Suez Canal University

Faculty of Petroleum & Mining Engineering

Petroleum Engineering Department

2008/2009

Perforation

Made by:
1-Ahmed Gamal Abd El-Aziz
2-Ahmed Magdy Abd El-Kareem
3-Farid Abd El-Salam Gad
Presented to:
4-Mohamed Ahmed Shawky
Prof.Dr / Ahmed El-Gebaly 5-Mohamed Borhan Bakeer
 Perforation

Contents :
1. Well completion
1.1. Well completion & skin effect
1.2. Types of well completion
2. Perforation
2.1. Overview
2.2. History of Perforation in Brief
2.3. Gun systems
2.3.1.Overview
2.3.2 Types of perforating guns
2.3.3. Factors affecting the perforating gun performance
2.3.4. gun components
2.3.4.1. Shaped charge liner
2.3.4.1.1. SHAPED CHARGE THEORY
2.3.4.1.2. SHAPED CHARGE DESIGN
2.3.4.2. Detonator
2.3.4.3. The S.A.F.E system
2.3.4.4. Key components of the safe system
2.3.4.5. Operation mechanism of the S.A.F.E SYSTEM
2.3.4.6.Secure Detonator
2.3.5. Casing guns
2.3.6. Parameters of gun selection
2.3.7. High shot density guns
2.3.8. Through-tubing Guns
2.4. Explosives Classifications

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2.4.1. Low explosives (propellants)

2.4.2. High explosives
2.4.2.1. Primary high explosives
2.4.2.2. Secondary high explosives
2.4.3. Effect of temperature
2.5. Types of perforation techniques
2.5.1. According to the relation between reservoir and
hydrostatic pressures
2.5.1.1. underbalanced perforation
2.5.1.2. overbalanced perforation
2.5.2. According to where we do perforation
2.5.2.1. Shop perforated casing are classified to
2.5.2.2. Gun perforated casing:
Optimum perforation
2.5.2. According to how we do perforation
2.5.2.1 WIRELINE CASING GUN TECHNIQUES
2.5.2.2. THROUGH-TUBING PERFORATING TECHNIQUE
2.5.2.3. TUBING-CONVEYED PERFORATING TECHNIQUE
2.5.2.3.1. TCP firing systems
2.5.2.3.2. Percussion-Activated Firing Head
2.5.2.3.3. Bar Actuated Pressure Firing System
2.5.2.3.4. Differential-Pressure Firing Head
2.5.2.3.5. Tubing - Pressure Firing System
2.5.2.3.6. Electric - Wire line Firing System
2.5.2.3.7.job planning and operational
considerations for TCP
2.5.2.3.7.1. Radioactive Marker Sub
2.5.2.3.7.2.Cone-Type Debris
circulating Sub

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2.5.2.3.7.3. Mechanical Gun Release

Sub
2.5.2.3.7.4. Surge-Disc Sub
2.5.2.4. COILED TUBING CONVEYED PERFORATING
FOR HORIZONTAL WELLS
2.5.2.4.1. Principle
2.5.2.4.2. Procedure
2.6. depth control
2.6.1. WIRELINE DEPTH CONTROL
2.6.1.1. Gun-Gamma Ray Tool
2.6.1.2.Precision Identified Perforations
2.6.2.TCP DEPTH CONTROL
2.7. GENERAL SAFETY PROCEDURES
2.7.1. Firing Systems for TCP Operations
2.7.2.Tubing Pressure Activated
2.7.3.Mechanical Impact
2.7.4.Electrically Activated
2.7.5.Retrievable Slick line Firing Head
Safety

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1.Well completion
Do you think a well is ready for production as soon as it's drilled?
Well completion is the phase that comes after the drilling of a well but
before the well is used for production. The process of well completion
involves a group of operation that extends beyond simply installing well
bore tubular & well completion equipment. In fact the well completion
process includes:
1- installing & cementing
2- running production tubing
3- Perforating a well
4- cleaning up or testing

Occasionally the completion design can be affected by factors such as a

complex wellhead or any processing storage requirements affecting
productivity.

