Plumbing Fixtures: What Are They?

If you ask any person what a plumbing fixture is, they will probably reply, faucet. In fact, prior to
researching this article, I thought that too! However, imagine my surprise when I discover that in
general plumbing terms, a plumbing fixture can be any device that is connected to a plumbing
system and interacts with water (whether it be delivering the water or draining it).
Each plumbing feature will be designed for a particular use, and while the core design will be the
same for many of these items, the use and design can vary; depending on the device, they can be
practical or ornamental and generally are designed with one function in mind.

The Most Common Fixtures in a Household: Bathtubs

A bathtub is a large container that is filled with warm or hot water and allows a person to bathe while
fully immersed in the water. Modern bathtubs are made from fiberglass and acrylic, but more
expensive and often more durable baths are made from enamel, cast iron, steel and for the opulent
waterproof wood.

The bathtub is commonly found in the bathroom, and often has a shower attachment that allows the
person to stand in the bath and take a shower, thus giving the common bath more versatility.

Most modern baths have overflows, drains and faucets (taps) that assist in the delivery and draining
of water – in days gone by, water was often heated in a kitchen and placed in the bath using
buckets. As manufacturing techniques have advanced, the number and variety of tubs available has
increased. The most common bathtubs are:

 Western-style bathtubs: These are the modern tubs that are in the majority of households.
They are long and generally fairly thin and allow the bather to be fully immersed. Generally,
they are attached to the wall and covered by a cabinet so there is no plumbing shown.
 Eastern-style bathtubs: Shorter and deeper than the western tub thus allowing for the person
to bathe standing up.
 Claw-foot tub: This late 19th century luxury item is the predecessor of the modern tub. While
antique claw-foot tubs are made of cast iron, the modern claw-foot tubs are made from modern
materials such as acrylic and thus are less expensive. Claw-foot tubs generally hold more
water than a standard tub and are designed to stand alone without any need for a cabinet or to
be attached to the world. They add a certain elegance to any bathroom.
 Whirlpool tubs: Many newer homes come installed with whirlpool tubs. These are often
designed for two people and incorporate nozzles that force air (or sometimes water) out to
provide a relaxing massage. They are usually bigger than a standard bath but require cabinets.
They are usually attached to a wall.
 Hot tub: Essentially, a hot tub is a very large bath for up to 8 people. It is usually installed
outside and keeps the water at a constant temperature (usually around 98 degrees Fahrenheit).
With the use of chemicals and filters a hot tub can use the same water for 3 months or more
and can even be used in winter. A hot tub can have different configurations, with different types
of nozzles and seats.
Installation

Here are the supplies you need

 Kohler Archer Bathtub

 Kohler Archer Clearflo Overflow Kit
 Reciprocating Saw
 Circular Saw
 Jig Saw
 Impact Driver
 Paslode Framing Nailer
 HammerSuper Bar
 Liquid Nails Construction Adhesive
 Caulking Gun
 Tub Drain RemoverT
 wo Inch Galvanized Screws
 100% Silicone Sealant
 Chalk Line
 4 Foot Level
 Mapei Mortar
 5 Gallon Buckets
 Hammer Drill
 Mixing Paddle for Mortar

The first step for any bathtub installation is to make sure the subfloor is solid. So let’s dive into that.

Step 1: Pull Up Old Subfloor

This house is one of my rentals and it’s over 100 years old.
As such, the floor is a mess. And I say that in the most polite way because it was a patchwork of
wood. Primarily because this bathroom had a ton of water damage.

Use either a hammer or super bar to pull up the old subfloor. I’ve had my Super Bar for years
and love that thing to death.

Step 2: Remove Nails

Remove old nails or pound them into the joists.

Step 3: Apply Liquid Nail

Apply liquid nail to the top of joists.

Step 4: Nail New Subfloor to Joists

Nail the new subfloor to the joists. In this case we used 3/4″ plywood since it was the same
height as the existing tongue and groove wood floor. Doesn’t this look so much better than the
old flooring!!

Just make sure you’re nailing or screwing the new subfloor into the joists and not thin air. Also,
know where your pipes or electrical lines are located to avoid nailing into them. Notice how
Steve drew a line along the subfloor. This indicated the rough location of the tub waste pipe.
Shooting a nail through that would totally ruin our day!!

Step 5: Add Liquid Nail to Subfloor

We needed to add a second layer of subfloor. This was 1/2″ plywood. But in order to do that we
spread more Liquid Nail on top of the first layer of subfloor.

Step 6: Nail Second Layer of Subfloor

The 1/2″ plywood was then nailed into the first subfloor and joists. By the way, nail guns make
this so much EASIER.

Once the subfloor is prepped, dry fit your new bathtub and check the walls for plumbness. We
had to build both a knee wall and the main wall. That was a bit tricky in this old wonky house but
we’ll walk you through it.

Step 7: Mark Position of Tub

This old bathroom was a pain in the butt. None of the walls were plumb or straight. So we dry fit
the tub and centered it on the plumbing wall.
After making the tub square with the adjacent walls we made a mark on the plumbing wall and
on the plywood behind the tub.

Step 8: Build Main Wall and Pony Wall

Steve then added a stud to the plumbing wall.

He measured from the front of that stud to the mark he made on the plywood behind the tub.

Steve cut a 2×4 to this dimension and nailed it to the floor, again making sure it was square with
the front stud location and mark on the plywood.

Once this is in place you can run your studs from it to the existing framing. Studs should be at
least 16 inches on-center and plumb since the tub will be attached to them. The 16 o.c. spacing
is particularly important in this case since we’re using Schluter KERDI-BOARD for the
waterproofing.

Step 9: Mark Drain Position

Once your framing is in place you can dry fit the tub again and mark the position of the drain.

Step 10: Cut Subfloor for Drain

Cut an elliptical shape out of the subfloor for the drain. Use either a jigsaw or reciprocating saw.
We had a bit of an issue in this project as a portion of the joist was below the drain. You’ll see
what I’m talking about in the video!!!
Now it’s time to assemble the tub drain. This can make or break your project. So it’s a good idea
to read on

Step 11: Assemble Waste Overflow

The Kohler Archer bathtub requires a special overflow drain kit. It actually makes the tub look
pretty cool.

We recommend putting the drain assembly together first before securing your tub to the studs.
This makes the installation easier…and lessens the likelihood of you tearing out your hair (just
keeping it real). Steve likes to apply 100% clear silicone to all the parts of the Kohler Clearflo
overflow kit that will touch the tub. He added the silicone to the overflow then bonded the rubber
gasket to it.

