ABSTRACT

This project work presents the study and design of PLC based Automatic Multistoried Car Parking System.
Automatic Multistoried car parking is an arrangement which is used to park a large number of vehicles in least
possible place. For making this arrangement in a real plan very high technological instruments are required.
In this project a prototype of such a model is made. This prototype model is made for accommodating Four
cars at a time. A motor controlled elevator is used to lift the cars. Controlling of the platforms and checking
the vacancies is done by PLC.
For unparking of car, Pushbuttons is interfaced with the model for selection of required platform. Automation
is done to reduce requirement of space and also to reduce human errors, which in-turn results in highest
security and greatest flexibility. Due to these advantages, this system can be used in hotels, railway stations,
airports where crowding of car is more.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE…………………………………………………………………………………………………….…
…..i
DECLARATION…………………..…………………………………………………………………………….….…
…ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………..…………………….…….......……..……
iii
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………….………………….………..……..…….…
…iv
LIST OF
TABLES………………………………………………………….……………………..………………….…ix
LIST OF
FIGURES…………….……………………………………..…………………..……….……..…………..x-xi
LIST OF SYMBOL………………….......................................................……………………….……..…………..xii
LIST OF
ABBREVIATIONS……...…………………………………………………..………………………..……..xiii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1-4
1.1. Introduction to problem 1
1.2. Objective of project work 2
1.3. Organization of report 3
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF EXISTING SYSTEM 5
2.1. Difficulty in finding vacant space. 5
2.2. Improper Parking 5
CHAPTER 3 WORKING OF PROTOTYPE 6-17
3.1. Working of PLCs 8
3.2. Working of Scada 13
3.3. Working of DC motors 15
3.4. Working of Power supply 16
CHAPTER 4 CONSTRUCTION 18-20
4.1. Phase I 18
4.2. Present parking solutions 18
4.2.1. Integrated parking solution 18
4.2.2. Automated parking system 19
4.2.3. Multilevel car parking system 19
4.3. Material and methodology 20
4.3.1. Components 20
vi
4.3.1.1. DC geared motor 20
4.3.1.2. Push buttons 20
CHAPTER 5 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROL 21-27
5.1. Basic operation 21
5.2. Hard-wired control 22
5.3. Advantages of PLCs 23
5.4. Terminology 23
5.4.1. Sensors 23
5.4.2. Actuators 23
5.5. Discrete inputs and outputs 24
5.6. Analog inputs and outputs 24
5.7. CPU 24
5.8. Memory size and types 24
5.9. Software, hardware and firmware 25
5.10. Ladder logic programming 25
5.11. PLC scan 26
CHAPTER 6 SCADA 28-39
6.1. Real time 28
6.2. What does Scada mean? 31
6.3. Architecture 31
6.3.1. Hardware architecture 31
6.3.2. Software architecture 32
6.3.3. Communications 33
6.3.4. Interfacing 33
6.3.5. Scalability 34
6.3.6. Redundancy 34
6.4. Functionality 35
6.4.1. Access Control 35
6.4.2. MMI 35
6.4.3. Trending 35
vii
6.4.4. Alarm Handling 36
6.4.5. Logging/Archiving 36
6.4.6. Report generation 36
6.4.7. Automation 36
6.5. Application Development 36
6.5.1. Configuration 37
6.5.2. Development Tools 37
6.5.3. Object handling 37
6.6. Evolution 37
6.7. Engineering 38
6.8. Potentials benefits of scada 38
CHAPTER 7 RELAY 40-44
7.1. Working 40
7.2. Types of relays 40
7.2.1. Electro-mechanical relay 41
7.2.2. Solid state relay 43
7.3. A relay contact life 44
CHAPTER 8 MISCELLANEOUS COMPONENTS 45-56
8.1. Push buttons 45
8.1.1. Types of push buttons 45
8.1.2. Uses 46
8.2. Free wheel 47
8.3. Wheel 51
8.3.1. Specifications 48
8.4. Conveyor belt 48
8.4.1. Working Principle 49
8.5. DC geared motor 50
8.5.1. Working principle 51
viii
CHAPTER 9 SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLY 52-61
9.1. Working principle 52
9.2. Topologies of smps 52
9.2.1. DC to DC converter 53
9.2.2. AC to DC converter 54
9.2.3. Fly back converter 55
9.2.4. Forward converter 56
CHAPTER 10 CODING & SOFTWARE 57-62
10.1. WPLSOFT 57
10.2. coding 58
CHAPTER 11 RESULTS AND CONCLUTIONS 63
11.1. Result and conclusion 63
REFERENCES 64
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 5.1 Scanning process
Table 5.2 Scan time
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Improper parking
Figure 3.1 Power supply rack
Figure 3.2 Back panel
Figure 3.3 CPU
Figure 3.4 CPU operating cycle
Figure 3.5 I/O system
Figure 3.6 Programming a plc
Figure 3.7 Scada programming
Figure 3.8 DC motor
Figure 4.1 Integrated parking system
Figure 4.2 Automated parking system
Figure 4.3 Multi-level parking system
Figure 5.1 PLC
Figure 5.2 PLC operation
Figure 6.1 Typical hardware system
Figure 6.2 Generic software architecture
Figure 7.1 Relay
Figure 7.2 Electro-mechanical Relay
Figure 7.3 Solid state relay
Figure 8.1 Push button
Figure 8.2 Free wheel
Figure 8.3 Wheel
Figure 8.4 Conveyor belt
xi
Figure 8.5 DC motor
Figure 9.1 SMPS
Figure 9.2 DC to DC converter
Figure 9.3 AC to DC converter
Figure 9.4 FLY-BACK converter
Figure 9.5 Forward converter
Figure 10.1 Coding
Figure 10.2 Coding
Figure 10.3 Coding
Figure 10.4 Coding
Figure 10.5 Coding
xii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
= Equal
+ve Positive
-ve Negative
≤ Less than or equal
≥ Greater than or equal
≠ Not equal
≈ Equivalent
xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
PLC Programmable logic controller
SCADA Supervisory control and data acquisition
CPU Computer processing unit
I/P Input
LAD Ladder logic
k Kilo
CU Count up
CD Count down
I/O Input/output
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Automatic multistoried car parking system is very essential in the modern world
where number of vehicles is increasing day by day and parking spaces in public as
well as private areas are not sufficient. This project deals with a similar problem and
as a solution, the system is developed wherein anyone can park more number of
vehicles in a smaller space. Also by such arrangement, parking will be done
systematically. Unlike any other multistoried parking, this parking system is
semicircular in shape due to which availability of space for parking gets increased.
Since it is completely automated system human errors are negligible and hence
system is more reliable. This project makes use of a „DVP 14 SS „ PLC for
controlling purpose, simple DC geared motors for circular as well as vertical
movements of lift, Pushbuttons are used for operation and Relay board to drive the
motors. High torque motor is required for rotational movement of lift.
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO PROBLEM
India is facing a new problem nowadays – lack of sufficient parking space. With
families getting smaller and the total number of motor vehicles exceeding the total
number of heads per family, the parking scenario is woefully falling short of the
current requirements in the country. The situation is such that on any given working
day approximately 40% of the roads in urban India are taken up for just parking the
cars. The problem has been further exacerbated by the fact that nowadays even people
from low income group are able to own cars. The number of families with cars has
become much more than what the country is able to manage.
As it is, the cities in India are highly congested and on top of that the parked cars
claim a lot of space that could otherwise be used in a better way. Thanks to poor, and
at times zero, navigability, Indian cities are regarded as some of the worst options for
living. One can also add the issue of pollution to this mix and understand the enormity
of the crisis. In this context it needs to be understood that the Indian cities, with the
possible exception of Chandigarh, were never planned in such a way so as to
2
accommodate a deluge of cars as is the situation now. The apathy of present day
urban planners has only made the situation worse.
1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT WORK
a) The aim of this project (under an B.Tech. programme) is to design and
build a prototype car park system with PLC SCADA.
b) To develop an intelligent, user friendly automated car parking system
which reduces the manpower, traffic congestion and fuel consumption of the
vehicle.
c) To offer safe and secure parking slots within limited area.
1.3 ORGANIZTION OF REPORT
Chapters Short description

2 Review of existing
system
-Study of existing system
Demand for parking in the areas of Indian cities is twice the supply.
Acute shortage of parking supply is seen in commercial areas;
indiscriminate parking impedes the free flow of traffic and causes
accidents.
3 Working prototype
-Explanation of working model
PLC is used in the control of the prototype of the automated parking
system. DC motors and Push buttons are used to provide movements to
transport the vehicle in the parking system. The main advantage of this
system are space optimization, cost effectiveness and security.
3
Chapters Short description