Completion engineers used 2 main industrial terminologies:

1- lower completion for the part across reservoir sand face that
includes perforation, flow control valves & permanent monitoring
2- Upper completion for part above packers' assembly that includes
safety valves, gas lift mandrels, tubing & wellheads. Photo

There are 3 basic requirements that any well completion must meet. A
well completion system must be

1- efficient in terms of meeting all the production objectives

2- safe in terms of a secure well environment
3- economic in terms of the profit generated over the cost incurred

Based on the completion objectives, well completion is divided into 3

basic styles. These are

1- temporary
2- permanent
3- workover

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The table below displays the difference between the different styles of well
completions

Well completion:' its significance in productivity'

The significance of well completion

lies in the fact that it is the only
productivity factor, amongst three,
which can be influenced by man to
increase productivity. The two other
productivity factors namely
Reservoir Boundary & Reservoir
properties are natural factors over
which man has no control.

1.1. Well completion & skin

effect
While designing well completion
factor that must be taken into

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consideration is the skin effect. Skin has a direct impact on well productivity
which can be +ve or –ve. Skin is the change in radial flow geometry near the
well bore caused by flow convergance, wellbore damage, perforation, partial
penetration and deviation. The effect of skin can be seen as a pressure drop
across the completion this drop in pressure results from reduction in total
pressure available to bring fluids from a distance Re to the well bore at distance
Rw.the pressure at distance Re from the well bore axis is the undisturbed
reservoir pressure.Pewhrer as the pressure at a distance Rwfrom the well bore
axis is the well bore pressure Pwf.the resultant pressure drop is the draw down
that causes movement of fluids from a distance Re to the distance Rw

There are different ways to maximize the productivity. These include:

1- creating highly conductive path to the well bore by fracturing the

formation
2- reducing the viscosity by employing methods such as steam injection
3- removing skin by employing methods such as acidizing
4- increasing well penetration by perforating deeper into the formation
5- reducing formation volume factor by choosing correct surface separator
1.2. Types of well completion:
1- open hole completion
2- cased hole completion "in which we use
perforation"
3- slotted linear completion
4- gravel back completion

2. Perforation

2.1. Overview
Perforating is a critical part of any well
completion process. The perforating process
generates holes -perforation tunnels- in steel
casing surrounding cement and the
formation.

In the past, perforation was regarded simply

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as holes in steel casing made .

By different methods. But perforation is not just a simple hole drilling process.

Perforated completions play a crucial role in economic oil and gas production.

Long term well productivity and efficient hydrocarbon recovery.

2.2. History of Perforation in Brief

1. Prior to the early 1930's, casing could be perforated in place by
mechanical perforators. These tools consisted of either a single blade or
wheel-type knife which could be opened at the desired level to cut
vertical slots in the casing.

2. Bullet perforating equipment was developed in the early 1930's and has
been in continuous and widespread use since that time.

-The major drawbacks with this method were that the bullet remained in the
perforation tunnel, penetration was not very good, and some casings could not
be perforated effectively.

3. After World War II the Monroe, or shaped – charge, principle was

adapted to oil well work, and the resulting practice is now commonly
referred to as jet perforating.

-The principle of the shaped charge was developed during World War II fo
armor piercing shells used in bazookas to destroy tanks. This new technology
allowed the oil producers to have some control over the perforating design
(penetration and entry hole size) to
optimize productivity.

2.3. Gun systems

2.3.1. Overview
In order to allow oil and gas to
flow into the well, conduits need to
be made into the formation. To do
this, a gun is positioned across the

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producing formation and is detonated to create perforations through

the casing and cement. The guns used for this purpose are known as
perforating guns.