He then adds another bead of silicone to the tub where the overflow will go. And a silicone bead
directly on the part of the gasket that will attach to the tub.
This process makes the installation of the overflow 100% waterproof. And yes, Steve loves clear
silicone almost as much as coffee.

Step 12: Secure Overflow Bracket

Kohler provides a bracket to hold the overflow in place. Use a screwdriver or impact driver to
secure the bracket to the overflow. If you use an impact driver just be careful not to overtighten
as this can crack the tub (which would be super BAD).

Step 13: Assemble Overflow Drain

Place the slip nut onto overflow pipe and position the rubber gasket behind it.

Then screw on the PVC pipe fitting. The nice part about this Kohler Clearflo kit is the flexibility of
the pipe fitting to move.

Steve does the same silicone procedure with the tub shoe and drain. All parts get a nice bead of
silicone.

To see the detailed plumbing installation start watching the video at the 10:00 mark. There are a
lot of great tips.

My favorite one is to AVOID getting the PVC primer on the inside of the tub.

Yep, that’s a pretty good tip since this Kohler Archer cost me about $800.

One of the biggest mistakes DIYers can make when installing this kind of tub is to not set it in
mortar.

Step 14: Embed Tub in Mortar

Steve always has the best material suggestions. And this tutorial is no exception. He likes using
Mapei’s 4-to-1 Mud Bed Mix.

Usually you need one 55 lb of mortar for one tub. But as you’ll see in our video we had to use
two bags, but it’s not like the Mud Bed Mix is breaking the bank.
Mix the mortar so that it can support the tub. It should not be runny but rather stand up on it’s
own.

Pour the mortar on the subfloor so that it’s a few inches from the drain opening. The mortar
should be evened out and about 2 inches thick on all sides.
Then embed the tub into the mortar.

Step 15: Secure Tub to Studs

Press the tub down into the mortar and place a level on it to ensure it’s level. Pre-drill holes in
the tub lip. The holes should correspond with the stud locations.
Once the tub is level you can attach it to the studs using 2 inch galvanized screws. Place your
foot on the inside edge of the tub to hold it steady while securing one screw in the center of the
tub on the main wall.
Check the tub is level again on the main wall then transfer your level to the front of the tub. Push
the tub down into the mortar to get a level position and secure one screw through the tub lip and
into the stud. Do this for the back wall as well.
Once you’re satisfied the tub is level walk on it to embed it into the mortar. Also, if there’s a gap
between the tub flange and studs use a shim. Otherwise you could break the tub lip when you
secure it to the stud.

Sinks: Kitchen, Bathroom, and Utility

A sink is a bowl shaped plumbing fixture that is usually used for washing hands, dishes and other
small objects (including my Chihuahua!). Often called a basin there are usually several sinks in
every household.
The sink will have a faucet (or faucets) that provide both hot and cold water, and sometimes come
with a spray that allows a sustained strong stream of water. Sinks usually have drains and
sometimes integrated soap dispensers.

Sinks often become clogged due to debris, soap and gunk that gets trapped in the piping; often you
can clear the clog yourself (see How to unclog a bathroom sink) although in extreme cases you may
have to call in a professional plumber. Sinks come in many shapes and varieties. The most common
sinks are:

 Self-rimming sinks: These are often used in kitchens and sit in a ‘hole’ that is cut into the
countertop. They are suspended by the rim and when installed correctly the seal between the
sink and countertop is watertight.
 Bottom-mount sinks: These sinks are clamped underneath the countertop; the hole,
therefore, must have a finished edge. It is generally harder to keep the seal waterproof. Bottom-
 mount sinks are more expensive (including the additional cost of ‘finishing’ the hole) but are
considered more contemporary and classy than the self-rimming sinks.
 Solid surface sinks: Modern methods allow sinks to be made in the same material as the
countertop and glued underneath, providing a seamless connect between top and sink; some
of these come in stainless steel and these are welded in place.
 Butler sink: These are generally seen in bathrooms and consist of a rectangular sink with a
rounded rim that is set into a wooden cabinet or wooden surface. They are smaller than kitchen
sinks.
 Stand-alone sink: These sinks are finished on all sides and usually the sink is mounted on a
‘leg’ or piece of furniture. These are the most adaptable sinks and allow for a huge variety of
design. Often they do not provide any under-the-sink storage. From my experience these are
often harder to maintain (especially removing clogs) as the plumbing is often housed in a very
small ‘leg’ and you essentially have to take the whole sink apart to get to the plumbing.

Install the New Sink

Now that you've removed the old sink and cleaned off any debris, you're all set to install the new
sink. Ensure that the new sink fits by following the first step below.

Step 1
Set the new sink in the countertop hole to verify that it fits. If necessary, modify the countertop
opening using a jigsaw, router or tile cutter.
If your new sink has larger dimensions than the current countertop opening, turn the sink upside-
down where you want it on the countertop. Trace the outline and create a new cutout with a jigsaw.

Step 2
Remove the sink from the countertop hole to attach the clips, turned inward toward the sink bowl.

Step 3
Install the faucet and additional components.

Step 4
Apply a small bead of plumber's putty around the drain strainer and install the strainer, pressing
firmly against the putty.

Step 5
Tilt the sink to its side to place and secure rubber gaskets and threaded flange to the underside of
the sink drain. Repeat this for additional drains without disposers.

Step 6
Remove excess putty with a soft towel.

Step 7
If you have a garbage disposer, use a screwdriver to install the mounting bracket to the bottom of
the sink following the manufacturer's instructions.

Step 8
Apply a bead of silicone sealant to the edge of the basin.

Step 9
Lower the sink into the countertop opening, aligning squarely.
Step 10
From below the sink, rotate the metal attachment clips outward and tighten the nuts or screws.

Step 11
Attach the supply lines to the water connections of the faucet and the supply pipes. Tighten the
connections, taking care not to strip the threads or overtighten.

Step 12
If you have a garbage disposer, install the unit following the manufacturer's instructions. Insert the
discharge pipe and tighten the clamp.

Step 13
Reinstall the dishwasher drain.

Step 14
Connect the disposer discharge pipe to the sink drain pipe and reattach the P-trap.

Step 15
If your old drainpipes don’t line up to your new sink, you can make some simple adjustments.

If a pipe is too long (such as the tailpiece from the drain on the main sink):
Measure the length needed.
Add a little extra to the measured length to ensure a tight connection.
Wearing safety glasses, cut the pipe with a hacksaw.
Place a washer on the pipe, then slide a slip nut onto the pipe over the washer.
If you need a slip nut for the other end of the pipe, slide the slip nut onto the pipe facing the
appropriate direction. Then, add a washer.
Hold the pipe in place and screw the slip nut(s) to the appropriate fittings.