4 Construction During this period detail market survey has been done to learn available
parking systems and their utility also their literatures of different types of
parking systems and its difference between have been observed.
5 Programmable
logic control -Study of PLC
A programmable logic controller (PLC), also referred to as programmable
controller, is the name given to a type of computer commonly used in
commercial and industrial control applications.
6 SCADA SCADA systems are used to monitor and control a plant or equipment in
industries such as telecommunications, water and waste control, energy,
oil and gas refining and transportation. it is a purely software package that
is positioned on top of hardware to which it is interfaced, in general via
PLCs, or other commercial hardware modules.
7 RELAY Relays are switches that open and close circuits electromechanically or
electronically. They control one electrical circuit by opening and closing
contacts in another circuit. When a relay contact is normally open (NO),
there is an open contact when the relay is not energized. When a relay
contact is Normally Closed (NC), there is a closed contact when the relay
is not energized. In either case, applying electrical current to the contacts
will change their state.
8 Miscellaneous
components Miscellaneous components are the various components used in project
and each component have its own significance and certain operation.
Various components used in project are: -
-Push buttons
-Free wheel
-Wheel
-DC motor
4
Chapters Short description

9 SMPS Electronic power supply integrated with the switching regulator for
converting the electrical power efficiently from one form to another form
with desired characteristics is called as Switch-mode power supply. It is
used to obtain regulated DC output voltage from unregulated AC or DC
input voltage.
10 Software and
coding
WPLSoft is a software for PLC (Programmable logic controller). When
PLC is in operation, use WPLSoft to monitor the set value or temporarily
saved value in timer (T), counter (C), and register (D) and force On/Off of
output contacts. PLC is a control system using electronic operations.
5
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF EXISTING SYSTEM
2.1 DIFFICULTY IN FINDING VACANT SPACE
Quickly finding a vacant space for parking of car especially on weekend or
public holidays is very difficult task. Stadium or shopping malls are crowed on
holidays and weekends which results into insufficient area for car parking.
2.2 IMPROPER PARKING
Improper car parking is, when a car is not parked correctly in allocated
parking area. Due Improper car parking the space allocated for parking will not be
used in proper manner. This may create traffic congestion.
Figure 2.1 Improper parking

6
CHAPTER 3
WORKING PROTOTYPE
When car is entered in the pallet of escalator, the ground man presses the
pushbutton. After receiving the signal, PLC checks the other status and select the
building no and the floor no (Ground, 1st, 2nd floor) as per the programming of
PLC. After detection of parking slot, PLC gives the signal to relay board. Relay
board is used as a driver to drive low voltage dc motor. High torque dc motor pulls
the lift in upward direction with the help of pulley. This motor brings the lift in front
of designated floor. When lift reach to the parking area then the PLC checks the
status of the motor driver and gives the signal to the motor system. motor system
pushes the pallet in the parking area. When the car is parked inside the parking area
then PLC again sends the signal to the motor driver for reverse action of motor and
system to regain original position and in between the operation if you press any
other key it will not affect the working of parking system unless it gets free from its
previous operation.
Imagine the time that automatic smart parking systems would save you. Every time
you enter your office building you have to find a parking space and spend time
walking in and out of the lot as well. Imagine how much time it is costing you. Even
if you just spend 5 minutes a day to park that translates to you spending more than a
whole day just parking every year. If you calculate the time you spend walking in
and out of the parking lot, searching for space and such it will be easily more than
the above amount. Through this system we can save a lot of time. Here, PLC is used
in the control of the prototype of the automated parking system. DC motors and
Push buttons are used to provide movements to transport the vehicle in the parking
system. The main advantage of this system are space optimization, cost effectiveness
and security.
3.1 WORKING OF PLCs
A programmable logic controller is a specialized computer used to control
machines and processes. It therefore shares common terms with typical PCs like
central processing unit, memory, software and communications. Unlike a personal
computer though the PLC is designed to survive in a rugged industrial atmosphere
and to be very flexible in how it interfaces with inputs and outputs to the real world.
The components that make a PLC work can be divided into three core areas.
The power supply and rack
The central processing unit (CPU)
The input/output (I/O) section
PLCs come in many shapes and sizes. They can be so small as to fit in your shirt
pocket while more involved controls systems require large PLC racks. Smaller PLCs
(a.k.a. “bricks”) are typically designed with fixed I/O points. For our consideration,
we’ll look at the more modular rack based systems. It’s called “modular” because the
rack can accept many different types of I/O modules that simply slide into the rack
and plug in.
The rack is the component that holds everything together. Depending on the needs of
the control system it can be ordered in different sizes to hold more modules. Like a
human spine the rack has a backplane at the rear which allows the cards to
communicate with the CPU. The power supply plugs into the rack as well and
10
supplies a regulated DC power to other modules that plug into the rack. The most
popular power supplies work with 120 VAC or 24 VDC sources.
3.1.1 CPU : The brain of the whole PLC is the CPU module. This module typically
lives in the slot beside the power supply. Manufacturers offer different types of CPUs
based on the complexity needed for the system.
The CPU consists of a microprocessor, memory chip and other integrated circuits to
control logic, monitoring and communications. The CPU has different operating
modes. In programming mode, it accepts the downloaded logic from a PC. The CPU
is then placed in run mode so that it can execute the program and operate the process.

Since a PLC is a dedicated controller it will only process this one program over and
over again. One cycle through the program is called a scan time and involves reading
the inputs from the other modules, executing the logic based on these inputs and then
updated the outputs accordingly. The scan time happens very quickly (in the range of
1/1000th of a second). The memory in the CPU stores the program while also holding
the status of the I/O and providing a means to store values.
3.1.2 I/O SYSTEM: The I/O system provides the physical connection between the
equipment and the PLC. Opening the doors on an I/O card reveals a terminal strip
where the devices connect.
3.1.3 PROGRAMMING A PLC
In these modern times a PC with specially dedicated software from the PLC
manufacturer is used to program a PLC. The most widely used form of programming
is called ladder logic. Ladder logic uses symbols, instead of words, to emulate the
real world relay logic control, which is a relic from the PLC's history. These symbols
are interconnected by lines to indicate the flow of current through relay like contacts
and coils. Over the years the number of symbols has increased to provide a high level
of functionality.
The completed program looks like a ladder but in actuality it represents an electrical
circuit. The left and right rails indicate the positive and ground of a power supply.
The rungs represent the wiring between the different components which in the case of
a PLC are all in the virtual world of the CPU. So if you can understand how basic
electrical circuits work then you can understand ladder logic.
In this simplest of examples, a digital input (like a button connected to the first
position on the card) when it is pressed turns on an output which energizes an
indicator light.
The completed program is downloaded from the PC to the PLC using a special cable
that’s connected to the front of the CPU. The CPU is then put into run mode so that it
can start scanning the logic and controlling the outputs.

3.2 WORKING OF SCADA

SCADA (Supervisory control and data acquisition) is an industrial automation
control system at the core of many modern industries, including:
Energy
Food and beverage
Manufacturing
Oil and gas
Power
Recycling
Transportation
Water and waste water
And many more
SCADA systems are used by private companies and public-sector service providers.
SCADA works well in many different types of enterprises because they can range
from simple configurations to large, complex projects.
Virtually anywhere you look in today's world, there is some type of SCADA system
running behind the scenes, whether at your local supermarket, refinery, waste water
treatment plant, or even your own home.
A SCADA system performs four functions:
1. Data acquisition
2. Networked data communication
3. Data presentation
4. Control
These functions are performed by four kinds of SCADA components:
1. Sensors (either digital or analog) and control relays that directly interface with the
managed system.
2. Remote telemetry units (RTUs). These are small computerized units deployed in
the field at specific sites and locations. RTUs (Remote Telemetry Units) serve as local
collection points for gathering reports from sensors and delivering commands to
control relays.
3. SCADA master units. These are larger computer consoles that serve as the central
processor for the SCADA system. Master units provide a human interface to the
system and automatically regulate the managed system in response to sensor inputs.
4. The communications network that connects the SCADA master unit to the RTUs
in the field.
3.3 WORKING OF DC MOTORS
A DC motor is any of a class of electrical machines that converts direct current
electrical power into mechanical power. The most common types rely on the forces
produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some internal
mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic, to periodically change the
direction of current flow in part of the motor. Most types produce rotary motion; a
linear motor directly produces force and motion in a straight line.
DC motors were the first type widely used, since they could be powered from existing
direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's speed can be
controlled over a wide range, using either a variable supply voltage or by changing
the strength of current in its field windings. Small DC motors are used in tools, toys,
and appliances. The universal can operate on direct current but is a lightweight motor
used for portable power tools and appliances. Larger DC motors are used in
propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator and hoists, or in drives for steel rolling mills.
The advent of power electronics has made replacement of DC motors with AC
motors possible in many applications.
Workings of a brushed electric motor with a two-pole rotor (arm ature) and permanent
magnet stator. "N" and "S" designate polarities on the inside axis faces of
the magnets; the outside faces have opposite polarities. The + and - signs show where
the DC current is applied to the commutator which supplies current to
the armature coils

3.3.1 GEAR MOTOR

A gear motor is a specific type of electrical motor that is designed to produce
high torque while maintaining a low horsepower, or low speed, motor output. Gear
motors can be found in many different applications, and are probably used in many
devices in your home.
Gear motors are commonly used in devices such as can openers, garage door openers,
washing machine time control knobs and even electric alarm clocks. Common
commercial applications of a gear motor include hospital beds, commercial jacks,
cranes and many other applications that are too many to list.
3.3.1.1 USES:
Gear Motors are used in a lot of equipment including conveyor-belt drives,
home appliances, handicap and platform lifts, medical and laboratory equipment,
machine tools, packaging machinery and printing presses, case erectors, box taper, hot
melt glue pumps, heat shrink tunnels, tape dispensers and conveyor drives.
3.4 WORKING OF POWER SUPPLY
A power supply is an electronic device that supplies electric energy to
an electrical load. The primary function of a power supply is to convert one form of
electrical energy to another and, as a result, power supplies are sometimes referred to
17
as electric power converters. Some power supplies are discrete, stand-alone devices,
whereas others are built into larger devices along with their loads. Examples of the
latter include power supplies found in desktop computers and consumer
electronics devices.
Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any
energy it consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on
its design, a power supply may obtain energy from various types of energy sources,
including electrical energy transmission systems, energy storage devices such as
a batteries and fuel cells, electromechanical systems such
as generators and alternators, solar power converters, or another power supply.
All power supplies have a power input, which receives energy from the energy
source, and a power output that delivers energy to the load. In most power supplies
the power input and output consist of electrical connectors or hardwired circuit
connections, though some power supplies employ wireless energy transfer in lieu of
galvanic connections for the power input or output. Some power supplies have other
types of inputs and outputs as well, for functions such as external monitoring and
control.
To provide a useable low voltage the PSU needs to do a number of things: -
Reduce the Mains AC (Alternating current) voltage to a lower level.
Convert this lower voltage from AC to DC (Direct current)
Regulate the DC output to compensate for varying load (current demand)
Provide protection against excessive input/output voltages.

4.2 PRESENT PARKING SOLUTIONS

4.2.1 Integrated Car Parking Solution
Customize application suitable for various types of landscapes and buildings
Structures available below the ground. Ease control by soft touch on the
operation panel screen. When a vehicle stops in front of the entrance,
automatically door opens and trolley transfers the vehicle to parking cell.
Misleading of this solution is it should be undergrounded. By this investment
increases and lot much space utilization is to be made.

4.2.2 Automated Car Parking

The driver will pull the car onto a computer- controlled pallet, turn it off, and
get out. The pallet is then lowered into the abyss of parking spaces, much like a
freight elevator for cars, except it can also move sideways, not just up and down.
There's an array of laser sensors that let the system know if the car doesn't fit on the
pallet (although it's big enough to fit a mid-sized SUV),. The system retrieves the car
when the driver returns, although this might take some time and creative
maneuvering. Cars are parked two deep in some spots, so a specially tailored software
system has to figure out the logistics of shuffling the various vehicles around as
needed to retrieve a specific car. And for those, like me, who find it difficult to turn
their vehicle around after pulling out of a space, there's an underground turntable that
turns the car around before it is lifted to the surface, so the car is facing out into the
driveway, ready to go. Backing out of garages or parking spaces is one of the most
common causes of accidents.

4.2.3 Multi-Level Parking

A multi-level car parking is essentially a building with number of floors or
layers for the cars to be parked. The different levels are accessed through interior or
exterior ramps. An automated car parking has mechanized lifts which transport the
car to the different levels. Therefore, these car parks need less building volume and
less ground space and thus save on the cost of the building. It also does away the
need for employing too many personal to monitor the place. In an automated car
parking, the cars are left at the entrance and are further transported inside the
building by robot trolley. Similarly, they are retrieved by the trolley and placed at the
exit for the owner to drive away.
4.3 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
4.3.1 Components
4.3.1.1 DC geared motor (24volts): It’s a mechanically commutated electric
motor, powered by direct current (DC). Generally, DC geared motor runs in
both directions, but in this prototype model it is fixed uni- directionally to
avoid vibrations of the systems.
4.3.1.2 Push buttons: A push-button is a simple switch mechanism for
controlling some aspect of a machine or a process. Buttons are typically made
out of hard material, usually plastic or metal. There are totally 8 pushbuttons.
4.3.1.4 Free Wheel: A freewheel or overrunning clutch is a device in
a transmission that disengages the driveshaft from the driven shaft when the
driven shaft rotates faster than the driveshaft. An overdrive is sometimes
mistakenly called a freewheel.
5.1 BASIC PLC OPERATION
The basic elements of a PLC include input modules or points, a central
processing unit (CPU), output modules or points, and a programming device.
The type of input modules or points used by a PLC depends upon the types of
input devices used.
Some input modules or points respond to digital inputs, also inputs, which are either on
or off. Other modules or inputs res pcoanllde dto d aisncarleotge
22
Input
Module
Central Processing Unit
(CPU)
Programming
Device
Operator
Interface

signals. These analog signals represent machine or process range of voltage or current
values. The primary function o fc ao nPdLitCio’nss i naps uat sceirncsuoirtrsy i nitso ltoog
cico snivgenrat lst hthe ast icganna blse pursoevdi bdyed t hbey C PthUes. e various
switches and
eTxheec uCtePsU a setvoarleuda tperso gthraem s. taTthues CoPf Uin tphuetns,
seonudtps ustisg, naanlsd too tuhpedr atvea rtihaeb lsetsa tuass oift outputs.
vOaulutpeust thmaot dcaunle bs ec uosnevde trot ccoonnttrrooll vsaigrinoaulss
ofurotpmu t tdheev iCcePsU. into digital or analog
The programming device is used to enter or change the PLC’s program or to
monitor or change stored values. Once entered, the program and associated
variables are stored in the CPU.
In addition to these basic elements, a PLC system may also incorporate an
operator interface device to simplify monitoring of the machine or process.

5.2 HARD-WIRED CONTROL

Prior to PLCs, many control tasks were performed by contactors, control
relays, and other electromechanical devices. This is often referred to as hardwired
control. Circuit diagrams had to be designed, electrical components
specified and installed and wiring lists created. Electricians would then wire the
components necessary to perform a specific task. If an error was made, the wires
had to be reconnected correctly. A change in function or system expansion
required extensive component changes and rewiring.

5.3 ADVANTAGES OF PLCs

PLCs not only are capable of performing the same tasks as hard-wired
control, but are also capable of many more complex applications. In addition,
the PLC program and electronic communication lines replace much of the
interconnecting wires required by hard-wired control. Therefore, hard-wiring,
though still required to connect field devices, is less intensive. This also makes
correcting errors and modifying the application easier.
Some of the additional advantages of PLCs are as follows:
Smaller physical size than hard-wire solutions.
Easier and faster to make changes.
PLCs have integrated diagnostics and override functions.
Diagnostics are centrally available.
Applications can be immediately documented.
Applications can be duplicated faster and less expensively.
5.4 TERMINOLOGY
Developing an understanding of PLCs requires learning some basic
terminology. This section provides an overview of commonly used PLC
terms, beginning with the terms sensor and actuator.
5.4.1 SENSORS
Sensors are devices that convert a physical condition into an electrical
signal for use by controller, such as a PLC. Sensors are connected to the input
of a PLC. A pushbutton is one example of a sensor that is often connected to a
PLC input. An electrical signal indicating the condition (open or closed) of the
pushbutton contacts is sent from the pushbutton to the PLC.
5.4.2 ACTUATORS
Actuators are devices that convert an electrical signal from a controller,
such as a PLC, into a physical condition. Actuators are connected to the PLC
output. A motor starter is one example of an actuator that is often connected to a
PLC output. Depending on the status of the PLC output, the motor starter either
provides power to the motor or prevents power from flowing to the motor.
24
5.5 DISCRETE INPUTS AND OUTPUTS
Discrete inputs and outputs, also referred to as digital inputs and outputs,
are either on or off. Pushbuttons, toggle switches, limit switches, proximity
switches, and relay contacts are examples of devices often connected to PLC
discrete inputs.
Solenoids, relay and contactor coils, and indicator lamps are examples of devices
often connected to PLC discrete outputs.
In the on condition, a discrete input or output is represented internal to the PLC
as a logic 1. In the off condition, a discrete input or output is represented as a
logic 0.
5.6 ANALOG INPUTS AND OUTPUTS
Analog inputs and outputs are continuous, variable signals. Typical analog
signals vary from 0 to 20 milliamps, 4 to 20 milliamps, or 0 to 10 volts.
In the following example, a level transmitter monitors the level of liquid in a
storage tank and sends an analog signal to a PLC input. An analog output from the
PLC sends an analog signal to a panel meter calibrated to show the level of
liquid in the tank. Two other analog outputs, not shown here, are connected to
current-to-pneumatic transducers that control air-operated flow- control valves.
This allows the PLC to automatically control the flow of liquid into and out of the
storage tank.
5.7 CPU
The central processor unit (CPU) is a microprocessor system that contains the
system memory and is the PLC’s decision- making unit. The CPU monitors
inputs, outputs, and other variables and makes decisions based on instructions
held in its program memory.
5.8 MEMORY TYPES AND SIZE
Kilo, abbreviated k, normally refers to 1000 units. When talking about
computer or PLC memory, however, 1k means 1024.
Random Access Memory (RAM) is memory that allows data to be written to and
read from any address(location). RAM is used as a temporary storage area.
RAM is volatile, meaning that the data stored in RAM will be lost if power is
lost. A battery backup is required to avoid losing data in the event of a power
loss.
Read Only Memory (ROM) is a type of memory used were it is necessary to
protect data or programs from accidental erasure. The data stored in ROM can
25
be read, but not changed. In addition, ROM memory is nonvolatile. This means
that information will not be lost as the result of a loss of electrical power. ROM is
normally used to store the programs that define the capabilities of the PLC.
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM) provides a level of
security against unauthorized or unwanted changes in a program. EPROMs are
designed so that data stored in them can be read, but not easily altered.
Changing EPROM data requires a special effort. UVEPROMs (ultraviolet
erasable programmable read only memory) can only be erased with an
ultraviolet light. EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read only
memory), can only be erased electrically.
5.9 SOFTWARE, HARDWARE AND FIRMWARE
Software is the name given to computer instructions, regardless of the
programming language. Essentially, software includes the instructions or
programs that direct hardware.
Hardware is the name given to all the physical components of a system. The
PLC, the programming device, and the connecting cable are examples of
hardware.
Firmware is user or application specific software burned into EPROM and
delivered as part of the hardware. Firmware gives the PLC its basic
functionality.
5.10 LADDER LOGIC PROGRAMMING
The degree of complexity of a PLC program complexity of the application, the number
and type ofd eipnepnudt sa nudp oonu tpthuet devices, and the types of instructions
used.
Ladder logic (LAD) is one programming language used with PLCs. Ladder
logic incorporates programming functions that are graphically displayed to
resemble symbols used in hard-wired control diagrams.
The left vertical line of a ladder logic diagram represents the power or
energized conductor. The output coil instruction represents the neutral or return
path of the circuit. The right vertical line, which represents the return path on a
hard-wired control line diagram, is omitted. Ladder logic diagrams are read
from left-to-right and top-to-bottom. Rungs are sometimes referred to as
networks. A network may have several control elements, but only one output
coil.
5.10.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE
The ladder diagram was a diagram language for automation developed in
the WWII period, which is the oldest and most widely adopted language in
26
automation. In the initial stage, there were only A (normally open) contact, B
(normally closed) contact, output coil, timer and counter…the sort of basic
devices on the ladder diagram (see the power panel that is still used today). After
the invention of programmable logic controllers (PLC), the devices displayable
on the ladder diagram are added with differential contact, latched coil and the
application commands which were not in a traditional power panel, for example
the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division operations.
The working principles of the traditional ladder diagram and PLC ladder diagram
are basically the same. The only difference is that the symbols on the traditional
ladder diagram are more similar to its original form, and PLC ladder diagram
adopts the symbols that are easy to recognize and shown on computer or data
sheets. In terms of the logic of the ladder diagram, there are combination logic and
sequential logic.
5.11 PLC SCAN
PLC utilizes a standard scan method when evaluating user program.
Scanning process:
Scan input status Read the physical input status and store the data in internal
memory.
Evaluate user program Evaluate the user program with data stored in internal
memory. Program scanning starts from up to down and left to
right until reaching the end of the program.
Refresh the outputs Write the evaluated data to the physical outputs
5.11.1 INPUT SIGNAL
PLC reads the ON/OFF status of each input and stores the status into
memory before evaluating the user program.
Once the external input status is stored into internal memory, any change at
the external inputs will not be updated until next scan cycle starts
27
Scan time:
The duration of the full scan cycle (read, evaluate, write) is called “scan time.”
With more I/O or longer program, scan time becomes longer.
Read
scan time
PLC measures its own scan time and stores the value (0.1ms) in
register D1010, minimum scan time in register D1011, and maximum
scan time in register D1012.
Measure
scan time
Scan time can also be measured by toggling an output every scan and
then measuring the pulse width on the output being toggled.
Calculate
scan time
Scan time can be calculated by adding the known time required for
each instruction in the user program. For scan time information of
individual instruction please refer to Ch3 in this manual.
5.11.2 OUTPUT
When END command is reached the program evaluation is complete. The
output memory is transferred to the external physical outputs.
28
CHAPTER 6
SCADA
SCADA: Acronym for supervisory control and data acquisition, a computer system
for gathering and analyzing real time data. SCADA systems are used to monitor and
control a plant or equipment in industries such as telecommunications, water and
waste control, energy, oil and gas refining and transportation. A SCADA system
gathers information, such as where a leak on a pipeline has occurred, transfers the
information back to a central site, alerting the home station that the leak has occurred,
carrying out necessary analysis and control, such as determining if the leak is critical,
and displaying the information in a logical and organized fashion. SCADA systems
can be relatively simple, such as one that monitors environmental conditions of a
small office building, or incredibly complex, such as a system that monitors all the
activity in a nuclear power plant or the activity of a municipal water system.
SCADA systems were first used in the 1960s.
6.1 REAL TIME
Occurring immediately. The term is used to describe a number of different
computer features. For example, real-time operating systems are systems that respond
to input immediately. They are used for such tasks as navigation, in which the
computer must react to a steady flow of new information without interruption. Most
general-purpose operating systems are not real-time because they can take a few
seconds, or even minutes, to react.
Real time can also refer to events simulated by a computer at the same speed that they
would occur in real life. In graphics animation, for example, a real-time program
would display objects moving across the screen at the same speed that they would
actually move.
Last modified: Friday, January 04, 2002
29
A programmable machine. The two principal characteristics of a computer are:
It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner.
It can execute a pre-recorded list of instructions (a program).
Modern computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery -- wires,
transistors, and circuits -- is called hardware; the instructions and data are called
software.
All general-purpose computers require the following hardware components:
a) memory : Enables a computer to store, at least temporarily, data and
programs.
b) mass storage device : Allows a computer to permanently retain large
amounts of data. Common mass storage devices include disk drives
and tape drives.
c) input device : Usually a keyboard and mouse, the input device is the
conduit through which data and instructions enter a computer.
d) output device : A display screen, printer, or other device that lets you
see what the computer has accomplished.
e) central processing unit (CPU): The heart of the computer, this is the
component that actually executes instructions.
In addition to these components, many others make it possible for the basic
components to work together efficiently. For example, every computer requires a bus
that transmits data from one part of the computer to another.
Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is
considerable overlap:
a) personal computer : A small, single-user computer based on a
microprocessor. In addition to the microprocessor, a personal computer
has a keyboard for entering data, a monitor for displaying information,
and a storage device for saving data.
b) workstation : A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like
a personal computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and a
higher-quality monitor.
30
c) minicomputer : A multi-user computer capable of supporting from 10
to hundreds of users simultaneously.
d) mainframe : A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting
many hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
e) supercomputer : An extremely fast computer that can perform
hundreds of millions of instructions per second.
operating system
Last modified: Friday, January 04, 2002
The most important program that runs on a computer. Every general-purpose
computer must have an operating system to run other programs. Operating systems
perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to
the display screen, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, and controlling
peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
For large systems, the operating system has even greater responsibilities and powers.
It is like a traffic cop -- it makes sure that different programs and users running at the
same time do not interfere with each other. The operating system is also responsible
for security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not access the system.
Operating systems can be classified as follows:
a) multi-user : Allows two or more users to run programs at the same
time. Some operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of
concurrent users.
b) multiprocessing : Supports running a program on more than one CPU.
c) multitasking : Allows more than one program to run concurrently.
d) multithreading : Allows different parts of a single program to run
concurrently.
31
e) real time: Responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating
systems, such as DOS and UNIX, are not real-time.
Operating systems provide a software platform on top of which other programs, called
application programs, can run. The application programs must be written to run on
top of a particular operating system. Your choice of operating system, therefore,
determines to a great extent the applications you can run. For PCs, the most popular
operating systems are DOS, OS/2, and Windows, but others are available, such as
Linux.
6.2 What does SCADA MEAN?
SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. As the name
indicates, it is not a full control system, but rather focuses on the supervisory level. As
such, it is a purely software package that is positioned on top of hardware to which it
is interfaced, in general via Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), or other
commercial hardware modules.
SCADA systems are used not only in industrial processes: e.g. steel making, power
generation (conventional and nuclear) and distribution, chemistry, but also in some
experimental facilities such as nuclear fusion. The size of such plants range from a
few 1000 to several 10 thousand input/output (I/O) channels. However, SCADA
systems evolve rapidly and are now penetrating the market of plants with a number of
I/O channels of several 100 K: we know of two cases of near to 1 M I/O channels
currently under development.
SCADA systems used to run on DOS, VMS and UNIX; in recent years all SCADA
vendors have moved to NT and some also to Linux.
6.3 ARCHITECTURE
This section describes the common features of the SCADA products that have
been evaluated at CERN in view of their possible application to the control systems of
the LHC detectors.
6.3.1 HARDWARE One distinguish AesR twCoH bITasEicC lTayUeRrsE in a SCADA
system: the "client layer" which
caters for the man machine interaction and the "data server layer" which handles most
of the process data control activities. The data servers communicate with devices in
the field through process controllers. Process controllers, e.g. PLCs, are connected to
the data servers either directly or via networks or fieldbuses that are proprietary (e.g.
Siemens H1), or non-proprietary (e.g. Profibus). Data servers are connected to each
other and to client stations via an Ethernet LAN. The data servers and client stations
are NT platforms but for many products the client stations may also be W95
machines. Fig.1. shows typical hardware architecture.
32
Figure 6.1: Typical Hardware Architecture
6.3.2 SOFTWARE ARCHITECTURE
The products are multi-tasking and are based upon a real-time database (RTDB)
located in one or more servers. Servers are responsible for data acquisition and
handling (e.g. polling controllers, alarm checking, calculations, logging and
archiving) on a set of parameters, typically those they are connected to.

However, it is possible to have dedicated servers for particular tasks, e.g. historian,
data logger, alarm handler. Fig. 2 shows a SCADA architecture that is generic for the
products that were evaluated.
6.3.3 COMMUNICATIONS
Internal Server-cl iCenotm amndu nsiecravteiro-nse rver communication is in general on
a publish-subscribe
and event-driven basis and uses a TCP/IP protocol, i.e., a client application subscribes
to a parameter which is owned by a particular server application and only changes to
that parameter are then communicated to the client application.
TAhcec edsas ttao sDerevveircse sp oll the controllers at a user defined polling rate. The
polling rate
may be different for different parameters. The controllers pass the requested
parameters to the data servers. Time stamping of the process parameters is typically
performed in the controllers and this time-stamp is taken over by the data server. If
the controller and communication protocol used support unsolicited data transfer, then
the products will support this too.
The products provide communication drivers for most of the common PLCs and
widely used field-buses, e.g., Modbus. Of the three fieldbuses that are recommended
at CERN, both Profibus and Worldfip are supported but CANbus often not .Some of
the drivers are based on third party products (e.g., Applicom cards) and therefore have
additional cost associated with them. VME on the other hand is generally not
supported.
34
A single data server can support multiple communications protocols: it can generally
support as many such protocols as it has slots for interface cards.
The effort required to develop new drivers is typically in the range of 2-6 weeks
depending on the complexity and similarity with existing drivers, and a driver
development toolkit is provided for this.
6.3.4 INTERFACING
Application Interfaces The provision of OPC c/l iOenpte nfunnecstsi o nality for SCADA
to access devices in an open
and standard manner is developing. There still seems to be a lack of
devices/controllers, which provide OPC server software, but this improves rapidly as
most of the producers of controllers are actively involved in the development of this
standard. OPC has been evaluated by the CERN-IT-CO group.
The products also provide
an Open Data Base Connectivity (ODBC) interface to the data in the
archive/logs, but not to the configuration database,
an ASCII import/export facility for configuration data,
a library of APIs supporting C, C++, and Visual Basic (VB) to access data in
the RTDB, logs and archive. The API often does not provide access to the
product's internal features such as alarm handling, reporting, trending, etc.
The PC products provide support for the Microsoft standards such as Dynamic Data
Exchange (DDE) which allows e.g. to visualise data dynamically in an EXCEL
spreadsheet, Dynamic Link Library (DLL) and Object Linking and Embedding
(OLE).
Database
The configuration data are stored in a database that is logically centralised but
physically distributed and that is generally of a proprietary format.
For performance reasons, the RTDB resides in the memory of the servers and is also
of proprietary format.
The archive and logging format is usually also proprietary for performance reasons,
but some products do support logging to a Relational Data Base Management System
(RDBMS) at a slower rate either directly or via an ODBC interface.
6 . 3 . 5 SScCaAlaLbiAliBtyI LisI TunYd erstood as the possibility to extend the SCADA
based control
system by adding more process variables, more specialised servers (e.g. for alarm
handling) or more clients. The products achieve scalability by having multiple data
servers connected to multiple controllers. Each data server has its own configuration
database and RTDB and is responsible for the handling of a sub-set of the process
variables (acquisition, alarm handling, archiving).
6 . 3 . 6 RTehdeu pnrdodauncctys often have built in software redundancy at a server
level, which is
normally transparent to the user. Many of the products also provide more complete
redundancy solutions if required.
35
6.4 FUNCTIONALITY
6.4.1 AUsCeCrsE aSreS aCllOocNatTeRd OtoL g r oups, which have defined read/write
access privileges to
the process parameters in the system and often also to specific product functionality.
6 . 4 . 2 TMhMe Ip roducts support multiple screens, which can contain combinations of
synoptic diagrams and text.
They also support the concept of a "generic" graphical object with links to process
variables. These objects can be "dragged and dropped" from a library and included
into a synoptic diagram.
Most of the SCADA products that were evaluated decompose the process in "atomic"
parameters (e.g. a power supply current, its maximum value, its on/off status, etc.) to
which a Tag-name is associated. The Tag-names used to link graphical objects to
devices can be edited as required. The products include a library of standard graphical
symbols, many of which would however not be applicable to the type of applications
encountered in the experimental physics community.
Standard windows editing facilities are provided: zooming, re-sizing, scrolling... Online
configuration and customisation of the MMI is possible for users with the
appropriate privileges. Links can be created between display pages to navigate from
one view to another.
6 . 4 . 3 TTRheE NprDodINucGts all provide trending facilities and one can summarise
the common
capabilities as follows:
the parameters to be trended in a specific chart can be predefined or defined
on-line
a chart may contain more than 8 trended parameters or pens and an unlimited
number of charts can be displayed (restricted only by the readability)
real-time and historical trending are possible, although generally not in the
same chart
 historical trending is possible for any archived parameter
zooming and scrolling functions are provided
parameter values at the cursor position can be displayed
The trending feature is either provided as a separate module or as a graphical object
(ActiveX), which can then be embedded into a synoptic display. XY and other
statistical analysis plots are generally not provided.
6 . 4 . 4 AAlLaArmR Mha nHdlAinNgD isL bINasGed on limit and status checking and
performed in the data
servers. More complicated expressions (using arithmetic or logical expressions) can
be developed by creating derived parameters on which status or limit checking is then
performed. The alarms are logically handled centrally, i.e., the information only exists
in one place and all users see the same status (e.g., the acknowledgement), and
36
multiple alarm priority levels (in general many more than 3 such levels) are
supported.
It is generally possible to group alarms and to handle these as an entity (typically
filtering on group or acknowledgement of all alarms in a group). Furthermore, it is
possible to suppress alarms either individually or as a complete group. The filtering of
alarms seen on the alarm page or when viewing the alarm log is also possible at least
on priority, time and group. However, relationships between alarms cannot generally
be defined in a straightforward manner. E-mails can be generated or predefined
actions automatically executed in response to alarm conditions.
6.4.5 TLhOeG teGrmINsG lo/AggRiCngH aInVdI NarGch iving are often used to
describe the same facility.
However, logging can be thought of as medium-term storage of data on disk, whereas
archiving is long-term storage of data either on disk or on another permanent storage
medium. Logging is typically performed on a cyclic basis, i.e., once a certain file size,
time period or number of points is reached the data is overwritten. Logging of data
can be performed at a set frequency, or only initiated if the value changes or when a
specific predefined event occurs. Logged data can be transferred to an archive once
the log is full. The logged data is time-stamped and can be filtered when viewed by a
user. The logging of user actions is in general performed together with either a user
ID or station ID. There is often also a VCR facility to play back archived data.
6 . 4 . 6 ORnEeP cOaRn Tp rGodEuNceE rReApoTrtIsO uNsi n g SQL type queries to
the archive, RTDB or logs.
Although it is sometimes possible to embed EXCEL charts in the report, a "cut and
paste" capability is in general not provided. Facilities exist to be able to automatically
generate, print and archive reports.
6 . 4 . 7 TAhUeT mOaMjoAriTtyI OofN t he products allow actions to be automatically
triggered by
events. A scripting language provided by the SCADA products allows these actions to
be defined. In general, one can load a particular display, send an Email, run a user
defined application or script and write to the RTDB.
The concept of recipes is supported, whereby a particular system configuration can be
saved to a file and then re-loaded at a later date.
Sequencing is also supported whereby, as the name indicates, it is possible to execute
a more complex sequence of actions on one or more devices. Sequences may also
react to external events.
Some of the products do support an expert system but none has the concept of a Finite
State Machine (FSM).
6.5 APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT
6 . 5 . 1 TChOeN dFeIvGelUopRmAeTntI OofN t he applications is typically done in two
stages. First the
process parameters and associated information (e.g. relating to alarm conditions) are
37
defined through some sort of parameter definition template and then the graphics,
including trending and alarm displays are developed, and linked where appropriate to
the process parameters. The products also provide an ASCII Export/Import facility for
the configuration data (parameter definitions), which enables large numbers of
parameters to be configured in a more efficient manner using an external editor such
as Excel and then importing the data into the configuration database.
However, many of the PC tools now have a Windows Explorer type development
studio. The developer then works with a number of folders, which each contains a
different aspect of the configuration, including the graphics.
The facilities provided by the products for configuring very large numbers of
parameters are not very strong. However, this has not really been an issue so far for
most of the products to-date, as large applications are typically about 50K I/O points
and database population from within an ASCII editor such as Excel is still a workable
option.
On-line modifications to the configuration database and the graphics is generally
possible with the appropriate level of privileges.
6.5.2 TDhEeV fEolLloOwPinMg EdeNvTe lTopOmOeLntS t ools are provided as
standard:
a graphics editor, with standard drawing facilities including freehand, lines,
squares circles, etc. It is possible to import pictures in many formats as well as
using predefined symbols including e.g. trending charts, etc. A library of
generic symbols is provided that can be linked dynamically to variables and
animated as they change. It is also possible to create links between views so as
to ease navigation at run-time.
a data base configuration tool (usually through parameter templates). It is in
general possible to export data in ASCII files so as to be edited through an
ASCII editor or Excel.
a scripting language
an Application Program Interface (API) supporting C, C++, VB
a Driver Development Toolkit to develop drivers for hardware that is not
supported by the SCADA product.
6 . 5 . 3 OTBheJ EpCroTd uHctAs NinD LgeINneGra l have the concept of graphical
object classes, which
support inheritance. In addition, some of the products have the concept of an object
within the configuration database. In general the products do not handle objects, but
rather handle individual parameters, e.g., alarms are defined for parameters, logging is
performed on parameters, and control actions are performed on parameters. The
support of objects is therefore fairly superficial.
6.6 EVOLUTION
SCADA vendors release one major version and one to two additional minor
versions once per year. These products evolve thus very rapidly so as to take
advantage of new market opportunities, to meet new requirements of their customers
and to take advantage of new technologies.
38
As was already mentioned, most of the SCADA products that were evaluated
decompose the process in "atomic" parameters to which a Tag-name is associated.
This is impractical in the case of very large processes when very large sets of Tags
need to be configured. As the industrial applications are increasing in size, new
SCADA versions are now being designed to handle devices and even entire systems
as full entities (classes) that encapsulate all their specific attributes and functionality.
In addition, they will also support multi-team development.
As far as new technologies are concerned, the SCADA products are now adopting:
Web technology, ActiveX, Java, etc.
OPC as a means for communicating internally between the client and server
modules. It should thus be possible to connect OPC compliant third party
modules to that SCADA product.
6.7 ENGINEERING
Whilst one should rightly anticipate significant development and maintenance
savings by adopting a SCADA product for the implementation of a control system, it
does not mean a "no effort" operation. The need for proper engineering can not be
sufficiently emphasised to reduce development effort and to reach a system that
complies with the requirements, that is economical in development and maintenance
and that is reliable and robust. Examples of engineering activities specific to the use
of a SCADA system are the definition of:
a library of objects (PLC, device, subsystem) complete with standard object
behaviour (script, sequences, ...), graphical interface and associated scripts for
animation,
templates for different types of "panels", e.g. alarms,
instructions on how to control e.g. a device ...,
 a mechanism to prevent conflicting controls (if not provided with the
SCADA),
alarm levels, behaviour to be adopted in case of specific alarms, ...
6.8 POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF SCADA
The benefits one can expect from adopting a SCADA system for the control of
experimental physics facilities can be summarised as follows:
a rich functionality and extensive development facilities. The amount of effort
invested in SCADA product amounts to 50 to 100 p-years!
the amount of specific development that needs to be performed by the enduser
is limited, especially with suitable engineering.
reliability and robustness. These systems are used for mission critical
industrial processes where reliability and performance are paramount. In
addition, specific development is performed within a well-established
framework that enhances reliability and robustness.
technical support and maintenance by the vendor.
39
For large collaborations, as for the CERN LHC experiments, using a SCADA system
for their controls ensures a common framework not only for the development of the
specific applications but also for operating the detectors. Operators experience the
same "look and feel" whatever part of the experiment they control. However, this
aspect also depends to a significant extent on proper engineering.
40
CHAPTER 7
RELAY
A relay is an electromagnetic switch operated by a relatively small electric current
that can turn on or off a much larger electric current. The heart of a relay is an
electromagnet (a coil of wire that becomes a temporary magnet when electricity flows
through it). You can think of a relay as a kind of electric lever: switch it on with a tiny
current and it switches on ("leverages") another appliance using a much bigger
current. Why is that useful? As the name suggests, many sensors are
incredibly sensitive pieces of electronic equipment and produce only small electric
currents. But often we need them to drive bigger pieces of apparatus that use bigger
currents. Relays bridge the gap, making it possible for small currents to activate larger
ones. That means relays can work either as switches (turning things on and off) or as
amplifiers (converting small currents into larger ones).
Figure 7.1 Relay