2.3.2. Perforating guns are divided into two primary

categories:
 Capsule guns
 Carrier guns

2.3.3. The perforating gun performance is affected by the

 Gun size
 Clearance
 Entrance hole diameter
 Shot density
 Gun phasing
 Perforating length
 Temperature rating

After firing the gun and while

retrieving, unwanted solids enter into
the wellbore or formation through
perforating tunnels. These are called
the perforating debris. Perforating
debris can create problems in highly
deviated or horizontal wellbores and
can also create problems with the
completion hardware.

Sources of debris are not only gun system, but also from the casing,
cement and formation. Gun hardware contributing to debris are:

 Gun body
 Shaped charge liner slug and jet
 Shaped charge case
 Shaped charge retaining system (that holds the charge inside the
gun).

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2.3.4.1. Shaped charge liner

Perforating debris sources can be controlled if properly engineered.
Shape charge liner used in deep penetrating charges is made of powder
metal, which eliminates the carrot and slug associated with liner
penetration into the formation during charge detonation.

Big hole charges us solid liners in order to produce large hole into
the casing. However pf4621 power flow liners, produce big holes and yet
leave no slugs into perforating tunnels, this new technology charge can
replace the ultrapack charges.

Attempts are made to contain the debris in the gun, collect it after
perforating or minimize the quantity expelled. To address this problem
of controlling the debris, two methods are used. These are:

 Zinc casing method

 Patented packing method

Additional techniques that contribute to reduced perforating debris

include powder metal liners and non-plastic charge retention systems.
These recent innovations help in limiting problems arising from
perforation debris.

2.3.4.1.1. SHAPED CHARGE THEORY

The ultimate goal of perforating is to provide adequate productivity. Test
laboratories evolved over the years to provide means of predicting and
improving well performance. Today, the performance of the charges is
determined according to the procedures outlined in the API RP 43
(standard procedure for evaluation of well perforators) fifth edition,
published in 1991. From Figure B1 it can be seen that the penetrating
power of a cylinder of explosive is greatly increased by a cavity at the
end opposite to the detonator. Furthermore, placing a thin metallic liner
in the cavity increases penetration. A typical shaped charge consists of
four main components: a case, a high order explosive powder, primer
and a liner, as shown in Figure shown

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The case simply holds all

the components together.
- The explosive (RDX, HMX
and HNS) is a complex
mixture designed to allow
packing and shipping in the
case.
- The primer is a purer
mixture of explosive which
is more sensitive to the
detonation of the
detonating cord.
- The liner is used to form a
jet which physically does
the perforating.
- The detonating cord,
which is initiated by a
blasting cap, detonates
each charge.The selection
of explosive material is based on the well temperature and anticipated
exposure time at that temperature (Figure B3). RDX, HMX and HNS are
all explosives used in oil well shaped charge manufacture. For deep
penetrating charges, the liner is made from a mixture of powdered
metals pressed into the shape of a cone. High precision in the pressing
operation is required and it must be done in an extremely uniform and
predictable manner. For Big Hole charges, the liner is drawn from a solid
sheet of metal into hemispherical, parabolic, or more complex shapes.

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For each of the two types of charges, there is a trade-off between

entrance hole size and penetration. The sequence of events in firing is
illustrated in Figure B4 from top to bottom. The detonator initiates the
cord which detonates at a rate of approximately 7000 m/s (23,000
ft/sec.) The pressure impulse from this detonation initiates the primer in
the charge and the explosive begins to detonate along the length of the
charge. The high pressure wave 30x106 kPa, 4,500,000 psi) strikes the
liner and propels it inward. The liner collapses from apex to skirt
imparting momentum with a velocity approaching 2500 m/s (8000
ft/sec). At the point of impact on the axis the pressure increases to
approximately 50x106 kPa (7,000,000 psi) and from this high pressure
region, a small amount of material is propelled out at velocities in excess
of 7000 m/sec (23,000 ft/sec).
As the liner collapses further down the cone, more and more material
must be propelled by less and less explosive such that the impact
pressure is substantially less. Thus the tip of this so-called jet is travelling
20 times faster than the rear portion and gives the elongated shape to
the jet. The penetration depth depends on this stretching action. As the
liner walls collapse inward, the resultant collision along the axis divides
the flow into two parts, as in Figure B5. The inner surface of the liner
material forms the penetrating jet which is squirted out along the
charge. The outer surface of the liner, which was in contact with the
explosive, forms a rear jet or slug which moves forward slower than the
forward jet. In the zone of collision, where division of the material
forming the jet and slug takes place, there is a neutral point which
moves along the axis as the liner collapse process continues. The very
fast jet impacting a casing generates a pressure of approximately 70x106
kPa (10,000,000 psi). At this pressure the steel casing flows plastically
and the entrance hole is formed.

