Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants

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Evaluation, Genetic Diversity, Recent Development

of Distillation Method, Challenges and
Opportunities of Rosa damascena: A Review

Probir Kumar Pal

To cite this article: Probir Kumar Pal (2013) Evaluation, Genetic Diversity, Recent Development
of Distillation Method, Challenges and Opportunities of Rosa�damascena: A Review, Journal of
Essential Oil Bearing Plants, 16:1, 1-10, DOI: 10.1080/0972060X.2013.764176

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 TEOP 16 (1) 2013 pp 1 - 10 1
ISSN Print: 0972-060X
ISSN Online: 0976-5026

Evaluation, Genetic Diversity, Recent Development of Distillation

Method, Challenges and Opportunities of Rosa damascena: A Review

Probir Kumar Pal

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Institute of Himalayan
Bioresource Technology, Division of Natural Plant Product, Palampur, India
Received 06 March 2012; accepted in revised form 20 August 2012

Abstract: Rosa damascena Mill that is one of the important species of Rosa is used for essential oil
production. It is a tetraploid rose that belongs to Damask group of roses. It is generally thought that the R.
damascena originated in the Neo-lithic period, in South Anatolia, as a hybridization of R. gallica and R.
phoenicea. Nevertheless, the origin of R. damascena is a bone of contention throughout the world. So far, 400
volatile substances have been identified in rose oil. Besides its application in aromatic and food industries,
some valuable characteristics of Damask rose oil such as anti - HIV, antibacterial and antioxidant activities
have been established during last two decades. The demand of rose oil in international market is increasing,
but the area of production is stagnant. Thus, there is a pressing need to extend the cultivation of R. damascena
to larger area and to improve its production technology. Rosa damascena possesses vast diversity in plant
habit and flower characteristics. Over all, the research publication on this crop is scarce compared to other
crops. Hence, this review will provide the valuable information for further research and understanding of the
crop and its value as an economical crop.

Key words: Oil-bearing rosa, essential oil, aromatic industries.

Introduction Bulgaria, Turkey, India and Iran 8. This plant was

Rosa L as a major genus in the family of
Rosaceae comprises 200 species with more than
18000 cultivars 1, 2 naturally distributed through-
out the temperate zone of the Northern
Hemisphere. Rose is the king of flowers 3. Apart
from the horticultural uses, roses hold economical
import-ance owing to the essential oil in their
petals as a source of natural fragrances and
flavourings 4. One of the most important Rosa
species is Rosa damascena Mill of which some
varieties are used for essential oil production, and
others are widely cultivated as garden roses 5. It
is the national flower of Iran 6. Rosa damascena
belongs to Damask group of roses, which are
known for their strong fragrance 7and cultivated
for its essential oil and medicinal aspects in
originally brought to Europe from Damascus that
is why it is called Damask rose 9, 10. Besides its
application in aromatic industries, some valuable
characteristics of Damask rose oil such as anti-
HIV 11 antibacterial 12 and antioxidant 13, 14
activities have been reported recently. The
worldwide demand for high quality rose oil is
expected to increase in future. According to an
estimate, the world production of rose oil is almost
half of the total demand. In order to meet the
growing demand of the rose oil, there is an urgent
need to extend the cultivation of R. damascena to
larger area. Many research articles have been
written about garden roses, but the roses used for
the essential oil production have been less widely
described in scientific literature. The aim of this

*Corresponding author (Probir Kumar Pal)