7.1 WORKING
Relays are switches that open and close circuits electromechanically or
electronically. Relays control one electrical circuit by opening and closing contacts in
another circuit. As relay diagrams show, when a relay contact is normally open (NO),
there is an open contact when the relay is not energized. When a relay contact is
Normally Closed (NC), there is a closed contact when the relay is not energized. In
either case, applying electrical current to the contacts will change their state.
Relays are generally used to switch smaller currents in a control circuit and do not
usually control power consuming devices except for small motors and Solenoids that
draw low amps. Nonetheless, relays can "control" larger voltages and amperes by
having an amplifying effect because a small voltage applied to a relays coil can result
in a large voltage being switched by the contacts.
Protective relays can prevent equipment damage by detecting electrical abnormalities,
including overcurrent, undercurrent, overloads and reverse currents. In addition,
41
relays are also widely used to switch starting coils, heating elements, pilot lights and
audible alarms.
7.2 TTYhePrEe Sa rOe Ftw RoE bLaAsiYc Scl assifications of relays: Electromechanical
and Solid State.
Electromechanical relays have moving parts, whereas solid state relays have no
moving parts. Advantages of Electromechanical relays include lower cost, no heat
sink is required, multiple poles are available, and they can switch AC or DC with
equal ease.
7 . 2 . 1 BEaLsEicC TRpaOrtMs ECanHdA NIfuCnActLio RnsE LAoYf S
electromechanical relays include:
Frame: Heavy-duty frame that contains and supports the parts of the relay.
Coil: Wire is wound around a metal core. The coil of wire causes an electromagnetic
field.
Armature: A relays moving part. The armature opens and closes the contacts. An
attached spring returns the armature to its original position.
Contacts: The conducting part of the switch that makes (closes) or breaks (opens) a
circuit.

on the energizing side; and the relays contacts are on the contact side. When a relays
coil is energized, current flow through the coil creates a magnetic field. Whether in a
DC unit where the polarity is fixed, or in an AC unit where the polarity changes 120
42
times per second, the basic function remains the same: the magnetic coil attracts a
ferrous plate, which is part of the armature. One end of the armature is attached to the
metal frame, which is formed so that the armature can pivot, while the other end
opens and closes the contacts. Contacts come in a number of different configurations,
depending on the number of Breaks, poles and Throws that make up the relay. For
instance, relays might be described as Single-Pole, Single-Throw (SPST), or Double-
Pole, Single-Throw (DPST). These terms will give an instant indication of the design
and function of different types of relays.
Break -This is the number of separate places or contacts that a switch uses to open or
close a single electrical circuit. All contacts are either single break or double break. A
single break (SB) contact breaks an electrical circuit in one place, while a double
break (DB) contact breaks it in two places. Single break contacts are normally used
when switching lower power devices such as indicating lights. Double break contacts
are used when switching high-power devices such as solenoids.
Pole -This is the number of completely isolated circuits that relays can pass through a
switch. A single-pole contact (SP) can carry current through only one circuit at a time.
A double-pole contact (DP) can carry current through two isolated circuits
simultaneously. The maximum number of poles is 12, depending upon a relays
design.
Throw -This is the number of closed contact positions per pole that are available on a
switch. A switch with a single throw contact can control only one circuit, while a
double-throw contact can control two.
7.2.1.1 TGYePnEer Oal FP RurEpLoAseY RSe lays are electromechanical switches,
usually operated by
a magnetic coil. General purpose relays operate with AC or DC current, at common
voltages such as 12V, 24V, 48V, 120V and 230V, and they can control currents
ranging from 2A-30A. These relays are economical, easy to replace and allow a wide
range of switch configuration.
Machine Control Relays are also operated by a magnetic coil. They are heavy-duty
relays used to control starters and other industrial components. Although they are
more expensive than general purpose relays, they are generally more durable. The
biggest advantage of machine control relays over general purpose relays is the
expandable functionality of Machine Control Relays by the adding of accessories. A
wide selection of accessories is available for machine control relays, including
additional poles, convertible contacts, transient suppression of electrical noise,
latching control and timing attachments.
Reed Relays are a small, compact, fast operating switch design with one contact,
which is NO. Reed Relays are hermetically sealed in a glass envelope, which makes
the contacts unaffected by contaminants, fumes or humidity, allows reliable
switching, and gives contacts a higher life expectancy. The ends of the contact, which
are often plated with gold or another low resistance material to increase conductivity,
are drawn together and closed by a magnet. Reed relays are capable of switching
industrial components such as solenoids, contactors and starter motors. Reed relays
consists of two reeds. When a magnetic force is applied, such as an electromagnet or
coil, it sets up a magnetic field in which the end of the reeds assume opposite polarity.
When the magnetic field is strong enough, the attracting force of the opposite poles
overcomes the stiffness of the reeds and draws them together. When the magnetic
43
force is removed, the reeds spring back to their original, open position. These relays
work very quickly because of the short distance between the reeds.
7.2.2 SOLID STATE RELAYS
Solid state relays consist of an input circuit, a control circuit and an output
circuit. The Input Circuit is the portion of a relays frame to which the control
component is connected. The input circuit performs the same function as the coil of
electromechanical relays. The circuit is activated when a voltage higher than the
relays specified Pickup Voltage is applied to the relays input. The input circuit is
deactivated when the voltage applied is less than the specified minimum Dropout
voltage of the relay. The voltage range of 3 VDC to 32 VDC, commonly used with
most solid-state relays, makes it useful for most electronic circuits. The Control
Circuit is the part of the relay that determines when the output component is energized
or de-energized. The control circuit functions as the coupling between the input and
output circuits. In electromechanical relays, the coil accomplishes this function. A
relays Output Circuit is the portion of the relay that switches on the load and performs
the same function as the mechanical contacts of electrom

7.2.2.1 TYPE OF RELAYS

1. Zero-Switching Relays - relays turns ON the load when the control
(minimum operating) voltage is applied and the voltage of the load is close to
zero. Zero-Switching relays turn OFF the load when the control voltage is
removed and the current in the load is close to zero. Zero-Switching relays are
the most widely used.
44
2. Instant ON Relays - turns ON the load immediately when the pickup voltage
is present. Instant ON Relays allow the load to be turned ON at any point in
it's up and down wave.
3. Peak Switching Relays - turns ON the load when the control voltage is
present, and the voltage of the load is at its peak. Peak Switching relays turn
OFF when the control voltage is removed and the current in the load is close
to zero.
4. Analog Switching Relays - has an infinite number of possible output voltages
within the relays rated range. Analog switching relays have a built in
synchronizing circuit that controls the amount of output voltage as a function
of the input voltage. This allows a Ramp-Up function of time to be on the
load. Analog Switching relays turn OFF when the control voltage is removed
and current in the load is near zero.
7.3 A RELAYS CONTACT LIFE
A relays useful life depends upon its contacts. Once contacts burn out, the relays
contacts or the entire relay has to be replaced. Mechanical Life is the number of
operations (openings and closings) a contact can perform without electrical current. A
relays mechanical life is relatively long, offering up to 1,000,000 operations. A relays
Electrical life is the number of operations (openings and closings) the contacts can
perform with electrical current at a given current rating. A relays Contact electrical
life ratings range from 100,000 to 500,000 cycles.

8.1 PUSH BUTTONS

Push Button Switches consist of a simple electric switch mechanism which
controls some aspect of a machine or a process. Buttons are typically made out of
hard material such as plastic or metal. The surface is usually shaped to accommodate
the human finger or hand, so the electronic switch can be easily depressed or pushed.
Also, most Push Button Switches are also known as biased switches. A biased switch,
can be also considered what we call a "momentary switch" where the user will pushfor
"on" or push-for "off" type. This is also known as a push-to-make (SPST
Momentary) or push-to break (SPST Momentary) mechanism.
Switches with the "push-to-make" (normally-open or NO) mechanism are a type of
push button electrical switch that operates by the switch making contact with the
electronic system when the button is pressed and breaks the current process when the
button is released. An example of this is a keyboard button.
A "push-to-break" (or normally-closed or NC) electronic switch, on the other hand,
breaks contact when the button is pressed and makes contact when it is released.

8.1.1 TYPES OF PUSH BUTTONS

There are many different kinds of pushbutton switches and at Future
Electronics we stock many of the most common types. We carry some of the top
pushbutton switches manufacturers and suppliers including: Altech, C & K, Carling,
Cherry Electric, E-Switch, EECO, Grayhill, Marquardt Switches, NKK Switches,
Schurter and TE Connectivity
Best of all our electronic push button switch offering comes in a range of sizes from
miniature to industrial power switches. There are even illuminated pushbutton
switches available. Use our parametric filters to refine your electric push button
switch search on our website. You can select by number of positions, by circuitry, by
actuator style and by termination among others.
8.1.2 USES OF PUSH BUTTONS
The "push-button" has been utilized in calculators, push-button
telephones, kitchen appliances, and various other mechanical and electronic devices,
home and commercial.
In industrial and commercial applications, push buttons can be connected together by
a mechanical linkage so that the act of pushing one button causes the other button to
be released. In this way, a stop button can "force" a start button to be released. This
method of linkage is used in simple manual operations in which the machine or
process have no electrical circuits for control.
Pushbuttons are often color-coded to associate them with their function so that the
operator will not push the wrong button in error. Commonly used colors are red for
stopping the machine or process and green for starting the machine or process.
Red pushbuttons can also have large heads (called mushroom heads) for easy
operation and to facilitate the stopping of a machine. These pushbuttons are
called emergency stop buttons and are mandated by the electrical code in many
jurisdictions for increased safety. This large mushroom shape can also be found in
buttons for use with operators who need to wear gloves for their work and could not
actuate a regular flush-mounted push button. As an aid for operators and users in
industrial or commercial applications, a pilot light is commonly added to draw the
attention of the user and to provide feedback if the button is pushed. Typically, this
light is included into the center of the pushbutton and a lens replaces the pushbutton
hard center disk. The source of the energy to illuminate the light is not directly tied to
the contacts on the back of the pushbutton but to the action the pushbutton controls. In
this way a start button when pushed will cause the process or machine operation to be
started and a secondary contact designed into the operation or process will close to
turn on the pilot light and signify the action of pushing the button caused the resultant
process or action to start.
47
8.2 FREE WHEEL
A freewheel or overrunning clutch is a device in a transmission that disengages
the driveshaft from the driven shaft when the driven shaft rotates faster than the
driveshaft. An overdrive is sometimes mistakenly called a freewheel, but is otherwise
unrelated.
The condition of a driven shaft spinning faster than its driveshaft exists in
most bicycles when the rider holds his or her feet still, no longer pushing the pedals.
In a fixed-gear bicycle, without a freewheel, the rear wheel would drive the pedals
around.

8.3 WHEEL
A wheel is a circular component that is intended to rotate on an axle bearing. The
wheel is one of the main components of the wheel and axle which is one of the six
simple machines. Wheels, in conjunction with axles, allow heavy objects to be moved
easily facilitating movement or transportation while supporting a load, or performing
labor in machines. Wheels are also used for other purposes, such as a ship's
wheel, steering wheel, potter's wheel and flywheel.
48
8.3.1 WHEEL SPECIFICATION
Diameter - 7cm; Width - 4cm
Shaft Hole - 6mm
Easily fits into a 6mm shaft DC gear motor
Figure 8.3 wheel

8.4 CONVEYER BELT

Belt conveyor is a machine transporting material in a continuous way by friction
drive. It is mainly composed by rack, conveyor belt, belt roll, tensioning device and
gearing. It can form a material delivery process between the initial feeding point and
the final discharging point of jaw crusher .
It can transport not only granular material, but also work piece. Besides the pure
material transporting, it can also form a rhythmic flow transport line complying with
the requirements of various industrial production processes.
The belt conveyor can be used for horizontal transportation or inclined transportation
49
in a convenient way, and widely used in modern industrial enterprises, such as: mine
tunnel, mine surface transportation system, open-pit and concentrator.
Figure 8.4 Conveyor belt
8.4.1 WORKING PRINCLIPLE
Belt conveyor is composed by two endpoint pulleys and a closed conveyor
belt. The pulley that drives conveyor belt rotating is called drive pulley or
transmission drum; the other one–only used to change conveyor belt movement
direction–is called bend pulley. Drive pulley is driven by the motor through reducer,
and conveyor belt dragging relies on the friction drag between the drive pulley and the
conveyor belt. The drive pulleys are generally installed at the discharge end in order
to increase traction and be easy to drag. Material is fed on the feed-side and landed on
the rotating conveyor belt, then rely on the conveyor belt friction to be delivered to
discharge-end.
Feature:
The belt conveyor mainly has the following characteristics: the body can flex easily
with a belt-warehousing, the tail can elongate or shorten complying with the coal face;
directly lay on the roadway floor without setting up foundation; compact structure,
light and handy rack and convenient disassembly. When the transmission capacity is
big or transport distance is far, we can meet the requirements by equipping with
intermediate drives. According to the requirements of transmission process, it can be
transported by single transmission and also can be formed a horizontal or inclined
transportation-by-multi-unit.
The belt conveyor is widely used in metallurgy, coal, transportation, utilities,
50
chemical and other departments because of its features of big conveying capacity,
simple structure, easy-to- maintenance, low cost and versatility.
The belt conveyor is also used in building materials, electricity, light, food, ports,
ships.
8.5 DC GEARED MOTOR
A gear motor is a specific type of electrical motor that is designed to produce
high torque while maintaining a low horsepower, or low speed, motor output. Gear
motors can be found in many different applications, and are probably used in many
devices in your home.
Gear motors are commonly used in devices such as can openers, garage door openers,
washing machine time control knobs and even electric alarm clocks. Common
commercial applications of a gear motor include hospital beds, commercial jacks,
cranes and many other applications that are too many to list.
Figure 8.5 DC Geared motor
8.5.1 WORKING PRINCLIPLE
A gear motor can be either an AC (alternating current) or a DC (direct current)
electric motor. Most gear motors have an output of between about 1,200 to 3,600
revolutions per minute (RPMs). These types of motors also have two different speed
specifications: normal speed and the stall-speed torque specifications.
51
Gear motors are primarily used to reduce speed in a series of gears, which in turn
creates more torque. This is accomplished by an integrated series of gears or a gear
box being attached to the main motor rotor and shaft via a second reduction shaft. The
second shaft is then connected to the series of gears or gearbox to create what is
known as a series of reduction gears. Generally speaking, the longer the train of
reduction gears, the lower the output of the end, or final, gear will be.
An excellent example of this principle would be an electric time clock (the type that
uses hour, minute and second hands). The synchronous AC motor that is used to
power the time clock will usually spin the rotor at around 1500 revolutions per
minute. However, a series of reduction gears is used to slow the movement of the
hands on the clock.
For example, while the rotor spins at about 1500 revolutions per minute, the reduction
gears allow the final second hand gear to spin at only one revolution per minute. This
is what allows the second-hand to make one complete revolution per minute on the
face of the clock.
52
CHAPTER 9
SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLY
The electronic power supply integrated with the switching regulator for converting the
electrical power efficiently from one form to another form with desired characteristics
is called as Switch-mode power supply. It is used to obtain regulated DC output
voltage from unregulated AC or DC input voltage.
Similar to other power supplies, switch-mode power supply is a complicated circuit
that supplies power from a source to loads. switch-mode power supply is essential
for power consuming electrical and electronic appliances and even for
building electrical and electronic projects.
Figure 9.1 SMPS