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A similar behavior occurs with formation material as the jet penetrates.

In addition, crushing and compacting of the formation material around
the perforation may also occur. The entire process from detonation to
perforation completion takes from 100 to 300 microseconds. The jet
material arriving last at the target, making the end of the perforation,
comes from the skirt or base. As discrete portions of the jet strike at this
end of the hole, they penetrate, expending their energy in the process.
Portions of the jet continue the penetration process, until the entire jet
is expended. The perforation occurs so fast that, essentially, no heat is
transferred. Indeed, it has been demonstrated that a stack of telephone
directories can be penetrated without singeing a single page. It follows
that no fusing of
formation material
occurs during
penetration.
However, crushing
and compacting of
formation material is
to be expected, and
will be reviewed
later.

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2.3.4.1.2. SHAPED CHARGE

DESIGN
Liner aspects, such as geometry,
angle, material, and distance from
base to apex, as well as stand off,
and explosive density are more
important than the amount of
explosive (Figure B7a). Only about
20% of the available explosive energy goes into the useful jet. It has
been proven that properly designed charges can out perform poorly
designed charges that have twice the explosive load. This is important in
situations where a higher explosive load causes casing damage. Once a
charge is designed for entrance hole and penetration efficiency,
manufacturing quality control and consistency become significant in
shaped charge performance. Perforation efficiency is accomplished with
maximum penetration, uniform crushed zone, and minimal plugging due
to slug debris. This is achieved by designing a liner that will provide a
uniform jet diameter and velocity with little to no deviation from the
conical liner axis. For example, it is critical that the liner thickness and
density be precise around the cone at any given point away from the
apex. Figure B7b is an example of a less desirable jet due to poor quality
control

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2.3.4.2. Detonators
Perforating guns carry explosive charges to the borehole where they
are detonated creating cylindrical holes in the casing and the cement.
This allows oil and gas to flow from the formation into the well.

The critical parts of the perforating guns are:

 Detonating cord
 Detonators

Detonators are divided into two main types:

 Electrical detonators
 Percussion detonators

Electrical detonators are known as blasting caps

and are typically used in wireline operations.

Percussion detonators are generally used with

tubing conveyed, coil tubing conveyedd and non-
electric wireline systems

2.3.4.3. The S.A.F.E system

There are numerous safeguards implemented in
both the electrical and percussion detonation
systems. However, these conventional systems may
explode accidentally when exposed to electric
magnetic fields or other voltages found around the
field.

The S.A.F.E. Slapper-Actuated Firing Equipment

system was developed to be immune from the
potential differences created by the radio-

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frequency(RF) radiation, impressed current from corrosion cathodic

protection, electric welding, high-tension power lines and induction
motors such as top drives on drilling rigs.

S.A.F.E. equipment is available for most types

of perforating / explosive assemblies run on
wireline .

2.3.4.4. Key components of the safe system

The S.A.F.E. system initiates a gun firing
without the use of any primary detonating
material.

The key components of the S.A.F.E. System are

the EFI or exploding foil initiator and the ESIC or
the electrical secondary explosive initiating
cartridge. The ESIC generates a unique signature of
high voltage and current and rapidly discharges the
pulse. The pulse is necessary to fire the EFI.

2.3.4.5.Operation
mechanism of the S.A.F.E
SYSTEM
Let's now look at the detailed
operation mechanism of the
S.A.F.E system. