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Temperature Effects in ACI 307, ACI 349, and ACI 359: Aci Structural Journal Technical Paper
Temperature Effects in ACI 307, ACI 349, and ACI 359: Aci Structural Journal Technical Paper
f y′ =−
fy
1
(
1+ γ1 )
fSTV − γ 1 fSTV ′′ (7)
1. Determine the concrete compressive stress fcL at the
extreme fiber and the kL factor for the neutral axis produced
by mechanical forces (N and M) from Eq. (10) and (11);
2. Calculate the final compressive stress of concrete fc at
In the circumferential direction
the extreme fiber in Eq. (12) by adding the concrete stress
due to thermal gradient to the compressive stress fcL;
fc′′ = fc′ – fCTC′′ (8)
3. Find the k factor for the neutral axis from Eq. (13),
which equilibrates the axial force N and the resultant of the
fy′ = fy – fSTC (9)
stresses produced by N, M, and DT; and
4. Calculate the total moment M produced by N, M, and
ΔT using Eq. (14). The thermal moment is the change of
ACI 3492 for nuclear safety-related concrete
moments from the mechanical moment to the total moment,
structures
which can be expressed as Mth = M̄ – M.
Appendix E and Section RE of ACI 349-062 provide
Before ΔT
design guidelines for temperature effects. For strength design
requirements, thermally induced axial forces and moments
1 d′ 1
need to be estimated, factored, and combined with other N =+fcL bk L d 2ρ′ nbdfcL k L −
factored mechanical loads. Combined factored mechanical 2 d kL
(10)
and thermal loads are then examined with design strengths. 1
For serviceability, Section RE.3 of ACI 349-062 requires + ρnbdfcL ( k L − 1)
consideration of steady-state temperature conditions. Crack kL
control on the tensile face, strain limitations of the section,
and deflections need to be examined. 1 t kL d
M =−fcL bk L d
The challenge of this design approach is the dependence 2 2 3
of thermal loads on mechanical loads. In theory, thermal
loads need to be evaluated for each load combination d′ 1 t
+2ρ′ nbdfcL k L − − d ′ (11)
because thermal loads vary with mechanical axial forces and d k L
2
moments. In comparison, ACI 307-081 accounts for thermal
1 t
effects to design strength and, thus, avoids the problem of +ρnbdfcL ( k L − 1) − d
estimating thermal loads with other combined loads. k L
2
The following finite element (FE) analysis approaches for
estimating thermal loads are discussed in Section RE.3.3 of After ΔT
ACI 349-062: 1) analysis based on full uncracked concrete
sections; 2) analysis that considers concrete cracking and fcL αDT
reinforcing bar yielding for all combined forces; and 3) analysis fc =+
Ec kd (12)
that consider the effect of cracking on thermal forces only. Ec k L d t (1 − ν)
*
The Appendix is available at www.concrete.org/publications in PDF format,
appended to the online version of the published paper. It is also available in hard copy
from ACI headquarters for a fee equal to the cost of reproduction plus handling at the
time of the request.
1 t kd
M =−fc bkd
2 2 3
d′ 1 t
+ 2ρ′ nbdfc k − − d ′ (14)
d k 2
1 t
+ ρnbdfc ( k − 1) − d
k 2
Fig. 3—Details of concrete section. (Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm;
1 in.2 = 645.16 mm2; 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa; 1 psi = 6.895 kPa.)
The solution of this method is valid only when the
calculated kL and k are in the range of 0.10 ≤ kL ≤ 1.0 ACI 3593 for nuclear concrete containments
and 0.10 ≤ k ≤ 1.0. These requirements are to ensure that ACI 359-103 is the design code for nuclear concrete
the obtained section is cracked, which is the assumption containments. Members subjected to axial forces and
involved in deriving Eq. (10) through (14). moments should not exceed allowable stress and strain
ACI 349.1R-077 permits thermal gradients less than limits. Design loads are categorized into: 1) factored primary
100°F (56°C) and uniform temperature changes less than loads; 2) factored primary and secondary loads; 3) service
50°F (28°C) to be ignored in concrete design. It states that primary loads; and 4) service primary and secondary loads.
changes in stresses and strains due to such small temperature Primary loads are those which require equilibrating applied
changes are minor and, hence, the reinforcement provided loads. Secondary loads are not required for equilibrating
for seismic forces (Eo or Ess) and minimum reinforcement the applied loads. Examples of secondary loads are internal
requirements will be sufficient for crack control. forces due to shrinkage and temperature changes.
It should be noted that design formulas in ACI 307-081 and Stress and strain limits are specified for each load cate-
in the simplified calculation method of ACI 349.1R-077 are gory. Accordingly, design allowable strengths are calculated
based on a cracked concrete section. The following observa- and compared with design loads for each load category.
tions can be made from the comparison of ACI 307-081 and However, ACI 359-103 does not provide guidelines for esti-
ACI 349.1R-077 design approaches: mating thermal loads. Design guides in ACI 349-062 and
• A cracked concrete section with a triangular concrete ACI 349.1R-077 are typically used in practice.
stress distribution is the basis of both design equations
for thermal effects in ACI 307-081 and ACI 349.1R-07.7 EVALUATION OF CODE-PREDICTED
The actual concrete relationship starts to deviate from THERMAL MOMENTS
the linear response beyond the concrete stress level of Design approaches for thermal effects in ACI 307-08,1
0.4fc′.10 Bae11 found that the use of triangular stress ACI 349-062 and ACI 349.1R-07,7 and ACI 359-103 were
distribution above this concrete stress level may over- discussed in the previous section. The performance of each
estimate moment strengths; code is evaluated by comparing thermal moments calculated
• Poisson’s effect is included in ACI 349.1R-077 for using different methods. A rectangular concrete section of
wall-type structures, but ignored in ACI 307-08.1 As a 36 x 12 in. (914 x 305 mm) in Fig. 3 is used for this purpose.
result, the restrained curvature in ACI 307-081 is under- This section is a part of an axisymmetric structure with fc′ =
estimated compared with that in ACI 349.1R-077 by 5 ksi (34 MPa) and fy = 60 ksi (414 MPa). The structure is
1/(1 – n); exposed to a thermal gradient of ΔT = 80°F (44°C) that is hot
• Compression reinforcement is transformed using inside and cold outside. Thermal curvatures are considered
a modular ratio of 2n in ACI 349.1R-077 and n in to be fully restrained due to the axisymmetric geometry.
ACI 307-08.1 An effective modular ratio of 2n is typi- The behavior of the member is analyzed for compressive
cally used for compression reinforcement in the working forces of 100, 500, and 1000 kip (445, 2224, and 4448 kN) to
stress design12 to account for the long-term effect of investigate the influence of axial forces on thermal moments.
concrete; and Note that tall concrete chimneys and prestressed concrete
• ACI 349-062 accounts for thermal effects by estimating containments are susceptible to high levels of compres-
thermal loads and combining them with other mechan- sive forces. The P-M interaction curve in Fig. 4 illustrates
ical loads. On other hand, ACI 307-081 includes thermal nominal moment strengths Mn and design moment strengths
effects to design strengths. φMn at each axial force level. Positive moment is defined as
one that produce tensile stress on the outside face. Because
the applied thermal gradient develops compressive stresses
2ε ε 2
fc = 0.85 fc′ c − c for ε c ≤ ε o (15)
ε o ε o
ε − εo
fc = 0.85 fc′ 1 − 0.15 c for ε c > ε o (16)
0.003 − ε o
where εo is 0.002.
Moment-curvature responses are generated for different Fig. 5—Thermal moments from moment-curvature relation-
axial forces, as shown in Fig. 5. The curvature due to thermal ship. (Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 kip = 4.448 kN; 1 kip-ft =
gradient of ΔT = 80°F (44°C) is calculated as 1.356 kN-m.)
curvature of 15.3 × 10–6/in. (6.02 × 10–5/mm). Estimated
αDT (5.5 × 10 −6 / °F )(80°F )
φth = = thermal moments from moment-curvature responses are
t (1 − ν) (36 in.)(1 − 0.2) shown in Fig. 5.
= 15.3 × 10 −6 /in. (6.02 × 10 −5 /mm ) Figure 5 shows the dependence of thermal moments on
mechanical loads. Estimated thermal moments decrease
with the increase of mechanical moments and increase
It should be noted that Poisson’s effect is included in the
with the increase of axial forces. When the axial force is
estimated curvature.
small, thermal moments can be reduced to close to zero as
Because axisymmetric structures provide full restraints
the mechanical moment approaches the nominal moment
for thermal curvatures, moments will be developed by the
strength (Fig. 5(a)).
ACI 3071
Thermal effects predicted by ACI 307-081 are presented in
Fig. 6. Modified specified compressive strength of concrete
and tensile strength of reinforcement due to thermal effects
and resulting reduced design strengths are shown in this
figure. The difference between the original design strength
and the reduced design strength is the thermal moment
Fig. 6—Thermal moments from ACI 307. (Note: 1 in. =
predicted by ACI 307-08.1 It should be noted that thermal
25.4 mm; 1 kip = 4.448 kN; 1 kip-ft = 1.356 kN-m; 1 ksi =
moments in Fig. 6 are calculated using design equations in
6.895 MPa; 1 psi = 6.985 kPa.)
the circumferential direction because the concrete section in
Fig. 3 is a part of an axisymmetric structure rather than the (–445 kN) is contributed by the negligence of Poisson’s
whole section. effect in ACI 307-08.1 Because concrete members have
The estimated thermal moments are 57, 81, and 100 kip-ft relatively large deformation capacity at low axial loads
(77, 110, and 136 kN-m) for the axial forces of –100, –500, (Fig. 6(a)) and thermally induced moments are self-re-
and –1000 kip (–445, –2224, and –4448 kN), respectively. lieving, the underestimation of thermal moments can be
Comparison with the design thermal moments in Fig. 5 indi- accepted at low axial forces.
cates that ACI 307-081 underestimates thermal moments at On the other hand, the underestimation of thermal
axial forces of –100 and –1000 kip (–445 and –4448 kN). moment becomes more severe at the axial force of
The underestimation of thermal moment of 57 versus –1000 kip (–4448 kN), which is 100 versus 219 kip-ft
77 kip-ft (77 versus 104 kN-m) at the axial force of –100 kip (136 versus 297 kN-m). The thermal moment is underes-
αDT
M th ==
Ee I g φth Ee I g × (17)
t (1 − ν)
Chapter 4 of ACI 349.1R7 presents equations to calculate thermal moments for axisymmetric
structures in a relatively simple manner. The original form of equations in ACI 349.1R is given
below:
Before T
( ) [( ) ]( )
(4-9) of ACI 349.1R
[( ) ]( )
After T
̅ ( ) [( ) ]( )
(4-11) of ACI 349.1R
[( ) ]( )
Unfortunately, these equations contain many errors. Those errors are (1) the term is
missing after in Eq. (4-10); (2) the tension reinforcement ratio is misprinted by in
Eq. (4-11); and (3) the expression ( ) in Eq. (4-11) is incorrect. The correct expression is
expressions are used for tension reinforcement. More specifically, expressions of ( ) and
( ) are used in Eq. (4-8) and Eq. (4-10), respectively. However, the expression ( ) is
used in Eq. (4-10) and ( ) in Eq. (4-11) if it is corrected. The use of different expressions of
( ) and ( ) may also cause confusion to users. This potential confusion can be
avoided by changing the expression ( ) in Eq. (4-9) into ( ) and the expression
( ) into ( ) at the same time. Similar changes can be made to Eq. (4-11).
In addition, Section 4.3 of ACI 349.1R7 states that the Poisson’s effect should be included in
Eq. (4-7) of ACI 349.1R. The original equations of ACI 349.1R are rewritten as Eq. (10) through