E-mail: < palpk@ihbt.res.in/pkpal_agat@yahoo.in > © 2013, Har Krishan Bhalla & Sons
 Probir Kumar Pal / TEOP 16 (1) 2013 1 - 10
review is, thus, to describe the economic
development of R. damascena, including: the
history, future potentiality of rose products,
theories about evolu-tion and genetic diversity,
current research on distillation methods,
constraints and opportunities. I hope that this
review will encourage the researchers for further
research and understanding of the crop and its
importance among industrial products.
Origin and distribution
The eastern Mediterranean region is the centre
of production and a postulated centre of origin of
Damask rose. Till date, the origin of R. damascena
is a bone of contention among the researchers
throughout the world. It is generally believed that
R. damascena originated in the Neo-lithic period,
in South Anatolia, as a hybridization of R. gallica
and R. phoenicea. Both of these have grown wild
in Anatolia for centuries 15-18. Iran has also been
nominated as one of its origins 19.
Now four rose species (R. damascena, R. gallica
R. centifolia and R. alba) are widely used for the
commercial production of rose oil, rose water,
absolute and concrete in the world. Cultivation
of R. damascena and production of rose oil began
in what was a then Turkish province of eastern
Roumelia (now Kazanlak) in the fifteenth century
20
. Nevertheless, the commercial production of
rose for oil purpose has started at the end of the
seventeenth century. Rosa damascena was
introduced into Bulgaria in historic time for
creating geographic isolation from the centre of
the origin. Rosa damascena first grew wild, and
it is still self-growing in Caucasus, Syria, Morocco
and Andalusia 21.
It is also reported that a Bulgarian (ottoman)
merchant introduced rose cultivation to Rumeli
in the mid fifteen century A.D.16. After that,
cultivation and processing of R. damascena were
introduced into the Europe and Africa from
Turkey 22. Now it is distributed in South France,
South Italy, Morocco, Libya, Turkey, Ukraine,
Crimea, Caucasus, Syria, India, China and North
Korea 22. However, there are only two locations
which are ideal for growing - the Isparta province
of Turkey and area around the Kazanlak town of
Bulgaria. These two regions are the main centres
2
for both rose oil and rose water production in the
world. Rosa damascena is also planted in Iran
and India for production of rose petals and rose
water 23, alongside rose oil, absolute and rose
concrete. In India, the distribution of rose is
restricted to the mountains with an exception of
R. clinophylla Thory (R. involucrate), which is
probably single topical rose spices of the world.
It is also reported that 2500-3000 ha land is
dedicated to commercial cultivation of R.
damascena in India 24.
Evaluation and genetic diversity
The evolution of R. damascena is ambiguous.
One of the first rose taxonomists 25 stated ‘Our
knowledge of European has become by the
extraordinary attention they have received, so
extensive that it is impossible to doubt that limits
between what are called species do not exist.’ This
situation is somewhat less perplex today but still
unsettled. The basic chromosome number of the
Rosaceae is n = 7, for Rosa 2n = 14, but most
number of the Rosa are tetraploids with 28
chromosomes 26 , having some interesting
exceptions. A diploid R. damascena 27 and a
triploid R. centifolia 28 are found. Even a
pentaploid from an Iranian cultivar has been found
(2n = 35). Yakoya et al.,29 reported that R.
damascena is a tetraploid rose.
Genetic diversity is a feature of a population in
which individual possesses different genetic traits.
It is difficult to understand the genetic diversity
in the genus Rosa due to a large number of natural
crosses and spontaneous mutations. It is assumed
that R. damascena is resulted from the interaction
between conscious selection and opportunity for
the movement and recombination of many roses
in the eastern Mediterranean region 7 . Rosa
damascena is a hybrid derived from R. gallica
and R. moschata 30. Iwata et al., 31 identified three
parental species (R. moschata J. Herm., R. gallica
L. and R. fedtschenkoana Reg.) as ancestors of R.
damascena with the help of applying random
amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) marker to
old varieties of R. damascena and closely related
rose species. Harknees 32 also mentioned the third