If a pipe is too short:

Determine the length needed.
Add a little extra to the measured length to ensure a tight connection.
Purchase a longer pipe. Be sure the new pipe is the correct diameter.
If the pipe is longer than needed, cut it with a hacksaw. Wear safety glasses when cutting.
Place a washer on the pipe, then slide the slip nut onto the pipe over the washer.
If you need a slip nut for the other end of the pipe, slide the slip nut onto the pipe facing the
appropriate direction. Then add a washer.
Hold the pipe in place and screw the slip nut(s) to the appropriate fittings.

If you need to make a bend (such as to a wall outlet):

First, try rotating the P-trap, outlet tee or any other pipes to line up appropriately.
If that’s not possible, use a flexible extension pipe to make the connection. Just bend the pipe to the
desired position, and use rubber washers and slip nuts to attach it to the other plumbing.

Step 16
Apply a small bead of sealant to the perimeter of the sink.

Step 17
Reconnect the power to the disposer. Turn the water on and check for leaks.
Toilets: Loo, Bog, John, WC, etc.
A toilet is probably the most important plumbing fixture of them all unless you love nature and enjoy
spending your time in the woods! The modern toilet has a flush system that moves waste to a septic
tank or a community sewerage system.

The bog (a term often used in England to describe the toilet) is one of the more complex plumbing
fixtures with a complex system to refill a tank used to flush the toilet, complex plumbing to ensure
proper flow of waste and the most confusing element of all – the humble toilet lid – men all around
the world still have not worked out how to use this properly!
There are many forms of toilet, the most common are:

 Flush toilet: This is simply a ‘squat’ toilet that allows you to sit while you ‘go’ and then flushes
the waste. Modern toilets have flush systems designed to reduce water waste. These are the
most common toilets in modern society although they have humble beginning going back to
'holes in stone' in ancient Greece.
 Urinals: These are designed to allow a man to stand and ‘pee’ – they are not normally installed
in homes, but are more common at public conveniences. The design of these can vary from
single urinal per man, to one long urinal for multiple men. As many men can testify, these are
very useful and can be strangely fun - I have even seen some with targets painted on them!
 Dry toilets: These are often used as portable toilets at rock concerts, constructions sites etc.
They are used where there is no access to water – the idea is simple – all waste goes into a
large ‘pit’ via a ‘hole’. The pit holds chemicals to increase decomposition and allow for long use
of the toilet.
 High tech toilets: The modern new fangled toilets are auto-flushing, often auto-cleaning and
sometimes even provide a water jet that will ‘clean’ your bits (similar to a bidet). Some toilets
even check blood pressure, body temperature and blood sugar levels. I have even heard there
are some interactive toilets that allow you to play games as you go - apparently aim is an
important factor here!

Toilet Installation & Service

Plumbing issues are common, but can rarely be properly fixed using do-it-yourself methods. Toilet
issues are unavoidable and can be costly if you do not seek the services of a plumbing professional.
Here at Royal Flush Plumbing we offer the best toilet repair services and the best toilet
replacement options. Our professionals can take on any problem including toilet installations,
repairs and replacements. If you are looking for excellent service that is affordable, you should call
us for an appointment today.

All toilet related problems like leakage, clogs or flushing issues can effectively be fixed. We
offer toilet repairs that are an affordable alternative to purchasing an entire new toilet. This is a cost
effective solution to any toilet issues.
Showers
The standard shower has remained mostly unchanged since the late 19th century. A shower is a
simple plumbing fixture that uses a nozzle to stream hot (or cold) water over a standing person. The
‘shape’ of the nozzle can be changed to produce different effects and different pressures, but
essentially the concept is unchanged.

Showers can be part of the bath or can be a stand-alone stall. The standard types of shower are:

 Water shower: The standard shower common to most households showers the person using
one (or more nozzles). It uses the house’s water pressure to propel the water.
 Electric shower: Similar to the water shower, this uses an ‘on-demand’ heating system to
provide an instant hot shower. Some of the more expensive electric showers also can increase
the pressure of the water stream.
 Air shower: Not common in households, this shower uses a pressurized air stream to blow of
excess dust from people – this is used in ‘clean room’ environments mostly.
 Steam shower: An expensive version of the water shower that streams humidifies steam
around a person’s body.
 Bucket shower: An outside shower that simply allows cold water to stream out of a small hole
from a bucket.
 Beach shower: Usually a simple faucet that allows cold water to be streamed over a person to
assist in washing sand away.

Shower Installation

It is widely believed that simply caulking and sealing a shower is all that is required to ensure a
waterproof seal. In fact, a comprehensive waterproofing system is required to protect against mold,
mildew and leaks. At Royal Plumbing, we use the most advanced waterproofing system available
today, the Schluter® shower system. The Schluter® System is composed of a family of products
which work together to provide a completely watertight assembly. Not only does the system provide
a more effective seal than traditional solutions, it also significantly reduces installation time.

Faucets, Spigots, and Taps

The tap is a plumbing fixture that has many uses within and outside the household. Essentially a
valve, it is used to control the flow of water (and other substances such as beer, gas etc).
Faucets vary from country to country – for example, the US generally has two taps connected to one
‘outlet’ so that the flow and temperature of water can be controlled; in many older house there will be
separate taps for hot and cold water. Taps are very common fixtures used in the household, and not
just for plumbing – the most common taps are:

 Water taps: These allow a user to pour hot and cold water into the sink or bath. They come in
a variety of shapes and sizes, and some are even electrically controlled. From my experience it
is worth spending a little extra to get quality taps and faucets as they are the most used
plumbing fixture in the house and tend to have the highest failure rate.
 Valves: Often there will be a tap that allows someone to shut of the entire water flow – this is
an important part of home plumbing. Often there will be stop-taps close to toilets etc so that you
can quickly cut of the flow of water to avoid spills.
 Water spigot: These are generally external taps that allow you to attach a hose pipe to them—
the piping is usually inside so that the adverse weather doesn’t freeze the water in the pipes
causing cracks and leaks. It is important that you drain house pipes and turn the water off to an
outdoor spigot during the winter - I've found that even though most of the piping is inside, the
piping that is in the wall will freeze and you'll end up replacing the spiggot.
 Other taps: You will find taps on beer barrels and gas fixtures. These taps are essentially the
same as water taps, and control the flow of the liquid or gas using the same principle.

How to Install a Faucet

Whether you're thinking of upgrading your bathroom or kitchen with new fixtures, or replacing an old
dripping faucet, knowing how to install a new faucet could save you money. If you've decided to
bypass hiring a professional plumber, or you want to develop new skills by learning the basics, get
started with Step 1 below.
Steps

1. Gather the right materials. Special plumber's tools aren't required, just a few basic tools
you may already own. Have a small bucket to catch residue water and a plastic drop sheet to
keep the bottom of the cabinet dry in case of a leak or spill. Choose a faucet from the
hardware store, and follow the manufacturer's instructions. A basin wrench is useful for this,
but standard wrenches or pliers will work just fine. You will also need clear silicon caulk or
plumber's putty and some plumber's tape.[1]

2. Turn off the water. The shut off valves are located below the sink. They are usually oval-
shaped and found somewhere below the supply line for the tap. Turn them (very gently)
clockwise to shut off the water.[2] If a valve seems excessively tight, it may need to be
replaced.[3]
Check the condition of the supply lines for leaks or obvious wear. You may want to replace
these at the same time you replace the faucet.
Most new faucets come fully assembled, some even with inlet hoses attached. Check with
the clerk at the hardware store to be sure.

3. Disconnect the lines. Disconnect the supply lines using a standard wrench. There should
be two: one for the hot water and one for the cold.

4. Remove the nuts. Next, remove the mounting nuts from the bottom of the old faucet. These
are usually under the sink and directly below where the faucet meets the counter. There
should be between 1-3 nuts and they will usually look less like a traditional nut and more like
a target or clock.
A basin wrench will make this job much easier.

5. Clean the area. Remove any old caulk or putty around the holes in the sink. This is most
easily done with a putty knife. Clean the area thoroughly and wipe dry.[4]

6. Prepare for the new faucet. Wrap thread seal tape around the threads of the faucet where
they connect to the lines. Apply silicone sealant around the sink holes and where the new
deck plate will be.[5]

7. Insert the faucet. Press the faucet down through the sink holes. Align the faucet, using the
wall or the back of the sink to keep the faucet straight.[6]
Once this is done, wipe away any excess residue silicone. Ensure the inside of basin cabinet
is dry.

8. Lock it in place. Hand-tighten the mounting nuts with the thicker side up. Use pliers if
necessary to stop leaks, but do not over-tighten.
It may be handy to follow the specific instructions from the manufacturer for your new faucet,
as where and how many of these nuts needs to be placed will vary between faucet styles.

9. Reattach the supply lines with the adjustable wrench. Plumber's tape can also be handy
here. Look for a label on the lines attached to the faucet, since you want to connect the
correct temperatures (hot handle to hot water, etc).

10. Test your connections. Turn the water on slowly and check for leaks. If you see any water
dripping, turn off the valves and tighten slightly. Repeat if necessary. When everything works
the way it should, you're done!
Less Common Plumbing Fixtures
While most of you will have heard of most of the fixtures I’ve highlighted already, there are some
fixtures that are not very common in modern society and often are only find in Hollywood or Hotels.
Here are some of the uncommon plumbing fixtures:

 Bidets: This is a fixture that is prevalent in many European hotels. It is used to assist in
hygiene after going to the bathroom. For those who are interested or want to know more, check
out my How to use a Bidet article.
 Drinking Fountains: These are prevalent at malls and areas where there are likely to be large
crowds. The provide cool drinking water. Pressing a small button pumps a small spout of water
into the air to allow you to bend down and drink.
 Other valves: While a tap is considered a valve, there are many other valves used in pipe
fitting. Generally, when a valve is open, water will flow from high to low pressure.
List of Sanitary and Plumbing Appurtenances:
1. Internal Water Supply Lines — Sizing Of Pipes
2. Service Connection
3. Valves
4. Water Supply Distribution Pipeline and Its Cleaning
5. Traps
6. Floor Trap
7. Cowl
8. Water Closet
9. Urinals
10. Flushing Cisterns
11. Antisyphonage Pipe
12. Air Vent
13. Maintenance of Water Supply System
14. Corrosion of Water Supply Mains
15. Tracing of Leakage in Water Supply Mains
16. Replacing Water Supply Mains — Trenchless Technology
17. Removal of Contamination of Water
18. Filtration of Water
19. Sterilisation of Water
20. Water Hammer
21. Fire Hydrants
22. Water Meters
23. Special Valves
24. Quality of Water
25. Remedial Measures for Choked Tube-Well

1. Internal Water Supply Lines — Sizing Of Pipes:

Internal water supply lines are laid mostly without any proper design or sizing. Diameter of the pipes
is decided arbitrarily based on experience. This often creates difficulty in future. Diameter of the
pipes laid is either smaller or larger causing problem in supply of water.

The pipes should be properly sized or designed for the required supply of water at sections. This can
be suitably and easily done with the help of tables and graphs. Supply of water at particular point
depends upon the number of different appliances served and the rate of flow litre per second
required to maintain the supply.

This is available from the Table 8.6.

Knowing the types of fittings and their number, the rate of flow litre per second required may be
assessed.
The probable maximum demand at any particular time can be ascertained by the method devised by
Late W. Fretwell.

m = √n Where, m = probable number of appliances in use and

n = number of appliances installed.

The appliances fitted have load units.

The load units of different appliances are given in the Table 8.7.

In buildings, where high peak demand occurs, a loading unit rating of such appliances as set out in
the Table 8.7 must be allowed. The same applies to automatic flushing cistern used in urinals.

From the above two Tables design flow rate of distribution pipe can be obtained.

Pipe sizing:
With the help of graph 8.1 flow rate required for load units can be found out.

The diameter of pipe necessary for the particular line depends upon the head available, the
smoothness of the pipe proposed to be used and the effective length of the pipe run in metre.

There would be loss of head of flow due to the fitting used. Table 8.8 gives the loss of head in pipe
fittings expressed in equivalent pipe lengths.

The loss of head per metre run of the effective length should be calculated.

The permissible loss of head per metre is given by:

Loss of head = head available/effective length

When the permissible head loss is available, referring to graph 8.2 diameter of the pipe can be out.
Example 8.3 Pipe Sizing:
Calculate the diameter of a supply line using Galvanised mild steel pipe with available head of 5 m.

Appliances used in the supply line are:

Length of the pipe line is 36.5 m and 5 nos. of galvanized mild steel elbows have been used.

From the graph 8.1, the flow rate required for 60.70 load units
= 1.00 litres per second Length of the pipe is 36.5 m with five elbows. Assuming diameter of the pipe
line to be 1 %”, Effective length of pipe would be
36.5 + (5 x 1.2) = 42.5 m

Permissible loss of head = 5/42.5 = 0.118 m/m

Referring to graph 8.2, 32 mm diameter galvanised steel pipe with permissible head loss of 0.118
m/m will convey water about 1.00 litre per second.

Provision of 1¼”/32 mm diameter pipe is adequate to convey the required quantity of water.

2. Service Connection:

A service connection is primarily a connection for drawing supply of water from the municipal mains
for domestic or other use. A typical service connection with all fittings is shown in Fig. 8.16. The
common defect experienced is chokage of the ferrule which requires regular checking and cleaning.
3. Valves:

In the domestic supply lines various types of gun-metal valves are used — Gate valves or Full-way
valves, Globe valves, etc. Again, at the service ends, valves used are Stop-cocks and Bib-cocks.

Overflow valves are provided at the inlets of the supply line of the storage tanks to check the supply
when the water level in the tank reaches the desired level.

Pressure Reducing Valve:

In high-rise buildings, problem arises with the controlling valves. They often get damaged due to
high pressure of the distribution water line. This happens as the storage tanks are located on the top
of the building. The height develops very high pressure in the water distribution lines in the lower
floors.

The domestic controlling valves are designed to withstand one kg per sq.cm. water pressure; but,
due to high pressure in the distribution line, the fittings or the controlling valves in the line get
damaged.

To overcome the problem, the storage tanks should be located at stages in different floors. When
there is still possibility of increased pressure in the distribution line, pressure reducing valve may be
introduced in the distribution line which will lower the water pressure in the line to the desired level.

The common defect of these appurtenances is wearing of the valve pieces and washers, which
requires replacement.

4. Water Supply Distribution Pipeline and Its Cleaning:

Water supply lines laid underground are generally G.I. pipes of various diameters. The pipes should
be laid in the trenches on minimum 150 mm thick sand bed and should be covered on all sides by
sand blanket 150 mm thick. The pipes shall be painted two coats, preferably with anticorrosive paint.

When the pipes are laid across a road having vehicular traffic at a depth less than 600 mm, the
pipes should be encased by cement concrete of proportion 1: 3: 6 of minimum thickness 150 mm or
should be provided with a sleeve.
Sometimes, water supply distribution pipelines, external or internal, underground or above, get
choked due to sedimentation of solid particles and, in course of time, supply gradually diminishes
and, ultimately, stops.

In such cases, to remove the chokage, the first step would be to determine the exact length of the
pipeline where it has been blocked. When this has been done, the supply in the section shall have to
be shut down by operating valves. The length of the pipe line shall now be taken out and the
chokage removed by rodding, i.e., by inserting a m.s. rod and poking with it and simultaneously
tapping by light hammer.

Simple rodding might not be able to remove the chokage completely. The pipe shall then have to be
cleaned by acid. Commercially available acid, diluted, shall be poured in the pipe and brushed by a
round brush with long handle.

When the pipe has been cleaned properly, it shall be washed with fresh water and, finally, with
chlorinated water and re-fixed in position.

5. Traps:

Traps are depressed or bent fittings having water-seals fixed at the outlet of the drainage system.
Maintenance of water level in the water seals prevents the passage of foul air or gas through it.

Causes of breaking of seal:

Water-seal in a trap may break due to:

i. Faulty joint,
ii. Crack in the bottom of the seal,
iii. Creation of partial vacuum in the sewer fittings for non- provision of ventilation or antisyphonage
pipe,
iv. Increase in the pressure of sewer gases, and
v. non-use for prolonged period and drying of water of the seal.

6. Floor Trap:

Floor trap is used for admitting surface wash or wastewater from the floors of bath or kitchen. They
are also provided with C.I. gratings at the top to exclude coarser materials.
7. Cowl:

Cowls are C.I. or asbestos fittings placed on top of the vent pipes which protect the entry of any
material into the vent pipe from top, but allows exit of foul gas.

8. Water Closet:

Water closet is designed to receive human excrete and discharge the same with the help of water
flushing to the soil pipe through the traps.

Water closets used are of three types:

a. Indian type,
b. European type or Wash down closet, and
c. Anglo-Indian type.
a. Indian type water closets:
These are simple in construction and made of porcelain. The pan and the trap are separately built
and provided with antisyphonage pipe and flushing arrangement with a flushing cistern.

b. European type/Wash down closets:

European type water closets are Wash down water closets. These are usually made of porcelain
and provided with a seat and cover. The pan has a flushing rim to spread the flush water. The
excrete directly falls in the trap, and, therefore, there are less chances of excrete becoming foul.
The closet is fitted with either P-trap or S-trap. Generally, low level flushing cistern is used in this
type of water closet. It is sometimes termed commode.

c. Anglo-Indian type water closets:

These are rather a combination of the two types mentioned above, having the advantage of using in
squatting and also in sitting position. Arrangements are same as those in European type water
closets.

9. Urinals:

Urinals are of three types:

(i) Bowl type,
(ii) Slab or squatting type and
(iii) Stall type.

Both bowl and squatting urinals are generally used in residential units, while Stall type urinals are
used in public places. Automatic flushing cisterns are generally provided for Stall type urinals, which
operate at regular intervals of 10 to 15 minutes.
10. Flushing Cisterns:

There are different types of cisterns of which Bell type valveless syphonic cisterns are commonly
used. A typical Bell type cistern is shown in Fig. 8.24.

The common defect arising in the cistern is the displacement of the float which mainly occurs due to
bad pulling of cistern chain. The lever also need be adjusted often.

Flushing valve/Mudus valve for W.C. and Commode:

The W.C.s and the commodes need flushing regularly after every use for which flushing cisterns are
required. The cisterns fixed on the wall are not pleasing to look at and often get out of order.

Compact unit, in G.I. pipes of diameter 32 mm are available. The compact unit when introduced in
the flushing line does the function of flushing smoothly. This removes the need of installation of
flushing cistern.

11. Antisyphonage Pipe:

If water-closets of more than one floor are connected with the same soil pipe and the top water-
closet is flushed, partial vacuum is created in the connecting branch soil pipe with the trap due to
rushing down of waste water in the soil pipe.

This creates a symphonic action and sucks the water of the water- seal of the trap. The water-seal of
the trap being non-functioning, foul smell from the soil pipe enters through the water-closet. To
protect the water-seal of the trap, antisyphonic action need De created. This is created by the
antisyphonage pipe.

The topmost point of the trap is connected with the vent pipe running parallel to the soil pipe. The
vent pipe should have an internal diameter of not less than 50 mm and should be connected with the
arm of the soil pipe at a point not less than 75 mm and not more than 300 mm from the highest part
of the trap, and at a point above the overflow of all connecting fixtures, to guard against the
possibility of its being fouled where it joins the soil pipe, and eventually be choked by the
wastewater. The branch must always be made with antisyphonage pipe being in the direction of
flow.

12. Air Vent:

Air vents are attachments mounted on the vent pipes fitted with the inspection pits for providing
supply of fresh air to the sewerage system. These are provided with mechanism of mica valve which
allows entry of fresh air, but do not allow foul air to come out.

13. Maintenance of Water Supply System:

During maintenance of a water supply system the following points shall be attended to:
i. Storage tanks shall be regularly inspected and cleaned as necessary.
ii. Record drawings showing the pipeline layout and valve positions with their diameter shall be kept
up to date.
iii. Any temporary attachment fixed to a trap or outlet shall never be left as such.
iv. All the valves shall be periodically opened and checked.
v. All overflow pipes shall be examined and kept free from obstruction.

14. Corrosion of Water Supply Mains:

Corrosion of water supply mains is a common feature in metallic mains of wrought iron and steel
pipes. Due to corrosion, the thickness of the pipe gets reduced and, thus, the pipe becomes weak
locally, which increases and, in course of time, full perforation occurs by pitting, owing to earth
movements from internal water pressure.

Leaky joints, undetected pipe fracture, alternate dryness and wetness of site and inadequate
drainage, accelerate corrosion.

Presence of deleterious salts in the soil or saline sub-soil water initiate corrosion of pipe. Acidic and
soft waters rapidly attack wrought iron and steel pipes. Damaged coating or presence of pin-holes in
the protective coating is sources of initiating corrosion. Cutting of screw threads on galvanized pipes
are left exposed and breaks the zinc coating and invites corrosion.

Galvanic and electronic corrosion:

Corrosion often sets up when two dissimilar metals in contact with each other are immersed in
water. Such action takes place between pipes and fittings of different metals, e.g. galvanized steel
pipes and copper or zinc or iron.
Remedial measures:

Remedial measures against corrosion of metallic pipes laid underground need be taken properly for
protection of the pipes from early corrosion:
i. A survey should be made of the route of the main pipe proposed to be laid, to ascertain, if the soil
is of aggressive nature against metallic pipes. If the soil is found aggressive, the thickness of the
pipe wall should be increased, and number or protective coatings should be more. The pipe should
be provided with cement or bituminous coating.
ii. If the soil is found aggressive, an extra depth of trench of not less than 150 mm – 300 mm
according to the degree of aggressiveness of the soil, should be excavated and filled with sand on
which the pipe should be laid.
In case of ordinary non-aggressive soil also, pipe should be laid on a sand bed of 150 mm for
uniformity of soil bed bellow.
iii. Flexible joints are preferred than rigid joints in soil subjected to settlement.
iv. Corrosive property of water is controlled by adding lime or soda ash and this increases the value
of the water to be carried.
v. Pipe should not be laid underground unless it is properly protected from corrosion. This can be
done by providing with sleeve of earthenware pipes properly jointed, or wrapping hessian
impregnated with bitumen.
vi. Proper care should be taken in selection of pipes and fittings so that possibility of galvanic and
electrolytic corrosion does not arise.

15. Tracing of Leakage in Water Supply Mains:

It is rather difficult to detect leakage in the underground water mains. A metal rod having a sharp-
pointed end is generally thrust into the ground along the pipeline and withdrawn to find out whether
or not its point is wet. Sound of escaping water can be determined by placing ear against the rod.
Wastewater meters are also used for detecting leakage.
The meter is placed in a small chamber at the head of a supply zone and the supply is passed
through it at night. The meter registers flow at all hours on a drum with square graph paper. An
instrument somewhat like a doctor’s stethoscope is sometimes used. During the hours of least
consumption at night, valves are closed in turn at the principal branches.
Stem of the stethoscope is placed against the spindle of the valve flow through the valve is indicated
by a sizzling sound. Other instruments are also available — pilometer, equaphone, sonoscope,
where chemicals are employed. One mg of fluorescein is sufficient to colour 1.5 tonnes of water; one
mg of indigo dissolved in sulphuric acid and mixed with supply, will colour 15 kg of water.

16. Replacing Water Supply Mains — Trenchless Technology:

Normally, construction below ground level involves open cut excavation. Trenchless technology is a
new technology introduced for various purpose. The technology can be suitably applied for laying
new pipe line abandoning the old one.
Small diameter pipes are laid below ground level without open cut excavation for crossing a road or
for short straight length. This is done by boring through the ground horizontally at the required depth.
But in such case, the diameter of the pipes is always small.
The same principle can be adopted for laying larger diameter pipe by boring through the ground
horizontally. Before undertaking such operation, thorough investigation of the soil is necessary. The
boring will be done on the principle that the soil around the boring will not collapse and remain in
position due to the arch action of the soil.
The thickness of the earth above should be sufficient to effect the arch action. The technology is
similar to that employed for tunneling. The boring is done in horizontal direction with horizontal
boring machines. A greater degree of accuracy is necessary for installation of water supply main
than is normally required for when supply main is laid by open cut method.
Worn out water supply mains running through congested areas often create problem. The main
supply pipes, due to long time use and frequent repairs, become obsolete and need replacement.

Replacement of the mains is normally done by open cut excavation.

This creates tremendous problem and often makes it impossible. The problem can be solved by
laying by-pass line involving more cost, more man-days and various ancillary problems like traffic
jam, etc. in the neighborhood.

Trenchless technology can be introduced as an alternative to open cut traditional technology. The
technology is simple, but requires serious preplanning. The portion of the pipe to be replaced should
be in a straight alignment. If there be an angle, the length should be divided into two or more straight
segments.

The existing pipe which requires replacement is to be dewatered. The old pipe is left in position and
is used as conduit for the new main pipe to be introduced. The quantity of water supplied through the
existing pipe in peak hour at peak velocity is calculated. The new pipe to be inserted through the old
pipe should be capable to carry the same quantity of water or even more at the same peak hours.

Naturally, the new pipe to be introduced should be of slightly smaller diameter. To achieve the same
hydraulic capacity, the new pipe should be of such material which would be able to produce the
same hydraulic capacity. The value of coefficient, C, of the old pipe should be reduced in
consideration of its age.

The C-value of the new pipe should be greater to achieve less head loss. The new pipe may be of
G.R.P (glass-fibre reinforced polymer) or stainless steel or rigid P.V.C., etc. or of any other suitable
rigid, strong and durable material.

