modern English. P.202.
276
6.1.10.1.2.6 Use of Phrasal Terms of Superiority: Indian English, as its the verbal
strategy, also witnesses the use of phrasal superiority term; e.g.
“‘I did not see him on the train, cherisher of the poor. I only carried out yours
orders…” (Train to Pakistan,79)
“The giver of grain” (Annadaata: The Giver of Grain, Cover Page)
Explanation: Indian English accumulates phrasal literal translation of Hindi words or

phrases; e.g. ‘Gareebon ka palanhaar’ or ‘Annadaata’ etc. These are considered
under verbal strategies of Indian English because these expressions that are based on
Indian languages.
6.1.10.2 Reflection of Cultural Mannerism and Etiquettes: Same as Indian

languages, Indian English also spreads forward cultural mannerism and etiquettes
through various ways. “It is observed that in Indian English fiction, women generally
shy away from the presence of men other than their father and brother or husband and
son. This is also considered to be an expression of politeness in the Indian cultural
context…”1 Not only women but men also reflect over politeness in Indian English,
certain times, through their words or even by gestures; e.g.
“…presence of their wives, whereas they try to appear over-polite while interacting
with their beloved…”2; e.g. “I spread my handkerchief, and said, “Sit down Rosi.”
(The Guide, 145)
6.1.10.3 Greeting Style- Indians, generally, bid the name of their preferred deity to
wish one another which is truly reflected in Indian English and in several Indian
languages; e.g. ‘Sat sri Akal’ (Train to Pakistan, 174)
 Recitation of God’s Name: On the analogy of verbal strategies of several

Indian languages, Indian English also ascertains repetition of god’s name for various
expressions; e.g.
1 Pathak R.S. 1994. Indianisation of English Language and Literature. P. 149.

2 Ibid, P. 150.
277
Example Expression
“ ‘Ram, Ram!' protested some of them.” (Penguin Book of Indian Disapproval and protest
journeys, 327)
“…muttering ‘Ram, Ram, Ram’, ‘Hari Hari Hari’, Sri Sri Sri’ and prayer or invocation
other incantations, …” (Coolie, 120)
 Blessing and Complementing: To shower blessings and passing complements

have been a very unique characteristic of Indian languages; e.g.
 “May your fame and honour increase.”(Train to Pakistan, 23)
 “May your pen write figures of thousand and hundreds of thousands.” (Ibid, 23)
 “May you ever rule…” (Train to Pakistan,29)
 “May your iqbal (fame) ever increase.” (Ibid, 42)
 “Haseena. You are Haseen. Your mother has chosen your name well.” (Ibid 106)
Explanation: Several Indian English novels and writings repeatedly present various
blessings and complements which are also Indian in nature.
6.1.10.4 Code Mixing and Code Switching: As one of its verbal strategies, Indian
English takes into use ‘code-switching’ for various important purposes e. g.
Indian Casticism and Explanation: Indian English has to imbibe Indian words in their
Profession: original form for various Indian expressions that cannot be given
in English language because of the unavailability of that specific
“We had never seen the
term or expression; e.g. ‘Mallahin’ is the inflicted form of a Hindi
Mallahin in this village
noun word ‘Mallah’ (one who rows a boat). In Indian concept,
before the dacoity.”?
word ‘Mallah’ denotes not only an occupation but a specific caste
(Khushwant Singh's
also. Similarly, ‘Mallahin’ refers to the wife of a ‘Mallah’. In
Book of Unforgettable
English language, the term ‘sailor’ is available for ‘Mallah’, but
Women, 62)
‘sailor’ only denotes the occupation not any specific caste. That is
why the process of code-mixing is implied.
6.1.10.5 Repetition for Emphasis: As verbal strategies of Indian English repetition

for emphasis is also taken into prime consideration; e.g.
278
Example
i) “O God, Saleem, all this tamasha, all this performance, for one of your stupid
cracks?” (Midnight’s Children, 194) etc.
ii) “Bhai, wow. I’m tickled, truly. Tickled pink” (Satanic Verses, 83)
Explanation: In Indian English repetition may occur of word, phrases or expressions.
6.1.10.6 Use of Question Tags in Indian Way: More often, the word order of
question tags is unique in Indian English. “…an area which has a distinct tone of
‘Indian English’ is the area of question tags. …Indian English tends to use question
tags…’isn’t it?’ across the board in the sentence...”1
6.1.10.7 Through Explanation: To make some Indian expression intelligible to the

native speakers, Indian English also adopts verbal strategy of explanation; e.g.
i) “Drank water from the same cup without either of them putting their lips to the
rim” (The Namesake, 17)
ii) “Ashima ties red threads for good luck to a marble lattice screen” (The
Namesake, 85)
Explanation: The first example communicates ‘Bina juhoota kiye/ upar se peena’; is
an Indian way to maintain piousness/ purity of the cup. Similarly, the words ‘red
threads’ in the second example are unable to convey the Indian meaning of ‘kalawa’,
the writer explains the purpose to communicate the Indian item.
Hence, it is proven that Indian English has evolved its own verbal strategies like use
of polite terms, -suffixes, address terms, repetition, and explanation etc. on the
analogy of Indian languages as per the requirement of situation or expression.
6.2 HYBRIDIZATION OF ENGLISH
Hybridization is, now, a permanent feature available in several cultural domains of

human living. It may also be observed at almost all the levels of human speech and
language. “The hybridization of English and indefinite range of other languages is the
1 Sethi, Anjanee and Bhawana Adhikari. 2010. Business Communication. P. 268.
279
most extensive of its kind ever known…”1 Though, hybridized English is a medium to
Indianize English as well as to anglicize India. It welcomes and introduces various
unique Indian images, emotions, objects and ways of living into English, but in
hybridized form. “Hybridization of Hindi and English is argued to be an ongoing
process that takes place in on-the-ground interactions between bilingual speakers
through a lively interplay of Hindi and English similarity and difference that relies on
the robust distinctiveness of Hindi and English as separate languages.”2
Hybridization of English also occurs in Indian English. It is not majorly distinct from
British or American English. Hybridized English is a traceable mixture of Standard
English and Indian English. Traceable, because anyone who knows both the
languages may point out hybridized combination. The activity of hybridization is,
generally, performed by highly educated and well versed persons of the concerned
languages. Same is the case of hybridization in Indian English. Though, sometimes,
because of utmost necessity, it may be an unavoidable activity. Generally,
hybridization is implied in Indian English to make the work natural as well as
intelligible for non-natives.
Some people consider that hybridization of any language is a translation activity,

some consider it as a medium to decorate language whereas some scholars mention
hybridization as “a sub category of code-mixing”3. Above them all, it would be far
better to say that hybridization is a natural process that may occur when two or more
languages come into close contact with each other. It may occur at various levels of
any language. It may occur as follows:
6.2.1 Phonological Level
 Sound /v/ for /w/: In Standard “English /v/ is produced by a loose lower lip in
contact with the upper teeth…[and] /w/ is produced with lips rounded about as
much as for sounding the vowel /u:/.”4 While the English labiovelar sound /w/
1 Tom McArthur . 1998. The English Languages. P.14

2 Anderson- Finch,Shannon. 2011. More than the Sum of Its Parts: ‘Hinglish’ as an Additional
Communication Resource. P. 69
3 Srivastava, Neelam. 2007. Secularism in the Postcolonial Indian Novel. P.146.
4 Fuhrken, G.E. 2014. Standard English Speech. P.104.
280
does not exist in Hindi language; hence, as the result of hybridization, sound /w/
is pronounced as (English labio-dental sound) /v/ in Indian English by several
Indian English speakers.
 Sound /ph/ for /f/: Similarly, sound /f/ is produced with bilabial place of
articulation instead of labiodental in Indian English by several Eastern Indian
English speakers (that makes the sounds <father> as <phather>). This kind of
articulation may also be taken as an example of hybrid articulation because
according to IPA sound /f/ is labio-dental (father) whereas according to Hindi
articulation sound /f/ is bilabial (Phal that means fruit).
 Unaspirated sound for Aspirated phonemes: In Standard English, consonant

sounds /p/, /t/ and /k/ are always aspirated when they occur at initial position;
thus, sounding as /ph/, /th/ and /kh/ respectively. Whereas, due to impact of
mother tongue, hybridization may also be monitored in the pronunciation of
sound /p/, /t/ and /k/. Most of the Indian users of English produce these sounds
as unaspirated. It means there is‘uniformity’ (a prominent characteristic of most
of the Indian languages) in the articulation of these consonant sound irrespective
of their position of occurrence. Other than these, impact of hybridization may
also be traced on several other aspects of phonology of Indian English.
6.2.2 Morphological and Lexical Level: Hybridization also leads toward natural
formation of new words that enrich vocabulary of English; e.g.
Example Hybridization Explanation
“Oh my God my hour has come, my darling madam, Jail (English term) + Here, it can be seen that compound
only let me go peacefully, do not put me in the Khana (Hindi/ Urdu term) words are formed on the basis of
jailkhana!” (Midnight’s Children, 279) = Jailkhana hybridization. In this one item of
“Probably the cheapest and easily obtainable biogas is the compound belongs to English
gobar gas (or dung gas),…”(Engineering Chemistry, language while the other belongs to
Gobar (Hindi term) + Gas
544) any of Indian languages. In this,
(English term) = Gobar gas
both the item of the compound may
occur with a space or without any
“No wonder the folk music of Uttar Pradesh is so full Bidaai (Hindi term) + song space or with a hyphen in between.
of heartbreaking bidaai songs.” (Chander and Sudha, (English term) = Bidaai
eBook) song.
281
6.2.3 Symbolic Hybridization: The hybridization that is communicating some