53
9.1 WORKING OF SMPS
Power supply is an electronic circuit that is used for providing the electrical
power to appliances or loads such as computers, machines, and so on. These
electrical and electronic loads require various forms of power at different ranges
and with different characteristics. So, for this reason the power is converted into the
required forms (with desired qualities) by using some power electronic
converters or power converters.
Electrical and electronic loads work with various forms of power supplies, such as
AC power supply, AC- to-DC power supply, High-voltage power supply,
Programmable power supply, Uninterruptable power supply and Switch-mode
power supply.
9.2 TOPOLOGIES OF SMPS
There are different types of topologies for SMPS, among those, a few are as
follows: -
DC to DC converter
AC to DC converter
Fly back converter
Forward converter
9.2.1 DC TO DC CONVERTER SMPS
In a DC-to-DC converter, primarily a high-voltage DC power is directly
obtained from a DC power source. Then, this high-voltage DC power is switched at a
very high switching speed usually in the range of 15 KHz to 50 KHz.
And then it is fed to a step-down transformer which is comparable to the weight and
size characteristics of a transformer unit of 50Hz. The output of the step-down
transformer is further fed into the rectifier. This filtered and rectified output DC
power is used as a source for loads, and a sample of this output power is used as a
feedback for controlling the output voltage. With this feedback voltage, the ON time
of the oscillator is controlled, and a closed-loop regulator is formed.
54
Figure 9.2 DC to DC Converter

The output of the switching-power supply is regulated by using PWM (Pulse Width
Modulation). As shown in the circuit above, the switch is driven by the PWM
oscillator, such that the power fed to the step-down transformer is controlled
indirectly, and hence, the output is controlled by the PWM, as this pulse width signal
and the output voltage are inversely proportional to each other.
If the duty cycle is 50%, then the maximum amount of power is transferred through
the step-down transformer, and, if duty cycle decreases, then the amount of power
transferred will decrease by decreasing the power dissipation.
9.2.2 AC TO DC CONVERTER SMPS
The AC to DC converter SMPS has an AC input. It is converted into DC by
rectification process using a rectifier and filter. This unregulated DC voltage is fed to
the large-filter capacitor or PFC (Power Factor Correction) circuits for correction of
power factor as it is affected. This is because around voltage peaks, the rectifier draws
short current pulses having significantly high-frequency energy which affects the
power factor to reduce.
Figure 9.3 AC to DC Converter

It is almost similar to the above discussed DC to DC converter, but instead of direct

DC power supply, here AC input is used. So, the combination of the rectifier and
filter, shown in the block diagram is used for converting the AC into DC and
55
switching is done by using a power MOSFET amplifier with which very high gain can
be achieved. The MOSFET transistor has low on-resistance and can withstand high
currents. The switching frequency is chosen such that it must be kept inaudible to
normal human beings (mostly above 20KHz) and switching action is controlled by a
feedback utilizing the PWM oscillator.
This AC voltage is again fed to the output transformer shown in the figure to step
down or step up the voltage levels. Then, the output of this transformer is rectified
and smoothed by using the output rectifier and filter. A feedback circuit is used to
control the output voltage by comparing it with the reference voltage.
9.2.3 FLY-BACK CONVERTER TYPE SMPS
The SMPS circuit with very low output power of less than 100W (watts) is
usually of Fly-back converter type SMPS, and it is very simple and low- cost circuit
compared to other SMPS circuits. Hence, it is frequently used for low-power
applications.
The unregulated input voltage with a constant magnitude is converted into a desired
output voltage by fast switching using a MOSFET; the switching frequency is around
100 kHz. The isolation of voltage can be achieved by using a transformer. The switch
operation can be controlled by using a PWM control while implementing a practical
fly-back converter.
Fly-back transformer exhibits different characteristics compared to general
transformer. The two windings of the fly-back transformer act as magnetically
coupled inductors. The output of this transformer is passed through a diode and a
capacitor for rectification and filtering. As shown in the figure, the voltage across this
filter capacitor is taken as the output voltage of the SMPS.
FLY-BACK Converter

56
9.2.4 FORWARD CONVERTER TYPE SMPS
Forward converter type SMPS is almost similar to the Fly-back converter type
SMPS, but in the forward converter type, a control is connected for controlling the
switch and at the output of the secondary winding of the transformer, and the
rectification and filtering circuit is complicated as compared to the fly-back
converter.
It can be called as a DC to DC buck converter, along with a transformer used for
isolation and scaling. In addition to the diode D1 and capacitor C, a diode D2 and an
inductor L are connected at the output end. If switch S gets switched ON, then the
input is given to the primary winding of the transformer, and hence, a scaled voltage
is generated at the secondary winding of the transformer.
Figure 9.5 FORWARD Converter

Thus, the diode D1 gets forward biased and scaled voltage is passed through the lowpass
filter preceding the load. If the switch S is turned off, then the currents through
the primary and secondary winding reach to zero, but the current through the
inductive filter and load can not be change abruptly, and a path is provided to this
current by the freewheeling diode D2. By using the filter inductor, the required
voltage across the diode D2 and to maintain the EMF required for maintaining the
continuity of the current at inductive filter.
57
CHAPTER 10
SOFTWARE & CODING
WPLSoft is a software for PLC (Programmable logic controller). When PLC is in
operation, use WPLSoft to monitor the set value or temporarily saved value in timer
(T), counter (C), and register (D) and force On/Off of output contacts. PLC is a
control system using electronic operations.
WPLSoft is a program-editing software made for the Delta DVP-PLC series used
under WINDOWS. Except for general program planning and other general functions
(e.g. cut, paste, copy, multi-windows, etc.) of WINDOWS, WPLSoft, in addition, has
provided various Chinese/English commentary-editing and other special functions
(e.g. survey and edit the listed register, the setup, the data readout, the file saving, and
monitor and set up diagrams of various contacts, etc.).
What follows is the system requirement to comply with the operation environment
of WPLSoft:
System requirements for software

58
Fig:10.1 Coding

59
Fig:10.2 Coding

60
Fig:10.3 Coding

61
Fig:10.4 Coding

62
Fig:10.5 Coding

63
CHAPTER 11
CONCLUSION
Thus system designed is very precise and very easy in handling. This system is
advantageous for commercial as well as residential purpose. The components used are
readily available which makes construction very easy. The structure is compact which
allows the system to be installed on any platform.
Here, PLC is used in the control of the prototype of the automated parking system.
Push buttons, DC motors are used to provide movements to transport the vehicle in
the parking system. The main advantages are space optimization, cost effectiveness
and security.
64
REFERENCES
http://www.ijesit.com/Volume%204/Issue%202/IJESIT201502_52.pdfMaizidi
and Maizidi- Embeded system
http://www.slideshare.net/jermybsowmya/automatic-car-parking-system-
16284488
http://ijset.com/ijset/publication/v2s9/IJSET_2013_912.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCADA
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proximity_sensor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Push-button
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_logic_controller
R. K. Rajput, Strength Of Meterials, S. Chand
http://www.parkingsystemsolutions.com/rotary
E. S. Kardoss, K. Baliant, I. Wahl, “Design of a Semi Aautonomous Park
Assist System,” Proceedings of The European Control Conference,2009, pp.
497-516
http://www.delta.com.tw/product/em/em_main.asp
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_parking_system
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car_parking_system
http://wplsoft.software.informer.com/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Electronics