For insertion of the new pipe through the old one some mechanical arrangement would be required.
The full length of the pipe would be formed by joining lengths of pipes. The joining collar (Reka
coupling) should be able to take a permissible deflection of not more than 3 degrees.

The new pipe shall be pushed from one end and pulled at the other end. As the pipe length would
increase in the conduit, it would run over castor wheels and proceed smoothly.
When the front end has reached the destination, the two ends would be joined with the supply main,
kept close.

The method is simple and requires much less time for installation. The Calcutta Municipal
Corporation has already replaced two lengths of 250 m and 427 m of supply mains in this method.

The process is being extensively adopted in Japan and Germany.

In a similar process of trenchless technology, 1998 a R.C.C. box, to serve as underpass, has been
pushed across a railway embankment successfully without disturbing the running rail tracks above,
in Calcutta.

17. Removal of Contamination of Water:

Drinking water often gets contaminated due to coming in contact with infection. This generally occurs
when the source of water is open. In rural areas people use water from rivers, ponds, open wells for
drinking purpose. These sources are susceptible to contamination easily. These need be disinfected
for removal of contamination by bleaching powder with 25 % Chlorine.

Disinfection by Bleaching can be easily done by cartridge. The quantum of Bleaching powder that
would be required for removing such contamination has been given in Table 8.4.

In case of piped supply of water, there is possibility of contamination due to leakage of conveying
pipe or after repairing any portion of existing pipe, when the same has not been washed properly
and disinfected. In such case probability of contamination remains. Chlorine of Bleaching powder
may be added in appropriate dose as per Table 8.4 and according to degree of expected
contamination.

18. Filtration of Water:

Filtration means passing of water through thick layer of sand which acts as strainer. Suspended and
colloidal matter in the water and also a large number of bacteria are arrested in the interstices of the
sand during its passage through the sand bed.

There are principally three types of filters:

i. Slow sand filters;
ii. Rapid gravity filters; and
iii. Pressure filters.
In urban and semi-urban areas and specially in metropolitan areas, a good number of other water
purifiers of various types and technology are available. Before introducing, performance of the
appliance should be verified and their effectiveness assured.

19. Sterilisation of Water:

Sterilisation of water is necessary to kill pathogenic bacteria of water-borne diseases to make it safe
for human consumption. Although by filtration all suspended impurities together with most of the
organic impurities (bacteria — may be up to 90 per cent or more) are removed, but still some of
these bacteria are very dangerous and may not be removed by simple filtration. Therefore, water
sterilisation is needed where contamination is Suspected.

There is every chance of water being contaminated during distribution, especially in an intermittent
system of supply where the pipes remain empty for long periods. Sterilisation of water can be done
in a number of ways of which Chlorination is found to be the most suitable, convenient, effective and
cheapest method for public water supplies.

Chlorine is available in solid, liquid and gaseous form. In solid form it is used as Bleaching powder
containing about 30 to 35 per cent of available Chlorine.

Dosage of Chlorine:

For disinfection alone, a dose of 0.1 to 0.2 ppm may be required for good underground water and
0.5 to 1.5 ppm for surface water. A dosage of 1.0 ppm destroys most of the germs. In cases of highly
polluted waters the requirement of chlorine may be as high as 3.0 ppm giving a residual of 1 ppm in
20 minutes.

For town water supplies, after sterilisation, there must be residual chlorine in water 0.1 to 0.2 ppm at
the last tap in the distribution system after 30 minutes to ensure that the supply has been fully
disinfected, but in case of epidemics, under rural conditions, and for small supplies, the residual
chlorine is kept at 0.5 ppm.
High concentration of chlorine for short periods of time is more effective than small concentration for
long period.

For small rural water supply, disinfection may be arranged by a simple drip-feed device with
decanted Bleaching powder solution. A gravity-fed arrangement should be followed.

There are other devices also — pressure-feed chlorinators with positive pressure-feed or vacuum
type.

20. Water Hammer:

Water hammer is also called Surge-pressure or concussion and is the momentary pressure
produced due to sudden stoppage of a mass of moving water at high velocity in a closed conduit or
pipe and is usually much in excess of may be anything 15 to 20 times the original hydrostatic
pressure.

This is caused due to closure of valves. Sudden closure or opening of valve causes conversion of
dynamic energy, i.e., velocity into pressure head. The pressure strikes against the valve and is
reflected back to larger mains and overhead tank. The wave is again reflected and the cycle is
repeated until the energy of wave dies down due to friction.
Prevention against water hammer:

If the valves are closed slowly, hammer pressure is considerably reduced. This may not be always
practicable. In high pressure service lines, the taps should always be closed slowly. Rubber or
rubberised tap washers cause water hammer. The most effective remedy is to fix Air valve or Air
Relief valve or Reflux valve which will act as a shock absorber at or near the closure points of pumps
and pumping systems.

Pressure reducing valve can also be fitted on the service pipe before it enters the building. Water
hammer can also be guarded against by the use of tower surge tank or stand pipe at the end of the
line, or relief valves.
Pressure due to water hammer may be taken as follows in addition to the static pressure in pipes:

For small diameter pipes, the operation of hydrants and large branches has a relatively great
influence on the system. For pipes under heavy pressure, where hammer pressure would be small in
proportion to the static pressure, no hammer allowance need be considered.

21. Fire Hydrants:

Installation of fire hydrants is a necessity as a preventive measure of spreading of fire hazards. They
are installed along the city roads and also inside the premises of tall buildings. These are connected
to the water supply mains.

Fire hydrants may be located at a distance of 90 m to 120 m apart when the buildings are large and
close together or built of inflammable material, and 100 m or further apart in open areas. A fire
hydrant can serve an area of 4,000 to 10,000 sqm according to density of population.
Fire hydrants are of two types:
i. Pillar or Post hydrants, and
ii. Sunk or Flush hydrants.
Minimum residual pressure heads required for fire hydrants is:
with pump engines 3.5 m.
for direct flow single storey buildings 20 m.

22. Water Meters:

Water meters are used to measure the quantity of water flowing through a pipeline.
There are two main types of water meters:
i. positive or displacement type, and
ii. Inferential or velocity type.

23. Special Valves:

i. Pressure Relief or Safety Valves:

These valves are sometimes fixed at the downstream ends of long distance mains, or where water
hammer is likely to occur, to relieve excessive pressure. These are automatic valves that close when
pressure becomes excessive on the downstream side. They are provided with heavy weight spring-
controlled valves which open under pressure exceeding those for which they are set.
ii. Ball Valves:
Ball valves are float operated valves which control the flow of water and prevent overflow.
iii. Float Valves
Float valves are used on distribution reservoirs or other tanks and filter beds, etc. to maintain
constant water levels.

24. Quality of Water:

Water for human consumption is available from nature. Water available mostly contains impurities in
soluble and insoluble state. Drinking water or potable water should be pure and free from all
injurious matters that may be present. Water for drinking should be tested for both chemical and
bacteriological qualities.
Standards generally followed for drinking water are:
i. Taste and odour should not be objectionable,
ii. Turbidity should be limited to 10 units (ppm),
iii. Total solids should not be more than 1,000 ppm,
iv. Sulphates and chlorides should be less than 250 ppm,
v. Nitrates should be less than 20 ppm,
vi. Free ammonia should be less than 0.15 ppm,
vii. Hardness should be less than 150 ppm,
viii. pH value should be between 7 and 10 ppm,
ix. Dissolved oxygen shall be less than 125 ppm,
x. Magnesium shall be less than 125 ppm,
xi. Iron and manganese should be less than 0.30 ppm,
xii. Presence of pathogenic bacteria should be ‘nil’,
xiii. B-coli index should not be more than 10, and
xiv. Nitrates, poisonous metal should be ‘nil’.
Amongst the standards fixed, hardness, presence of iron and presence of arsenic are most
important and need be removed or brought within permissible limits.
Hardness of water:
Salts of calcium and magnesium dissolved in water cause hardness.
Hardness of water is of two kinds:
a. Temporary hardness, and
b. Permanent hardness.
Temporary hardness is called ‘alkalinity’ and is caused due to presence of carbon dioxide and
bicarbonates which can be removed by boiling the water; boiling converts the soluble materials into
insoluble carbonates which settle as precipitates at the bottom.
Permanent hardness or non-carbonate hardness is usually caused by sulphates or nitrates and/or
chlorides of calcium and magnesium which are more stable and cannot be removed by simple
boiling.
When both kinds of hardness are present in water, it is called total hardness.
Hard water causes corrosion and incrustation of pipe lines and fixtures. The first-hand indication that
the water is hard is that lather of soap does not form in hard water. It also causes intestinal trouble in
human bodies.
Water softening:
Hardness of water should be removed before distribution.
There are different processes for softening of hard water:
i. Lime process:
Hydrated or slaked lime when added to hard water acts chemically with bicarbonates present and
converts it to carbonates and hydroxide which are insoluble and can be removed by sedimentation
and filtration.
Generally, an overdose of lime up to 10 to 20 ppm is added which makes the water alkaline. The
sediment and the excess lime is removed by filtration.
ii. Lime soda process:
The process is useful when salts or sulphates, nitrates, and chlorides of magnesium are present.
Almost complete softening can, therefore, be achieved where water contains both carbonate and
non-carbonate hardness.
iii. Zeolite or Base Exchange process:
The process is a mechanical one. Nowadays complete compact plants are available of different
sizes for use of individual domestic unit or for larger supply.
Iron and Manganese:
Water often contains iron in excess of permissible limit. Traces of iron is dissolved from earth’s crust
as a result of presence of carbon dioxide in water coming in contact with iron ore deposit and also
due to presence of corrosion in conduit pipe or in old steel storage tanks. Iron salts in small
quantities produce acidic condition and cause harm to stomach.
Removal of iron from drinking water is needed. Iron removal plants of various capacities for single
dwelling to larger capacity are available.
Arsenic:
Arsenic menace is sometimes found in the sources of drinking water. Arsenic in water causes
various problems in intestine and causes serious skin diseases in hands and feet. To get rid of this
problem, arsenic need be eliminated from water. Various institutions in the country are engaged in
finding out easy and simple solution for elimination of arsenic from water. Some of the simple
methods based on filtration are available.
Drinking water essentially need be free from contamination and pathogenic bacteria. These may be
eliminated by chlorination and or sterilisation.

25. Remedial Measures for Choked Tube-Well:

A tube-well may be defunct after a prolonged use or may get defunct after a short period. Life of a
tube-well depends upon various factors.
Life of tube-well:
The life of tube-well mainly depends upon the strainer used, which again depends upon the nature of
soil strata where the strainer has been located and the type of salts present in the water and effects
of their chemical action on the metal of which the strainer is made.
Mild steel and cast iron are attacked by sodium salts; under ordinary conditions steel may last for 15
to 20 years. Copper is attacked by sodium carbonate and sodium chloride; brass is not readily
attacked by the salts usually present in the water or soils.
Strainer is always kept in the strata of sand. If the sand strata contain large quantity of fine sand or
clayey soil, the strainer gets clogged early. Presence of salt in the water expedites incrustation of the
strainer.
A tube-well may become defunct due to clogging of strainer or it may become defunct when the
screen caves in or collapses.
Clogging of screen:
Clogging of screen may occur due to Causes:
i. Excessive pumping of water with velocity of inflow more than the optimum velocity of the strata.
This disturbs the materials surrounding the strainer, drawing sand particles inside.
ii. Chemical action on the strainer metal due to the presence of salts (mostly common lime) in water,
which cause deterioration of strainer by corrosion.
Clogging causes drop in yield of the tube-well and ultimately may render it defunct.
Clogging need be removed to make it functional. This can be done by ‘back-washing’ or ‘back
blowing’. The ‘back washing’ dislodges fine sand or clay particles clogging the strainer holes. Water
is forced into the well with a pump or from high level storage tank through a water jet tube over the
strainer pores or compressed air blown into the strainer.
Raising and lowering a plunger may also induce reverse flow forcing water outward through the
screen. If a turbine pump is operated without a foot valve and suddenly stopped, the water in the
pump column would cause the back flow.
When the clogging is due to incrustation of lime, it may not be possible to remove the same by back
washing with water only. Weak hydrochloric acid may have to be introduced and the same allowed
to remain for several hours. The incrustant salt would be dissolved. Heavy pumping would bring up
the particles deposited.
When the stratum is clayey or high in organic matter, the above process may have to be repeated
with sulphuric acid. Where the screen is obstructed by heavy growth of iron bacteria, a 50 ppm
chlorine solution may be introduced to clear it.
When hydrochloric or sulphuric acid is used in back wash operation, the tube-well should be pumped
for several hours to drain out the acid contaminated water. The water should be tested before
declaring it fit for use.
Restoration of collapsed or caved in strainer
Where the screen collapses or caves in or corrodes and leaks, allowing water to escape into the
ground, replacement is necessary. If the well is of larger diameter, a casing may be placed inside. If
placing of smaller diameter casing is not possible, the strainer shall have to be replaced by
withdrawing.