culture, tradition, ritual specific expression of India may be termed as ‘Symbolic
hybridization’; e.g. “She looks at the sky which is now the huge white sari, the kind
which widows wear….crinkled in several places.” (The Blue Bedspread, 85) The
highlighted part of the description shows the Indian cultural attire (sari) for women;
and the traditional symbolism of white colour for dejection (virakti) of widows.
6.2.4 At Entertainment Level: Other than this, hybridization can also be found in the
language used at entertainment front. There are many films that try to attract the
audience with their hybridized titles such as ‘Ek Choti Se Love Story’, ‘Jab We Met’,
‘Love Aaj kal’, ‘Biwi No. One’, ‘Golmaal Returns’ etc. Other than these, there are full
English titles of several Hindi Movies such as ‘1942 A Love Story’, ‘Love’ ‘Murder’,
‘Race’ etc. These movies are in Hindi language with slight use of English language,
here and there. They also present several occasion of hybridization.
All such descriptions bring an Indian tang with true creativity that trumpets
hybridization in Indian English. “The hybrid language, therefore, needs to be
considered just like other matters of style, structure, plot and theme…The best-known
artistic hybridization is provided by Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children, which
introduces Indian exclamations and expressions drawn from such disparate sources as
film language, newspaper cuttings, billboards, and Indian epics. There is no glossary,
nor translation, nor are these expressions … marked off in the text by italics or
apostrophes.” 1
Therefore, it is quite obvious that hybridization of English is the need of present day to
communicate several cultural, traditional, religion specific expressions. Along with this,
hybridization may occur in versatile manners to serve several purpose of language and
may provide Indian English the status of an established variety of English.
6.3 SYNTACTIC FEATURES AND SYNTACTICAL IRREGULARITIES
In linguistics, the word ‘syntax’ refers to the way in which words and phrases are put
together to form sentences in a language; whereas the phrase ‘syntactic features’
1 Fokkema, Aleid.1999. Why do You Write in English? P.319.
282
means “a feature with semantic content not used in any syntactic rule is called a
(purely) semantic feature.”1 Chomsky (1965; 88, 153) defines ‘syntactic categories’
as exactly those categories which appear in syntactic rules. Syntactic rules mean the
statements that play a role in determining the well-formation of deep structure,
surface structures, and logical forms; they don’t refer to any phonological information
associated with lexical entries. Thus, when a certain rule of syntax in a formally
constrained and empirically enlightening; syntactic description must be expressed in
terms of a certain category, that category or feature is called “syntactic”. Chomsky
(1965) further emphasizes that this definition of syntactic categories does not mean
that they play no role in the semantic component. Thus, “semantic feature/ category”
does not only refer to any feature implied in a theory of semantics, but a feature not
used in syntax.
In this way, syntactic features also correspondence to syntactical irregularities.

“Syntactical irregularities unnecessary originate at the very threshold of syntax…”2
Hence, syntactical irregularities mean grammatical deviation from the set rules and
patterns, in the syntax of the language. It is a common feature that occurs almost in
every verbal language.
Each variety of language has certain syntactic features. Similarly, Indian English also
has some syntactic features of its own but along with some characteristics that are
different from that of the rules of Standard English. Hence, it may be said that Indian
English has a few syntactic irregularities; but actually they are the key characteristics
of Indian English.
6.3.1 Syntactic Features of Indian English: Indian English, Indianness “lies in the
fact that within the overall general framework of the systems of English, it displays
certain distinguishing phonological, lexico-semantic, and also syntactic features.”3 A
few syntactical irregularities which actually are the syntactic features of Indian
English are observed and discussed below:
1 Emonds, Joseph E.1985. A Unified Theory of Syntactic Categories. P.166

2 Home, Hubert T. M. 1884. Experimentum Brevissimum; or, A Concise Critical View of English
Grammar from a Mathematical Standpoint. P.66
3 Verma , S.K. 1978.“ Syntactic Irregularities in Indian English”. Indian Writing in English. P.208.
283
 Conditional Sentences: In conditional sentences, one “cannot deviate from laid

out structure of the verb groups in the two clauses”1; nor they can be
interchanged with the each other’s group. Standard English follows the
following patterns of conditional sentences:
If- clause Main clause
Type 1 simple present simple present (in case of universal truth)

Type 2 simple present simple future
Type 3 simple past would + present form of verb
Type 4 past perfect would have + past participle form of verb
In Indian English, these patterns are used; but many a times some deviation and
leniency may be noticed; e.g.
Example Explanation
“…and if I choose to believe that the story then On the analogy of Hindi language, in (i) example,
the future is exactly clear to me”(Red Earth and simple present (is); and in (ii) progressive form
Pouring Rain, eBook) of verb (am going) are used in main clause
“Jones, if you don’t go home immediately I am instead of future indefinite. A comma between
going to arrest you on suspicion…”(Ibid) the two clauses is also missing. In the (i) example
‘then’ is used instead of comma.
“If somebody finds out, they’ll think I am Type 1 pattern of Standard English is followed.
planning a regicide or a coup or something. I’ll Though, in the second part, structure of ‘Let’ has
be lucky if they let me poison myself. ” (Ibid) been followed.
“Hurcules began to seek a compromise - the Type-2 Pattern of Standard English is followed
journey, he said, would be sanctioned if the but in passive voice. Omission of pronominal
party were escorted by a detachment of the subject (it) in the main clause is notable.
company’s cavalry, …” (Ibid)
“…and he knew that he had to keep speaking, Double ‘if’ clauses are used in the same sentence.
that if he stopped now, that if silence took him ‘If’ is preceded by ‘that’ on the analogy of Hindi
now he would be lost forever. (Ibid) (kyoki-agar). ‘Comma’ that links both the
clauses is missing in the later part.
“If they slept there, she and Estha, curled Additional information is presented in between
together like foetuses in a shallow steel womb, ‘if clause’ and ‘main clause’.
what would Hulk Hogan and Bam Bam Bigelow
do? (The Gods of Small Things, 188)
“If Comrade Pillai was outside his house oiling In main clause omission of ‘would’ is made.
himself when Estha walked past, he made a point Some additional information is also placed in
to greet him.” (Ibid, 14) between if clause and main clause.
1 Sethi, J.2011. Standard English and Indian Usage: Vocabulary and Grammar. P. 130.
284
 Indirect Question: Indian English also attempts at asking questions in indirect

manner. These questions are in form of statements (affirmative or negative) or
sometimes in form of words (that communicates the whole sentence). In spoken
form, it is the intonation pattern that conforms about its interrogative-ness; whereas
in written form, mark of interrogation (?) assures about its being as a question.
“You are wanting to come over?” (The Inscrutable Americans, 78)
“You really won’t come? (2 States, eBook)
 Questions Tags & Response to Tag Questions: Standard English follows the
following pattern of Question tags and Responses;-
Patterns Question Tags Responses
Positive Sentence: [Statement + , Verb + not + pronoun + ? ] Yes, + Pronoun + Verb.
Negative Statement: [Statement + , Verb + pronoun + ? ] No, + Pronoun + Verb + not
In Indian English, this standard pattern is followed; but here and there some variations
are found which are due to the influence of mother tongue; e.g.
 Question Tags
a) “… why can’t we take pride in our surroundings, isn’t it, and the garden is
overgrown…”(Satanic Verses,44)
b) “He has understood: that he is afraid of the other, the businessman, isn’t it
crazy? (Ibid, 108-109)
c) “Plenty more, isn’t it? (Ibid, 310)
d) “We sell ourselves, isn’t it? (Ibid, 70)
e) “You will also teach me, won’t you, little brother? (Untouchable, 32)
f) “Some people call it hoarding. Isn’t it that so?(The City and the River, 93)
Throughout, the novel Satanic Verses (P. 44, 70, 108, 109, 244, 310, 325, 366 etc.),
Question tag “…isn’t it?” is used several times as a ‘takiya kalam’ (Non-fluency/
punch line).Sentence (a) shows the loss of mark of Interrogation (?) as the tag is used
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in between the sentence. Tags in the sentences (b, c, d,) ignore the rule of accordance
of verb-verb, and noun-pronoun.
In sentence (e) ‘little brother?’ is used as nominative of address after the standard
pattern of question tag. Sentence- (f) presents the tag but in the form of an
interrogative sentence and the verb and the pronoun are used in accordance to the
object.
 Response to Tag Question: In Indian English, responses to tag question may be

found in several ways including the pattern of Standard English. It may be found -
only as an affirmation or a negation, as a full statement or answer. But the following
example exhibits a unique pattern of Indian English that is the reflection of Indian
language; e.g. “‘Doesn’t he want to come by himself?’ ‘No, why don’t you ask him
to?’” (2 States, eBook)
In this, the response that is a word of negation is followed by another question.
 Use of Progressive and Stative Verbs: Because of the impact of mother

tongue, Indian speakers prefer present continuous tense instead of simple present.
This feature of English usage is visible throughout India. Researchers have also
pointed out that continuous tense in Indian English, generally, “‘violate’ the selection
based restriction applicable to such constructions in the native varieties of English,
where members of the sub-class of the verbs such as hear and see do not occur in the
progressive tenses”1
A few extracts from various sources of such examples are quoted below:
 Poetry: The syntactic feature, to use the present continuous tense instead of
simple present, is seen in every register of human living, even in the composition of
poems, e.g.
“I am standing for peace and non-violence……………………………………..
Why all people of world
1 Kachru, Braj B. 1983. The Indianization of English: the English language in India. P. 78.
286
Are not following Mahatma Gandhi
“I am simply not understanding.” (Very Indian Poem on Indian English, 237)
 Journalism: In Indian English, in the field of mass communication and

journalism also progressive verbs may often be seen instead of stative verbs; e.g.
“You are Understanding?” (Title, Outlook. Dec. 26, 2001)
 Correspondence: In general correspondence, in Indian English, several times

due to mother tongue impact, use of present stative verbs is less preferred to present
progressive verb. The novel ‘The Inscrutable Americans’ is full of present progressive
form of narration through the Indian character Gopal who in his correspondences
mentions:

“I am not knowing if cooks are Brahmin.” (The Inscrutable Americans, 9) I do not know.
“Greeting to all the parents! I am hoping all is well …” (Ibid) I hope.
“Hoping you end is fine too” (Ibid) I hope.
“How much I am missing one and all…” (Ibid, 54) I miss.
 Other Discourse of Human Living- In various other discourses of human

living, use of progressive verb forms instead of statives may also be seen; e.g.

“He is talking English strangely…”(The Inscrutable Americans, 11) He talks
“I am wondering suddenly” (Ibid, 28) I wonder
“You are recognizing… (Ibid ,174) You recognize.
“…I am understanding all many things.” (Ibid, 191) I understand.
The use of present continuous tense in almost all genres (poetry, prose etc.) as well as
in various registers (poems, journalism, correspondence etc.) of Indian writing can be
noticed.
 Preposition: While using prepositions Indian English users generally differ in

four possible ways from that of the Standard English users. These are –
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 Absence of Preposition: In Indian English, several times, prepositions are

ignored even with the verbs to which any specific preposition is used. According to
Standard English one “cannot separate the preposition ‘on’ from the verb ‘insist’”1.
Hence, in several such cases, absence of preposition is also considered as a syntactic
feature as well as a syntactical irregularity of Indian English; e.g.
Verb ‘insist’ without preposition Standard English

“Bakha did not want to insist too much.” Bakha did not want to insist on too
(Untouchable, 104) much.
“All right, if you insist.” (Train to Pakistan, 89) All right, if you insist on.
“I explained to him that you were busy and could …he insisted on that it was very
not be interrupted, but he insisted it was very important. OR
important.” (The Great Indian Novel, 138) …he insisted on its importance.
Though, in Indian English several examples of ‘insist’ along with preposition ‘on’
may also be found; e.g.
‘Insist’ as a Phrasal verb

“Why insist on archangels?” (The Satanic Verses, 212)
“Why insist on delay?” (Midnight’s Children, 127)
“It wasn’t his fault, what happened between them — I will insist on that, even in court of law.”
(The White Tiger, 130)
 Preposition for Emphasis: One can also find prepositions in Indian English
even at the places where they are least required. Indians generally, use it to emphasize
any situation; e.g.
Example Explanation
“Only the memory of the echo “‘Together with’ is even more emphatic than ‘along
lingered to fill and fill the room till it, with’” (English Prepositions Explained, 244)
together with the heat, the dust grew Here, the word ‘bow’ communicates ‘to be
unbearable.” (Cry, the Peacock, 155) submissive’; preposition ‘down’ is used just for
“You have to bow down to touch his emphasis.
feet, and touch the dust under his In Standard English ‘bow down’ means
slippers” (The White Tiger, 25) (disapproving) to allow somebody/something to tell
you what to do
1 Sethi, J. 2011. Standard English and Indian Usage: Vocabulary and Grammar. P.108.
288
 Inapt prepositions- Several times, due to impact of mother tongue, appropriate

prepositions (according to Standard English) are ignored; e.g.
Example Standard English

“I am sitting in corner seat.” (The Inscrutable Americans, 9) I am sitting on a seat at
corner.
“There is no room in the Big House for crazy beliefs. The …. The village looks at us for
village looks to us for ideals and a way of living.” (Music ideals and a way of living.
for Mohini, 211)
 Recurrence of Words Used as Preposition- Sometimes, recurrence of a

preposition may also be witnessed by Indian English. Repetition of preposition ‘past’
can be observed even in the Indian English novel of modern era; e.g.
Example Explanation
“They walked past the Class III The word ‘past’ can play the role of three different parts of
Airport Workers’ Union token one speech in a sentence. It may function as a noun to denote
day hunger strike. And past the the meaning "what has already happened" (e.g. ‘Learn from
people watching the Class III past, plan for future’) as an adjective meaning "gone by" or
Airport Workers’ Union token one "ended" (e.g. ‘Everyone has golden memories of his past
day hunger strike. And past the days’) and can also be a used as a preposition, meaning
people watching the people "beyond" or "by" (e.g. ‘It is quarter past seven’). In this,
watching the…” (The God of Small Past is used as a Preposition.
Things, 150)
 Prepositional Verb: A verb that either immediately or after some words is

followed by a preposition is known as Prepositional Verb. Sometimes, it is difficult to
differentiate between phrasal and prepositional verbs. “Phrasal verbs have meanings
that are not the sum of their parts, whereas the meanings of prepositional verbs are
usually revealed in the verb that precedes the preposition…. The preposition in a
prepositional verb can appear with the relative pronoun; the particle in a phrasal verb
cannot.”1Prepositional verbs are always transitive verbs. The following extract from
an Indian novel is taken to point out phrasal and prepositional verbs separately; e.g.
“‘Please, revered teacher, please forgive me,’ he blurts out. ‘If I do not do well and
make a success of my studies, who will look after my poor mother when she too old
to work?” (The Great Indian Novel, 198)
1 Cowan, Ron. 2008. The Teacher's Grammar of English with Answers. P.176.
289
Phrasal Prepositional Explanation

Verbs Verbs
‘look after’ ‘blurt out’ ‘Look’ = ‘see’ and ‘After’ = ‘not before’; but the meaning of this
‘make…of’ combination of verb and preposition ‘Look after’ is ‘to take
care of’ that is far different from the individual units. Hence,
‘look after’ is a Phrasal Verb.
‘Blurt’ = ‘utter’ and ‘out’ = ‘not in’; and the meaning of
‘Blurt out’ is ‘to speak out’. As the meaning of ‘blurt out’ is in
respect of its individual meaning, it is a prepositional verb.
Though, there are several similarities in the use of several prepositions and
prepositional verbs. For example; in almost every variety of English prepositional
verbs like ‘depend on’, ‘stare at’ etc. are common. To some prepositions, differences
can be monitored as per their semantic meanings; e.g. ‘narrate to’, ‘talk about’ etc.
There are a few prepositional verbs which are used in different manner among the
various varieties of English. “Biber et al. claim that in British and American English,
‘to’, is the most common preposition occurring as a part of prepositional verb. In the
Indian corpus, however, sometimes, ‘to’ was found to occur infrequently.”;1e.g.
Standard English Indian English

“Listening to music is the only music They are interested in writing poetry, listening
appreciation text on the market that music and watching television. (An Introduction to
includes detailed listening exercises…” Numerology, 42)
(Listening to Music, xxi)
 Sentential & Inter-Clausal Tense and Time Sequence: Another important

syntactic feature of Indian English is occurrence of irregularity in tense and time
sequence within a clause and a sentence; e.g.

Sentential:
“But if you don’t eat for a long time – and I have not But if you don’t eat for a long time – and I
had a meal since yesterday afternoon- your brain does would not had a meal since yesterday
funny things.” (Q & A: A Novel, 238) afternoon- your brain does funny things.
“I will close for today.” (Two Lives, 265) I close for today.
OR
Clausal Sentence: I am closing for today.
“Now Darling, I forgot Judy was coming today.” Now Darling, I forgot that Judy was coming
(Two Lives, 53) that day.
1 Rogers (formerly Balasubramanian), Chandrika K.P.196.
290
 Wh-question: A few variations between Standard English and Indian English

have also been found in the structure of Wh- questions:
Indian English Standard English & Explanation

Where-
“Where I found Ila crying, and you sitting beside “Where did I find Ila crying, and you
her?’ He said.” (The Shadow Lines, 205) sitting beside her?” said he.
OR
He said, “Where did I find Ila crying,
and you sitting beside her?”
Why-
“Why had he gone to the trouble of calling, only to
ask an obvious question? Why call while both of Why does he make a call…? OR
her parents were out? (The Namesake, 45) Why to call…?
What-
“And what of the story?.........What story? May …And what is the story?. . . What is the
said? (The Shadow Lines, 205) story? What did May say?
What? What? He said so? Does he know how old What? Did he say so? Does he know
Aruna is? Thirteen! And he dares to ask for the how old Aruna is? Thirteen! And how
younger daughter when we show him the elder?” dare he ask for the younger daughter
(Fasting, Feasting, 79) when we showed him the elder?
Who-
“Who benefited from it?” (Miss New India, 274) Who was benefited from it?
“Who watches it, and who has the time?” (Miss Who does watch it, and who has the
New India, 205) time?
Omission of helping verb in an interrogative or question sentence is a very common

phenomenon of India English. Interrogation in a statement, in several Indian
languages including Indian English is posed by the pattern of intonation. Sometimes,
the required preposition is also omitted (extract no. ii; e.g. Why call while both of her
parents were out? [The Namesake, 45]).
Repetition of ‘What?’ with a positive sentence along with mark of interrogation also
expresses question. The same pattern is followed with the following part of the
sentence (extract no. vi: e.g. “Thirteen! And he dares to ask for the younger daughter
when we show him the elder?” [Fasting, Feasting, 79]; where even question word or
helping verb has not been used.
291
 Word Order: To give an innovative touch, sometimes Indian authors change

the word order; e.g.

“Why on earth would they mind? (The Namesake, 129) Why would they mind on earth?
“Heritage, the hotel was called” (The Gods of Small Things, The hotel was called Heritage.
126)
“…that if silence took him now he would be lost forever. “…if he kept silence…”
(Red Earth and Pouring Rain, eBook)
 Immediate Repetition: Free verbal repetition of words, phrases, sentences or

thoughts, in various ways is one of the major syntactical features of Indian English.
Verbal repetition is generally termed as ‘immediate repetition’. It is found in two
chief patterns, in several Indian writings in English. e.g.
i) Repetition of Words: “Bade Khan went down one step, two steps, three
steps, and standing on…” (Kanthapura, 21)
“Most surprising thing about America is it is full of Americans.
Everywhere Americans, Americans,…” (The Inscrutable Americans, 9)
ii) Repetition of Expression: “…I am hoping all is well with health and
wealth. I am fine at my end. Hoping your end is fine too. (The Inscrutable
Americans, 9)
 Changed Function of Parts of Speech: Indian writers don’t hesitate to play

with various parts of speech. This, sometimes, also creates stylistic variation; e.g.
Indian English Explanation

“A thin ribbon of thick water that lapped In Standard English the word ‘sequin’ is a
wearily at the mud banks on either side, noun whereas ‘sequinned’ is an adjectival
sequinned with the occasional silver slant of a derivative. It is used here as a main verb.
dead fish. It was choked…” (The Gods of In this, the writer has changed the role and
Small Things, 124) function of the word ‘sometimes’. Basically,
“…whiskered koori, the sometimes karimeen.” ‘sometimes’ is an adverb of time but here the
(The Gods of Small Things, 203) author has used it as an adjective.
 Patterns of Using Present and Past Perfect: Sometimes, Indian users of

English also confuse themselves in use of the present or past perfect tense in place of
292
the simple past tense. “In English the present perfect establishes a link between the
past and the present. It is not used in the environment of the simple past. In Indian
English, this distinction is neutralized.”1
 Ignoring Articles: As most of the Indian languages don’t posses any article;
thus, in many cases, Indian English also presents another syntactical features of
ignoring articles. This feature is also a reflection of Indian languages. Omission of
article ‘the’ before heavenly bodies (seven stars, sun, sand) and superlative degree of
adjective (best) and can be observed in the given sentences; e.g.
(a) “The moon continues to glow, just like it did the night before, but its
position in the sky has changed by now…seven stars.” (Your Dreams are
Mine Now, eBook)
(b) “‘Goa,’ I said. ‘Let’s all go to Goa. Nothing like the sea, sun and sand to
make the two families bond.” (Ibid, act iv)
(c) “‘Ananya Swaminathan — best girl in the fresher batch’” (2 States: The
Story of My Marriage, 1)
In the sentence (b), perhaps just to avoid the wordiness, article ‘the’ is used before
‘sea’ but not before ‘sun’ and ‘sand’ which are mentioned just one after another.
6.3.1.13 Use of Italic and Inverted Commas: The italic words and inverted
commas are also used very frequently by Indian English writers to highlight various
Indian expressions and terms; e.g.
a) “Looking after this city is like a yajna for him, his life is the ahuti.”(The City
and the River, 17)
b) “As darkness descended in the shabby, suburban preview theatre, he eased his
feet out of his white Rexine chappals, reached for his Pan Parag dabba, bleched
discreetly and touched the panch-mukhi rudraksha around his neck.” (Starry
Nights, 01)
c) “‘Ananya Swaminathan---best girl in the fresher batch’” (2 States, 01)
1 Verma, S.K. 1980. Swadeshi English: Form and Functions, Indian Linguistics, 41: 2. P. 80
293
In extract (a) ‘yajana’ and ‘ahuti’, and in (b) ‘chappals’, ‘ dabba’ ,’panch-mukhi’ and
‘rudraksha’ are Hindi/Sanskrit words which are taken into use as it is, but in italicized
manner. The compound word ‘Pan Parag’ is also a Hindi compound word, still
written in normal font because in this sentence it is denoting a brand of mouth
freshener; whereas, in extract (c) only the name (Ananya Swaminathan), which is a
proper noun, is Indian. Rest of the sentence is in English. But, as the sentence
highlights special features of Indian English and Indianness; it is italicized. Hence, it
is proven that Indian English writers use this device to express some ironic
statements, comic effects and to infuse greater Indian sense (religion, culture, tradition
and social etc.) to the discussed action.
6.3.1.14 Parenthesis and Brackets: Indian writers also use the device of
parenthesis / brackets to detailed and effective narration, authors’ comments as well
as to present soliloquies of their characters; e.g.
 Actual Narration: “Estha and Rahel’s father had to hold their mother’s
stomach (with them in it) to prevent it from wobbling”(The Gods of Small Things, 3)
 Explanation: “…gathered her children, summoned the elevator, and rose

heavenward (one storey) to meet her chosen friend.” (The Satanic Verses, 14)
 Soliloquy: “….But it also led to a more regrettable development.
(I see that I must, after all, spill poor Rekha’s beans.)
Even before he replaced false head with fake tail he had become irresistibly attractive
to women. The seductions of his fame…” (The Satanic Verses, 25)
6.3.1.15 Use of Possessive Case: In the use of possessive case, Indian English
sometimes, also differs from that of Standard English, e.g. “Ravi Verma paintings,
Chandela bronzes, Jaisalmer lattices.” (Satanic Verses, 70)
In the given extract omission of apostrophe (’) and ‘s’, i.e. -’s is evidently visible.
6.3.1.16 Series of Questions followed by Answers: Several questions are asked

before presenting the actual thought; e.g.
294
“What is education? Is this learning? No. Is it diverse knowledge? Sometimes some great
Not even that…. The training by which…” (The Complete Works of teachers like
Vivekananda, VII, 490) Vivekanand, Aurobindo
etc. put forth their
“Now comes the next question: What is the work? What is this
thoughts (answers) after
doing good to the world? Can we do good to the world? In an
asking a series of
absolute sense, no in a relative sense. Yes. No permanent or everlasting
related question. This
good can be done to the world, if it could be…” (Complete Work of
presents the clarity
Swami Vivekanand. Vol.-1)
about the whole content
“What is the work of psychic being? You want it to have some because the questions
work? What do you want to say exactly? What is its function? Ah! are directly framed on
Very well. One could put it this way, that.” the topic sentence.
(Mother Psychic Being, 47)
“Certain syntactic patterns have become so well established in Indian English that
they get passed on from one generation to the next, acquiring the status of stable
dialectal innovations…these patterns differ systematically in a rule governed way
from the native varieties of English. The frequency, with which the native Indians use
these patterns in their actual behaviour, is, however, an empirical question.”1 Hence,
it can be said that the syntactical irregularities from the point of view of Standard
English have basically become apparent as the syntactical features of Indian English
and these are irreplaceable because of the impact of Indian languages.
6.4 STYLISTIC VARIATIONS IN INDIAN ENGLISH
Human being, a creative creature, uses diversified languages in several different ways
in various references, conditions and purposes. This dissimilarity is generally found
specifically due to time, place, society, person, genre and usage. Hence, during the
various stages of development of language, several forms of language: time-specific;
place specific, society-specific, individual-specific, genre-specific and register-
specific are found in the same language. These found diversities are called the styles
1 Verma, S.K. 1980. Swadeshi English: Form and Functions, Indian Linguistics. P. 117.
295
of Language. The creative power of a person is the creative power of the language and
that is why, especially in the field of literature, it continues to encroach the
grammatical standards. Stylistics presents the role of language in literature and
minutely observes variations in the style. It generally observes how any specific
writer or speaker puts forth his thoughts, manner of expression and presentation, his
use of language, concentration on variations and innovation etc. It is a systematic
study of contemplated as well as conscious use of language in literature etc.
During twentieth century, the famous linguist Charles Bally of Geneva School acquired
the idea of stylistics from his teacher, Fardinand de Saussure, and thus, introduced
modern linguistic stylistics in his Traite de stylistique francise. According to his set modal
stylistics is the study of expressive effects and mechanism in all languages, the only
concrete reality being linguistic communication. Expecting the oral transfer of moods,
everything with the broad framework of language is, to Bally, mere abstraction, a
deviation from the natural language habits. Bally told that emotionalism is involved in an
individual’s language that in specific conditions is filled in natural manner with man’s
valuable elements of pronunciation. Basically, this emotionalism presents such values in
language which are the values of style. Stylistics studies these values. By this way, to
study the expression of organised verbal human languages on the basis of the included
effective elements means: expression of sensitivity by the medium of language and study
of business of language based on sensitivity is the work of stylistics. Bally has considered
stylistics - a study of the process and manifestation of language. This opinion of his is
totally based on rational and effective qualities of language. Marsail Crasot contradicted
the opinion of Bally and has given full recognition to the linguistic study of literary
language.
Stylistics is one of the methods of textual interpretation in which primacy of place is

assigned to language. “While linguistic features do not of themselves constitute a
text’s ‘meaning’, an account of linguistic features none the less serves to ground a
stylistic interpretation and to help explain why, for the analyst certain types of
meaning are possible.”1 Literature is the most preferred object of study in stylistics.
1 Simpson, Paul. 2004. Stylistics: A Resource Book for Students. P. 2-3.
296
Various forms of discourses like journalism, administrative, advertisement, legal,

casual conversation etc., very often present stylistic dexterity in a great amount.
Stylistics is a scientific method that analyzes the making or composing of the creation
to present the aesthetic aspects of any literary piece, and that is why it can also be said
‘literal analyses’. Stylistics analyzes that language in which values of literature and
realization of various emotions are included. Aestheticism is hold by considering
language as fundamental in stylistics.
By this way stylistics is originated in the form of an international study in the field of
literature. Various kinds of language can be seen according to various contexts,
conditions, purposes and aims. All these various forms of languages are termed as
stylistics. The present form of style has developed from various styles related
opinions. Under stylistics, the style is studied in a register specific form of linguistics.
Hence, it can be said “stylistics is that language specific model of criticism that brings
together linguistics principles, rules and usages along with artistic and aesthetic sense
of literary criticism within it.”1 Stylistics is a term that is directly related to ‘style’ and
‘artifice’. Yet, it can be said that style, “is a characteristic way of deploying the
transformational apparatus of a language”;2 whereas the word ‘artifice’ means ‘the
clever use of tricks to cheat somebody’.
Every language of the world has own stylistic devices. The following stylistic devices
may be easily found in Indian English:
6.4.1 Fusion: Fusion means mixing of any two or more items, words, phrases,
clauses or sentences. It is one of the Indian devices of stylistics. Use of fused words,
phrases, clauses as well as sentences brings stylistic variations between Standard
English and Indian English. The fusion occurs in the following five levels:
6.4.1.1 The Fusion of Words/ Lexicon: The fusion of words/ lexicon may be found
in two ways. The world famous Indian novel ‘The Gods of Small Things’ depicts
simple as well as hyphenated fusion at several places; e.g.
1 xksLokeh] d`".k dqekjA 2015A “kSyhfoKku % vkykspuk dk Hkk"kkijd izfrekuA

2 Sharma, Vishnu K. and Mahesh Kumar Sharma. 2012. Nissim Ezekiel (1924-2004) - Nissim
Ezekiel Creative Genius. Indian Poetry in English: Critical Essays. Ed. Zinia Mitra. P. 223.
297
 Plain fusion: In this, words are written together without any space or hyphen;
e.g. “Stoppit”, “Stoppited” (141), “bellbottoms” (172) “moonwalked” (108),
“finethankyou” (145), “bluegreyblue” (147) etc.
 Hyphenated Fusion: In this type, a hyphen is used instead of space. e.g.

“Sad-about-Joe-silence”(173), “Quarter-boiled”(104), “trying-not-to cry-mouth”
(300) , “well-fed”, “kick-start” etc. “whir-stir-get-lost-sir” (The Satanic Verses, 12)
6.4.1.2 The Fusion of Clauses/ Sentences: Fused sentences are those sentences in
which unnecessary and inappropriate synthesis is done. “A fused sentence is
basically an incorrect combination of two independent sentences.”1 “A fused
sentence, or run-on sentence, consists of two independent clauses run together without
any punctuation at all.”2 Sometimes, Indian authors deliberately imply punctuation in
such a way that brings variation to their style than that of Standard English; e.g.
“On one of Rama Studios’ seven impotent stages, Miss Pimple Billimoria, the latest
chilli-and-spices bombshell-she’s no flibberti-gibberti mamzell, but a whir-stir-get-
lost-sir bundla dynamite- clad in temple–dancer veiled undress and positioned
beneath writhing cardboard representations of copulating Tantric figures from the
Chandela period, - and perceiving that her major scene was not to be, her big break
lay in pieces – offered up a spiteful farewell before an audience of sound recordists
and electricians smoking their cynical beedis.” (The Satanic Verses, 12)
Explanation: In the given example, many pieces of versatile information are fused in
one sentence.
6.4.1.3 Fusion with in Theme and Content: The characteristic of using fused
sentences is available in Indian English prose as well as poetry genre. Even,
sometimes due to Indianness in Indian English, the theme itself depicts fusion. As a
stylistic device, Kamala Das has used fused sentences in her mythical poem ‘Radha’
with an intention to exhibit thematic fusion. “The poem’s (Radha) main syntactic
break is the ellipsis in the end. In between the beginning and the end there are only six
1
Rizvi, M. Ashraf. 2005. Effective Technical Communication. P. 325.
2
Glenn, Cheryl and Loretta Gray. 2013. The Writer’s Harbrace Handbook,. P. 415.
298
commas introducing brief pauses and leaves out full stops. …[Such] structure of the
poem further helps the fusion of the theme.”1
6.4.1.4 Fusion of Languages: Indian authors are well adept in creating a fusion of
languages. To demonstrate absolute mastery on several languages, Indian writers
innocently but skilfully, deploy words, phrases or even sentences of different Indian
languages (any one or more) along with the flow of Standard English. Rushdie,
Anand, Joshi, De, Lehri and many others have shown their skills in fusion of
languages. Fusion of two different languages is a very common phenomenon of
Indian English. But there are some Indian writers who fuse more than two languages
very efficiently. “While Roy speaks Malyalam and Hindi, English is in spite of its
contentiousness, her primary language. As she has noted in interviews, she may dip
into her other languages, but she couldn’t write a story in them.”2 In ‘The God of
Small Things’, several words from Malayalam language, without any English
equivalents, are used along with flow of English; e.g. "Thanks, Keto!'. ... 'Valarey
thanks!' (70). Even, proper noun ‘Punnyan Kunju’, which is actually a name of
Malayalam language, is mentioned in italics to emphasize such fusion. Along with
Malayalam; words, phrases and expressions from Hindi language have also been
studded with the current of English. Fusion of Malayalam, Hindi, Urdu and English
can be traced in the following extract; e.g.“ ‘Thozhilali Ekta Zindabad!’ ‘Long Live
the Revolution!’ They shouted.” (The God of Small Things, 66)
6.4.2 Repeated Use of Words: Repeated use of some words is one of the
prominent devices that play a major role in creating stylistic variations in literary
expressions of Standard English and Indian English. Though, this figure of speech and
stylistic device has also been used by several renowned writers of Britain and
America, yet their implementation of repetition is not so frequent. Generally it can be
seen in their poetic creations. But, in Indian English due to impact of mother tongue it
can be observed almost in the writings and speaking of every Indian English user (if
1 Raveendran, N. V. 2000. The Aesthetics of Sensuality: A Stylistic Study of the Poetry of Kamala
Das. P.86.
2 Mullaney, Julie.2005. Roy's The God of Small Things. P.22.
299
they are not mentally prepared or trained against the same). A few examples of
repetition from Indian English writings are:
i) “Once sweet, once loved, then suddenly, rotten and repulsive.”(Cry, the Peacock, 8)
ii)“…he closes his eyes because he cannot bear to see the flat, flat lawn, the white,
white house, the many, many people,…” (Cry, the Peacock, 87)
Explanation: In sentence (i) observe the repeated use of ‘once’ and letter ‘r’, in (ii)
words ‘flat’, ‘white’ and ‘many’ have been repeated, and the portion ‘closes his eyes
because he cannot bear to see’ also repeats a single expression. Some Indian writers
like Anita Desai, use this device throughout their creations to bring a lyrical touch,
lucidity and natural flow to their writings.
6.4.3 Fragmentation: Fragmentation is another major stylistic variation found

between Standard English and Indian English. Fragmentation means ‘the act or
process of breaking or making something break into small pieces or parts’; e.g.
“He handles it as he would a child of his own. He teases it. He punishes it. He
sends it up like a bubble. He wrestles it to the ground and lets it to go again. He
laughs at it because he loves it.” (The Gods of Small Things, 230)
Explanation: In the above quoted extract, unnecessary fragmentation of sentences,

and because of that repetition of subjective as well as objective pronouns, are being
exemplified. Sometimes, some other words may also be found that may highlight
Indianness. Use of modal ‘would’ (He handles it as he would a child of his own) and
preposition ‘to’ (lets it to go again), in the aforesaid piece highlights the same. In
Standard English, the same expression may be presented in this way; e.g. ‘He handles
it as his own child. He teases and punishes it. He sends it up like a bubble, wrestles it
to the ground and lets it go again. He laughs at it because he loves it.’
6.4.4 Reflection of Indianness: Reflection of Indianness due to various reasons and

through various devices also causes stylistic variation; e.g.
“‘Isn’t there somewhere a man can be alone here?’” (The White Tiger, 151)
300
Explanation: The given extract reflects Hindi language (kya kahin koi ek aadmi hai
jo yahan aakela ho?). Here, duplication of adverb of place (‘there’ &‘somewhere’)
can be monitored. In Standard English, for the same expression, the word ‘there’ must
be omitted and only the adverb ‘somewhere’ can be used. Omission of relative
pronoun (who) that also highlights fusion may also be monitored here for stylistic
variation.
6.4.5 Positioning of Adverbs: Indian authors and speakers enjoy maximum

freedom in the positioning of certain adverbs. This privilege, that they often avail, is
again because of the influence of the grammar of their mother tongue. Most of the
Indian languages do not follow any strict rule for ‘Position of Adverb’. This also
initiates stylistic variation from Standard English to their style; e.g.

“I am not going to let you down today, sir.” Today, I am not going to let you down, sir.
(The White Tiger, 155)
According to Standard English, position of the word ‘today’ at the beginning of the
sentence would be more appreciable.
6.4.6 Interrogative Sentences: Stylistic variation is most commonly observed in

the formation of interrogative sentences in Indian English. It is a very Indian way,
common to several Indian languages and dialects, to shift an interrogative query even
to a statement; and the expression is put forth in a tone of interrogation; e.g.

“You won’t desert me?” (Royalty, 2) Won’t you desert me? OR
Would you not desert me?
6.4.7 Formation of Novel Vocabulary: For the sake of style and novelty Indian
authors, especially journalists, immediately form new words and this word formation
is done in several different ways like formation of compound words, use of affixes to
form a new word etc.; e. g.
301
Parties bank on ‘Winability Factor’ to Here two separate words are joint together to form
pick candidate” (The Hindu. Mysore, April a new word; e.g.win (verb)+ability (noun) =
2, 2013) winability (compound word)
“Picnicker of the Year” (3rd Jan. 1999, The word ‘picnicker’ is formed on the analogy of
Sunday Review, TOI) cricket> cricketer; play> player etc.
6.4.8 Question Tags: Stylistic variations can also be seen in Indian English in the
formation of question tags;
“Then the train travelled arrived, with a In Standard English, the sentence does not continue
great blowing of triumphant whistles: it further if a question tag is used, but in Indian English
had completed its long journey from the due to stylistic variation instances may also be found in
south, it had achieved its destination, which a sentence continues, without any pause, even
hadn’t it said it would?” (Royalty, 3) after a question tag.
Hence, it is well known that stylistic variation occurs because no two individuals may
be same nor can be their style; and when it is the matter of the users of two or more
different languages, the impact of stylistic variation is unavoidable. This cannot be
considered as mistake because due to these variations only they become intelligible to
the other users of the same community. By this way, due to stylistic variations the
language English plays the eminent role of a language in the country.
6.5 USAGE OF IDIOMS IN INDIAN ENGLISH – A CONTRASTIVE STUDY

OF IDIOMS WITH THAT OF STANDARD ENGLISH
Society plays a major role in creating linguistic ornamentation. Idioms and proverbs
are majorly considered among such ornaments that embody colourful imagery of any
language and collective wisdom of general masses. Minsberg compares its presence
with a smile of human faces. Idioms and proverbs are the devices that are moulded
302
not in the factory of literary language but in the ‘taksaal’1 (mint) of common language.
Idioms and proverbs are generally discussed together but they are two different
linguistic devices.
6.5.1 Idioms: The term idiom is derived from the Greek lexeme idios, that means ‘to
own, private, peculiar’ (OED V: 20-1). Idioms are generally used as verb/ phrasal
verb within the predicate part of any sentence. Sometimes, it may communicate more
than one meaning. Though, an idiom seems as a group of words, phrase and
sometimes as a complete sentence; but actually, it is single definite meaningful unit in
a definite form. Generally, some very well crafted condensed unit of words, phrases
or sentence etc., formed on the basis of bodily intentions, unclear sounds, stories and
proverbs or according to certain extraordinary experiments of any language that
present some specific meaning which is different from general or superficial meaning
is called an idiom. Idiom is “an expression whose meaning cannot be derived from its
constituent elements… It is an expression peculiar to a language.”2 It bears some
specific indigenous wisdom of a race.
The major characteristic of idioms is that they are language specific. Though,
translation activity may help up to a certain limit, to make it free from the boundaries
of its source language, yet a little carelessness, ignorance and less knowledge totally
smudge the meaning as well as the message of the communication. This is because of
the growing impact of globalization that various languages come into a close contact,
which at a later end causes nativization of the foreign language. In nativization a
particular speech community formulates any foreign language as its own. Nativization
occurs because of the special requirement of the speech community. In fact, they are
purposely introduced to the speech patterns. Idioms and phrases could also not remain
untouched in the process of Indianization. Indian English, generally, involves seven
types of Idioms which are as follows:
Idiom of Standard English: Though, Indian English writers do a number of

experiments to convey some specific Indian meaning to their readers, yet they also
employ idioms of Standard English that suit to their needs.
1 Kapoor, Badri Nath. 2007. Hindi Muhawara Lokotik Kosh. P. xiii.

2 Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: A-Devo. Vol. I. Ed. Amaresh Datta. P. 214.
303
 Take someone aback: shock, surprise or disconcert someone
Usage: "... I was totally taken aback by this unexpected attack and nearly lost my
balance.” (India Gate and Other Stories,133)
 Hold all the aces: Have all the advantages
Usage: “The response this time has been restrained. But in this sector, the Pakistanis
hold all the aces. ...” (India Today. 1997. Vol. 22. India: Aroon Purie for Living
Media India Limited, 212)
 A fate worse than death: A terrible experience, especially that of seduction or rape
Usage: “… estate-owning (pickle-factory-running) feudal lords, for whom

communism represented a fate worse than death" (The God of Small Things, 66).
6.5.1.1 Indianized Idioms: Sometimes, the writers of Indian English play with the
Idioms of Standard English to satisfy their needs or for the sake of style; e.g. “…she
fed us the birianis of dissension and the nargisi koftas of discord…” (Midnight’s
Children, 459)
Explanation: ‘An apple of discord’ is a very famous and well known idiom of
Standard English that means ‘the root cause of quarrel’; but in the above mentioned
statement the author Salman Rushdie modifies it replacing the words ‘an apple’ with
Hindi words ‘nargisi koftas’. It is a code mixing. Through this statement he also
mentions that in the family, nargisi koftas are the main reason of dispute.
This type of modified formation may not be acceptable either in Standard English or
in Indian English.
6.5.1.2 Translated idioms from Indian language/languages: Indian English

writers use Indian idioms very frequently in their translated form. Sometimes, the
translated form serves the purpose in the best possible way but sometimes it lacks the
real spirit and virtue of the original idioms. Goswami (1981) mentions that translation
of idioms and proverbs are seen in three forms:
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6.5.1.3.1 Literal Translation: This kind of translation of idioms is very frequently

seen in Indian English. In this type idioms are translated word by word; e.g.
 “mouth watered” (Untouchable, 86) (muh me pane aagaya = secretion of extra

saliva to see some tempting food etc.)
 “to eat ashes” (The Big Heart, 122) (Khakh faakhna = to face extremely hard
economical condition and suffering)
 “not see……….. face again” (Untouchable,132) (dubara muh na dekhna =

that expresses severe dislike and bitterness for someone due to which one makes
such a declaration or performs such action)
 “cut nose” (The Village, 39) (naak kaatna/ katwana = to insult)
 “warm the hand” (Two Leaves and a Bud,111) (hatheli garam karna = to offer
bribe)
 “The edge of her tongue was like a pair of scissors.” (Untouchable) (jabaan
kaichee ki tarah hona = to be very out spoken)
 “…he was giving an extra shine to his father’s name.” (The Shroud, 46) (naam
me roshan karna = to add a feather to one’s cap/ to bring name and fame)
6.5.1.3.2 Availability of Idioms with Similar Expression: Under this category,

translator or writer aims to select those idioms that are found with similar expressions
in source language as well as in aim language; e.g.
 “When she answers him tit for tat and walks out, he adopts a tight smirk …”
(Narratives of Indian Cinema, 205)
 “2 days after blaze, rude cops add insult to injury” (The Times of India. Mar.
26, 2010)
 “Khotan Didi felt drowned in shame like one caught red-handed.” (Our
Favourite Indian Stories, 268)
 “To send rice to Bengal is very like the proverbial absurdity of carrying coals
to Newcastle.” (The Indian News and Chronicle of Eastern Affaires: 1852, 537)
 “…he is carrying is the coconut; needless to say, carrying coconuts to Lanka is

like carrying coal to Newcastle.” (The Triumph of the Snake Goddess)
305
 “At the age of thirty two he had salt and pepper hair.”(Our Favourite Indian
Stories,3)
English idioms with similar Hindi idioms are presented as follows:
 tit for tat = Jaise ko taisa
 add insult to injury = jale par namak chirakna
 caught red-handed = rangai haathon pakde jana
 to carry coals to new castle = Ulte Baans Bareli ko / ulti Ganga bahana
 salt and pepper hair = Aadh pake/ khichree baal hona
6.5.1.3.3 Explanatory Translation: In this, translation of idioms is done on the basis

of its drift/ meaning. While attempting for translation of any Indian idiom, the writer,
knowingly or unknowingly, explains it; which presents the exact meaning of the
original idiom; e.g.
 “Even after the death of contemporary revolutionaries, for independence
and gave a tough fight to the British.” (The Great Indians, 304)
 “Now there will be pats on the back, sweetmeats, public announcements, may be
more photographs; now their chest will puff up with pride.” (Midnight’s
Children, 194)
 “…as if insult had put chains on his feet.” (Our Favourite Indian Stories, 8)
 “Why did you not give the swine a shoe- beating? (Our Favourite Indian
Stories, 9)
 “…putting a rein on unruly passions through spiritual excercises.” (Our
Favourite Indian Stories, 13)
Hindi Muhavre (bhavaarth) Explanatory Translation

‘daant khhate karna’ (kadi chunauti dena/ haara dena) = ‘to give a tough fight’
‘chhati chauri hona’ (garvvanvit mehsoos karna) = ‘to puff up chest with pride’
‘bediyan padee hona’ (pair jakar jana) = ‘to put chains on feet’
‘jutte lagana/ marna’ (aache se beizatee karna) = ‘to give a shoe beating’
‘lagam lagana’ (niyantran me rakhna) = ‘to put a rein on’; etc.
306
6.5.1.3 Hindi Idioms in Transliterated Form: Indian idioms are also found in
Roman transcription in Indian English writings. This generally occurs as a result of
code switching or it may be for the sake of specific style to convey some meaning in
Indian manner; e.g.
 “Now! Now, captain, ek dum, double-quick time!” (Midnight’s Children, 531)
 “What are we but little mud dolls (mati ke putle) in the hands of fate.” (The
Strange Case of Billy Biswas, 117)
 “He used to say you had a heart of gold (sone ka dil) clear as the water of our
fall.” (The Strange Case of Billy Biswas, 163)
Hindi Muhavre Hindi Meaning (Aarth) English Meaning
‘ek dum’ 1 (purdhtah, bilkul) completely
‘mati ke putle’ (bhagya ke haathon ke khilona) mud dolls; i.e. earthen toys
‘sone ka dil’ (aacha insaan hona) to be an extremely nice human being
6.5.1.4 Hybrid Idioms / Code Mixed Idioms of Indian Origin: Under this category
those idioms are considered which belong to Indian culture and tradition but are used
with partial translation. They may also be called hybrid idioms; e.g.
 “We will soon call the brotherhood of Jats to stop your hookha pani.” (The
Road, 424)
 “the sepoy heart” (Across the Black Waters)
The underlying meaning of ‘to stop (sb) hookha pani’, is ‘to carry out a social boycott of
any person’. As the literal translation ‘to stop hubble- bubble and water’ is incapable to
convey the actual cultural meaning, the writer has used the device of code mixing.
Similarly, the idiom “the sepoy heart” is a hybridized idiom. ‘Sepoy’ (policeman/
soldier) a Hindi/Persian word occurs here with an English word ‘heart’ that means ‘a
heart similar to the heart of a sepoy’ means ‘a hard or strong heart’.
1 Kapoor, Badri Nath. 2007. Hindi Muhawara Lokotik Kosh. P.52.
307
6.5.1.5 Hindi Assimilated English Idioms: This may also be one of the varieties of
idioms that may also be found in Indian English. In this type, “Hindi assimilates many
English Idioms (Taang khinchna, to pull someone’s leg)….”1; and such Hindi
assimilated English Idioms may be used in between in the writings of Indian English.
“Sir Richard did not know if his leg was being pulled,” (The Great Indian Novel, 128)
6.5.1.6 An Innovative Construction with an additional meaning:
Innovative Explanation
Construction
“Gold teeth in the The author has crafted a new saying: “Gold teeth in the mouth of a thief”
mouth of a thief” to satisfy an imaginary situation of his novel ‘Untouchable’. This
(Untouchable, 117) communicates not only the proverbial expression “A straw in the beard
of a thief” but also the prosperity of the thief.
6.5.2 Proverb: Proverbs also bring aesthetic sense to the language. “Any complete,
condensed and compact occasional remark regarding any desirable or undesirable
condition that symbolizes historically preserved and compiled experience, knowledge
or view of the society is known as proverb.”2 It “is a traditional saying that sums up a
situation, passes judgement on a past matter or recommends a course of action for the
future. Some proverbs state a fact.... A proverb consists of at least one topic and at
least one comment about that topic. It can have as few as two words: “Money talks.”
“Time flies.”3 Proverbs are always in form of remark. Several proverbs are in form of
conclusion of the activities of general people. They may also be based on
mythological and historical stories. They may be humorous, motivational, directional
or in the form of some teachings. Sometimes they also prove or discard certain facts.
Sridhar (1983) mentions proverbs as an integral part of oral communication. They are
used on experimental basis, in written discourse by Indian writers. In Indian English
generally five types of proverbs are found. They are as follows:
6.5.2.1 Proverb of Standard English: Indian English writers also employ proverbs
of Standard English as per their needs; e.g.
1 Chutnefying English: The Phenomenon of Hinglish. 2012. Ed. Rita Kothari.

2 Kapoor, Badri Nath. 2007. Hindi Muhawara Lokotik Kosh., p. xv.
3 Mieder, Wolfgang. 2008. “Proverbs Speak Louder Than Words”. P.48
308
 “He knew, had known, that one day History’s twisted chickens would come
home to roost” (The God of Small Things, eBook)
 “He taught me to run with the hare and hunt with the hounds: he taught me”1
me”1 (The Liar, 19)
Proverbs Meaning
Chicken come home to roost Your past mistakes or wrong doings will
eventually be the cause of present troubles
Running with the hare hunting with the Hypocratic
hounds
6.5.2.2 Indianized Proverbs of Standard English: Indian English users often use
proverbs of Standard English as per their requirement; e.g.:
Proverbs Meaning and Explanation

“Where, with the rush of In Standard English, the word ‘chickens’ is used; but in this
commerce, despair came sentence, Arundhati Roy has implied the word ‘despair’ instead of
home to roost and ‘chickens’ to convey that hopelessness will eventually be the cause
hardened slowly into of present troubles.
resignation. (The God of Proverbs that depict similar meaning of any well established
Small Things) Standard English proverb, are also being formed by the Indian
English authors; e.g. “If wishes were horses, beggars would ride” is
“If wishes could rain, an English proverb and a nursery rhyme, originating in the 16th
cowherds would be century, which is usually used to suggest that it is useless to wish,
kings” (Two Leaves and a and that better results will be achieved through action”2; is
Bud, 169) presented in Indian English as “If wishes could rain, cowherds
would be kings”. This new coinage is not usually used.
6.5.2.3 Translated Proverbs from Indian Language/Languages: Indian English

very frequently gives place to proverbs in their translated form. Similar to translated
idioms they also occur in the following three ways; e.g.
 Literal Translation: This kind of translation of proverb is very frequently seen

in Indian English. In this type proverbs are translated word by word; e.g.
1 Anand, Mulk Raj. 1945. The Liar. Mulk Raj Anand: A Reader. P.19.
2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_wishes_were_horses,_beggars_would_ride
309
Literal Translation Basic Underlying Explanation

Proverb Meaning
(lokokti)
“A straw in the ‘Chor ki to be guilty This proverb communicates the complete Indian
beard of a thief.” dadhi me conscious story of Akbar and Birbal in which the witty
(Untouchable,117) tinka’ Birbal detected the thief just by making an
announcement that the thief had a straw in his
beard (‘Chor ki dadhi me tinka’) and the guilty
started searching his beard.
“Go, go, eat air.” jao-jao, to repent for “Go, go, eat air” is the interlinear translation of
(Satanic Verses, hawa kaho some event the Hindi proverb ‘jao-jao, hawa kaho’ which
312) or action of actually communicates double meaning; the
the recent first is ‘to take some fresh air’ and the
past underlying meaning is ‘to repent for some event
or action of the recent past.’ This also
communicates negative response of the speaker.
 Modified Literal Translation:
Modified Literal Hindi Proverb Underlying Explanation