species of R. fedtschenkoana is associated with
Damask rose. Shepherd 33 observed that the
 Probir Kumar Pal / TEOP 16 (1) 2013 1 - 10
seedling from self-pollinated R. damascena
showed great variability. Thus, one might assume
a hybrid origin. Rusanov et al., 34 concluded that
R. damascena is most probably a segmental
allotetraploid species with a type of inheritance
(disomic or tetrasomic) depending on the position
of the locus in the genome. Evaluation of genetic
diversity of R. damascena based on morphological
characteristics is very difficult because of large
number of morphological characters, and it is a
time consuming method. The rapid and reliable
methods for understanding the genetic variation
and genetic relationships of roses are the outmost
important. That is why DNA markers have been
applied for characterization of rose genetic
diversity 5, 35- 42. Now amplified fragment length
polymorphisms (AFLT) approach is a reliable,
rapid and sensitive technique for detecting genetic
diversity of Damask rose genotypes 34, 43. Agaoglu
et al., 44 and Baydar et al., 34 used RAPDs and
AFLPs techniques to study the genetic diversity
of R. damascena and found genetic uniformity of
the R. damascena cultivars grown in Turkey. In
contrast, Pirseyedi et al., 43 showed an extreme
variability and genetic complexity among 12
Iranian Damask rose (R. damascena Mill.)
genotypes grown in Iran. Afterwards much
diversity were found throughout the production
area of Iran 8, 38, 45. The existence of multiple
genotypes is found within R. damascena 45. From
the previous findings, we can conclude that Iran
is the possible centre of diversity for R.
damascena.
Rose product and its uses
There are four main products which are obtained
from R. damascena namely, essential oil, concrete,
absolute and rose water, which vary in their
quality according to genetic make-up,
environment, agronomic management and
distillation methods. The volatile oil from R.
damascena species is commonly known as attar,
otto or essence of roses. Attar quickly became
popular, and by the end of 1600s, the distilleries
at Shiraz, Iran, were a major industry 7. The oil is
produced by the steam distillation of whole flower.
Rose concrete is a waxy semi solid product
obtained by extraction from rose flowers with
3
volatile solvents such as hexane and subsequently
by evaporation of solvent in a vacuum and
absolute by further extracting concrete of rose
with alcohol. Rose water is a by-product obtained
during the hydro-distillation of rose flowers.
Rose oil is widely used in perfumery and
cosmetic industry as a base component of many
modern perfumes and cosmetics. In addition to
its perfuming effects, it was reported that the rose
oil, rose flower extracts possessed a wide range
of health beneficial activities, such as antibacterial
12, 46, 47
, antioxidant 13, 14, 48, anti-infective and anti-
inflammatory properties 12, 49, anti-convulsant 50
and anti-HIV 11. The extract of R. damascena
induces the neurite outgrowth and inhibits the A
β (25-35)-induce atrophy 51. Traditionally rose oil
is used as a remedy for anxiety, depression and
for the treatment of stress related condition 52 and
in aroma-therapy for treatment of cardiac diseases.
Rosa damascena has many culinary uses as a
flavour additive. By-product of rose oil extraction
can be utilized as an antioxidant and antibacterial
agent in food industry 14.
Rose water and powdered roses are used in
middle and eastern cooking. Rose water is often
sprinkled on many meat dishes. The most popular
use is in the flavouring of desserts such as ice
cream, jam, rice pudding, cake, yoghurt etc. The
fruits of the rose species are beneficial for human
health as they contain important organic and
inorganic matters 53. The seeds of rose hip also
contain unsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty
acids 54. Rosa damascena fruits contain ascorbic
acid, α-tocopherol, β-carotene, and mineral
elements such as Ca, Fe, K, Mn, Na, P, and Zn 53.
Chemical composition and chemistry of rose
oil
During the last century, more than 300 different
components have been identified in the rose oil
from R. damascena flowers 55. Although, Schulz
56
reported that 400 volatile substances have been
identified in rose oil, but only about 20 % of the
wild species can be characterized as a ‘fragrant’.
The percentage of major components is one of
the important parameters, which determines the
quality of rose oil 57, 58. Earlier, many reports have
appeared on the chemical evaluation of rose oil 4,
 Probir Kumar Pal / TEOP 16 (1) 2013 1 - 10
59- 61
. Nevertheless, Lawrence 62, 63 has published a
comprehensive review on the composition of rose
oil. High quality rose oil should have a specific
gravity approaching 0.86, reflective index 1.46,
optical rotation -3 to - 4, and congealing point
18° – 22°°C 64. Indian rose oil possesses a specific
gravity close to 0.8589, reflective index 1.4805,
and congealing point 18.5°C 65. Hence, Indian rose
oil meets the desired level in terms of the physico-
chemical properties.
Although rose oil is a very complicated mixture
of more than 300 different components, the most
common compounds are citronellol , nerol, phenyl
ethyl alcohol, geraniol, heptadecane, nonadecane,
heneicosane, linalool, geranial, methyl eugenol,
eicosane, eugenol, heptacosane, tricosane and
geranyl acetate, which contribute 85- 90 % of total
volume of Indian rose oil. These components
decide the perfumery value of rose oil 4, 59, 62, 66, 67.
The quality of rose oil is regulated by the imple-
mentation of international standard (ISO 9842:
2003). The chemical disparity of R. damascena
populations from different geographic origins is
probably due to the ecological effect, but the
existence of chemical variations under the same
conditions may be governed by genetic factors.
Many other components that are present in trace
amount are very important for the overall quality
of the rose oil. The key flavour components that
contribute to the distinctive scent of rose are beta-
damascenone, beta-ionone and rose oxide. Despite
low concentration of beta-damascone and beta-
damascenone, they are considered as the marker
for the quality of rose oil 4, 68, 69 . In particular,
beta-damascenone has a very low odour threshold
of 0.002 ppb, compared with 40 ppb for citronellol
and up to100 ppb damascone, and a flavour thres-
hold of only 0.009 ppb. These two compounds
along with beta-ionone are enzymatically
generated from carotenoid 68, 70.
Effect of distillation method on quality of rose
oil
It is assumed that the crude distillation of rose
for the oil was started in Persia in the late 7th
century A.D. 5, 19, 71, later on spread to the provinces
of Ottoman Empire and province of Rumeli in
14 th century. The flower should be distilled
4
immediately after harvest. There are different
kinds of traditional and modern devices for the
distillation of rose oil. The main methods of
extracting the oil from plant material are Hydro-
distillation, Solvent extraction and Supercritical
extraction. Moats and Rehynolds 72 had published
their works on the extraction of oil from rose
petals using the techniques of solvent extraction-
(hexane), steam distillation, and high-pressure
carbon dioxide, and reported that the steam-
distilled oil was the least favourable. Supercritical
carbon dioxide extraction of concretes was carried
out by Reverchon et al.,73. This method being easy
is widely used to produce extracts for food and
pharmaceutical uses. It was reported that the total
number of odour units in hydro-distilled oil is
about three times that of the carbon dioxide extract
oil 74.
Therefore, perfumers prefer the hydro-distilled
oil over the CO2-extracted oil; the market value
of CO2-extracted rose oil is only about one-third
the value of hydro-distilled oil 74. The application
of higher pressure and temperature during
distillation plays an important role in essential oil
composition of R. damascena 65. Ozel et al.,75
used three techniques for comparative study,
namely direct thermal desorption (DTD),
superheated water extraction (SWE), and water
distillation (WD), and concluded that the DTD is
a promising method for qualitative analysis of
volatiles of R. damascena. The hydro-distillation
method is suitable and economical for factory oil
production. These results are in conformity with
other researchers 57, 65, 72, 76.
Trade and marketing of essential oils
Essential oils possess the true essence of the
plant. The demand and price of essential oils are
growing consistently in the national and inter-
national markets owing to strong pro-consumer
movement. Thus, essential oils represent a
significant upstream business opportunity fort he
world agricultural sector. In the whole world, the
annual turnover of perfumery, cosmetic and
flavour industry exceeds US $ 6 billion including
more than 100 essential oils 77. India ranks 28th in
imports and 14th in exports in the global trade of
essential oils 77. In 2008, the top 10 exporters of
 Probir Kumar Pal / TEOP 16 (1) 2013 1 - 10
essential oils were the USA, India, France, Brazil,
Indonesia, UK, Germany, China, Argentina, and
Switzerland.
Now, rose oil is one of the most expensive
essential oils in the world market due to low oil
content and lack of natural and synthetic substance
20
. The world production of rose oil and rose
concrete is around 15-20 tons per year 78. Bulgaria
and Turkey are the main producers of rose oil
sharing 80-90% of this product in the world
market 79. France, Italy, Lebanon, India, Russia,
China, Morocco, Iran and Mexico supply the rest
of the world production, and some other Middle
Eastern countries have historically produced rose
oil, but their modern contribution is minimal. In
India, the annual export of rose oil and rose water
raised from 0.47 US$ in 2004-2005 to 1.71 US$
in 2008-2009 (Fig. 1).
Constraints and opportunities
Many researchers 80-84 have reported on the
potential and prospects for growing aromatic roses
in different parts of India. In spite of that, Damask
rose growers are facing the following constraints:
· Rose plants are frost sensitive and have irregular
flowering behaviour.
· The low flower yield and low oil content 85.
· Highly labour intensive especially for picking
Figure 1. Annual export of rose oil and rose water from India (value in US $ million)
(Source: Ministry of commerce & Industry, Govt. of India; www. commerce.nic.in)
5
of flowers.
· Very low oil recovery from existing oil distil-
lation methods.
· The growers are not fully aware about produc-
tion technology.
· High temperature during harvest reduced oil
content of flower 20 due to loss of essential oil
from the trichomes of the petals 64.
· The perfumery and cosmetics industries are
quiet conformist to produce constant quality of
rose oil during the years. However, farmers are
not able to do so.
· There are no definite market and support price
from the government. Thus, big processing unit
holders exploit the farmers.
Nevertheless, there is a great prospect of expan-
sion of Damask rose area in India. Diversity of
India is unparalleled due to the presence of 16
different agro-climatic zones, 10 vegetation zones,
25 biotic provinces and 426 biomes 77. Thus, R.
damascena can be grown in different parts of the
country. Moreover, there is great scope of
utilization of wastelands and slope of hill without
sacrificing the food crops for the burgeoning
population of the country. IHBT, Palampur has
also developed the cost effective distillation
method and mini distillation unit for welfare of
marginal rose growers.
 Probir Kumar Pal / TEOP 16 (1) 2013 1 - 10
Research needs
An integrated multidisciplinary scientific
approach is required to develop good agricultural
practices for boosting up flower production and
enhancing oil content in flower. Studies have to
be conducted on pruning, weed management,
nutrient management, propagation method,
growth regulator, and genetic improvement of
planting material. Inter-specific hybridization
programme should be initiated to develop diseases
and pest resistant varieties.
Beside this, studies on physiological
behaviours and morphological variation are
essential to introduce Damask rose into different
agro-climatic conditions. Research programmes
are needed to increase the Land Equivalent Ratio
(LER) through R. damascena based Inter-
cropping system. Now, the low flower yield, low
6
oil content, and high labour input are the main
problems with rose growers. Thus, more
emphasis should be laid on conducting research
for improvement of efficient production techno-
logy rather than expansion of area. Beside this,
there is need to develop an advance oil distil-
lation technology, which will be cost effective
and economically viable.
Acknowledgements
The author is thankful to Dr. P.S. Ahuja,
Director, IHBT, Palampur for his constant
encouragement for the work. He is also thankful
to Dr. R.D. Singh, Head, Division of Biodiversity
for his constructive suggestions in preparation of
the manuscript. The author acknowledges the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research for
financial support.

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