Translation Meaning
 “Bathe your feet while Behte Ganga To grab the Sometimes, Indian authors prefer
the Ganges still flows” me Haath opportunity some modification in interlinear
(A Bend in the Ganges) dhona translation (shabdik anuvaad) to
 “Even the loin cloth of ‘bagte bhoot ki give a touch of Indianization.
‘something is
a running thief is good lagoti hi sahi’ better than The variations between the
enough.” (The Big nothing’ English and the original Hindi
Heart, 118) proverb are as follows:
 “A single plea will not aakela chana a single one can
Feet instead of haath (hand)
burst the oven!” (The bhad nai bring no change in Thief ” ” ” ” bhoot (ghost)
Big Heart, 116) phorta the order of life Plea ” ” ” ” chana (a grain)
 “What can a dog ‘Kutton ko bhi ‘ignorance of The saying mentioned here
know of the taste of kahee ghee somebody’. presents a mixture of two Hindi
butter” (The Big hazam hota sayings.
Heart, 199) hai?’OR
‘Bandar kya
jane adrak ka
swad’
 “Who gave the beak ‘jisne peait “All is well when The Hindi proverb is well
to the bird will also diya hai wo God is in heaven” known; but to give a unique
provide it with food.” khana bhi touch of Indianness and English,
(A Bend in the Ganges) dega’ the writer has modified the
proverb and has replaced
‘stomach’ (peait) with ‘beak’
 “He who has the big ‘jiski laathi and added the word ‘bird’ to suit
‘Might is right’
stick will have the uski bhais’ the need of his narration. Slight
buffalo.” (Death of a modification may be seen
Hero: Epitaph for between the basic Hindi proverb
Maqbool Sherwani, 17) and the English translated form.
310
 Availability of Proverbs with Similar Expression: Under this category,

translator or writer aims to select those proverbs that are found with similar
expressions in source language as well as in aim language; e.g.
Translation of Indian English Proverb Explanation

Proverb with Similar
Expression
“The chicken at home Familiarity breeds The Hindi proverb ‘ghar ki murgi daal barabar’ has an
is equal to lentils” contempt English equivalent ‘familiarity breeds contempt’ and the literal
(The Big Heart, 91) translation may be ‘self possessions are always undermined
and other’s possessions seem better’.
“Iron cuts iron” (The ‘Like cures like’ Similarly, the English equivalent of ‘loha hi lohe ko katta
Big Heart,147) hai’ is available as ‘Like cure like’ yet to satisfy the quest of
mother tongue and to present true Indian expressions Indian
English writers, more often, prefer interlinear translation .
 Proverbs with Explanatory Translation: In this, translation of proverb is done

on the basis of its drift/ meaning. While attempting for translation of any Indian
proverb the writer, knowingly or unknowingly, explains it; which presents the exact
meaning of the original; e.g.
Proverbs With Explanatory Hindi Proverb Explanation

Translation
“Men with abiding purpose Mahapurush samdarshee hote All are equal to great people.
cherish neither hatred nor love” hai
(Two Leaves and a Bud, 73)
“Only the cow understands the khag jane khagahi ki bhasha This proverb is a reflection of a
cow’s language.” (A Promoter of a world famous universal ‘Doha’
Quarrel, Selected Short Stories, 83) mentioned in Tulsidas’s
‘Ramcharit Manas’ khag jane
khagahi ki bhasha
6.5.2.4 Hindi Proverbs in Transcription: Indian proverbs are also available in

transliterated form in Indian English writings. This generally occurs as a result of
code switching or it may be for the sake of specific style to convey some meaning in
Indian manner; e.g.
Hindi Proverbs in Transcription Form Explanation

“The example of his uncle (played by Ashok Sometimes, code switching may also be seen in
Kumar) who had destroyed himself by loving and the use of proverbs. This may generally occur
losing Meena Kumari's mother was put forward as when the author does not find suitable English
an example: "doodh ka jala chach bhi phook equivalent or the translation may be perfect
phook kar peeta hai". This was classic power enough to serve the purpose; hence the complete
play ...” (Lucknow Fire of Grace, e Book) Indian proverb is used as it is in its transcription
form.
311
6.5.2.5 Contrastive Narration:
Proverb Basic Hindi Proverb
“A well-fed man needs religion” (The Big Heart, 155) bhooke pait na hoi bajan Gopala
Explanation: In this type, the writer interlineally wants to communicate that ‘bhare
paiet wale ko hi dharm ki jaroorat hoti hai’. This actually communicates a very
famous Indian saying but in contrastive manner.
By this detailed discussion, it is crystal clear that Indian idioms and proverbs have
provided new horizons to English language. In the above discussion, seven types of
Idioms and five types of proverbs are found through a random selection of Indian
literary corpus. It also helps the Indian writers to maintain the touch of mother tongue
while expressing their thoughts in English language. Other than this, idioms and
proverbs of Indian languages along with that of Standard English, in their various
forms in Indian English, provide new colours, shades and variations to the style of
Indian English writers.
312

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Chapter 6: Grammatical Sturcture of Indian English

6.1.1 Nominalization Including Case Markers

To understand nominalization including case markers, it is better to understand their

• Hindi has comparatively a very richer system of morphology than English.

• Hindi language enjoys greater freedom than English, especially in word-order,

1 Frost, John. 1829. Elements of English Grammar. P.10.

or means (by, with), accompaniment (with), or locality (at). It is often accompanied

English Sentence Hindi Sentence

Ram killed Ravan = Ram ne Ravan ko maara (Standard Hindi) OR

Ravan ko Ram ne maara (Non-standard Hindi)

6.1.1.2 Plural-Markers: It can be observed that English regular as well as irregular

Plural Direct Plural Oblique (Preposition ‘ne’+ obj)

Future Tense: Future Tense:

The director discussed the problem = ‘Nideshak mahodaya ne samasya par

6.1.1.3 The Process of Nominalization: The process of nominalization occurs when

Nominalization is one of the resources for achieving maximum thematic variation,

be mapped on to any function in the discourse structure, such as Theme or New. At

6.1.1.3.3 Conditions the indifferently permit either of the two; e.g.

i) My daughter loves to play. (Infinitive)

ii) My daughter loves playing. (Gerund)

The above mentioned types of nominalization are non-finite forms of verbs.

6.1.1.4 Nominalization and Word Formation: Nominalization also occurs by the

Verb Affix Noun/ Nouns

1. Halliday, M.A. K. 2005. Studies in English Language. P.152.

require -ment, -site requirement, requisite

There is another reason why Nominalization is favoured in Indian English. Actually

Oil (verb, noun) - (to lubricatea liquid, a greasy liquid

i) “English gets constructed in well- oiled machineries of marketing and distribution

Change (verb, noun) – (alter, modify, transform etc; loose-money, alteration)

i) “It is a pleasant change of pace …” (The Namesake, 277)

ii) “Plenty of people changed their names.” (Ibid, 97)

1. Cutts, Martin. 2013. Oxford Guide to Plain English. P. .74.

Indian English Nominalization Case Markers in Standard English

“Brother, just listen…. Even

“I have prayer to make to Prayer – from verb I have to pray to him.

“The breaking of coconut at Infinitive ‘to make Coconut is broken at the

“Four school students of Disappointment –

1 Page, Le,1968, a.1979.

English (Singular pronouns) Hindi (Singular Pronouns)

i) Mr. Goel instructs his servant to ask something to Mrs Goel, as

6.1.2.2 Deletion of Pronoun / Replacement of a Pronoun by a Noun:

An extraordinary feature of Indian English is to use titles (noun) to express honour,

‘Sahib.’ The bearer came in through the wire gauze door.

‘Where have you put my charpoy for the night?’

1 Bandhopadhya, Suman.2010. Indianisation of English: Analysis of Linguistic Features in Selected

6.1.3.2.1 Noun Inflection

Hindi /Indian Lexeme Inflection Word Inflected Word

BURKA /-s/ burka =>burkas (The White Tiger, 40)

LADDOO /-s/ laddoo => laddoos (The White Tiger, 64)

ASHRAM /-s/ ashram =>ashrams (The White Tiger,275)

SALAM /-s/ salam => salams (Collected Stories, Tagore, )

BABU /-s/ babu =>babus (Collected Stories, Tagore, )

MOHUR /-s/ mohur =>mohurs (Collected Stories, Tagore)

CHAPATI /-ies/ chapatti => chapaties (The White Tiger,189)

BEEDI /-ies/ beedi => beedies (The White Tiger,265)

CHUTNEY /-ies/ chutney =>chutnies (Collected Stories, Tagore)

CHAKRAVARTI /-ies/ chakravarti => chakravarties (Collected Stories)

Translated Indian Lexeme Inflection Word Inflected Word

UNTOUCHABLE /-s/ untouchable => untouchables

(India: A Million Mutinies Now, 1)

In Standard English the word ‘untouchable’ exists as an adjective but in Indian

“…but we didn’t know what it was.” (The White Tiger, 42)

Lexeme Inflection (Indian Pattern)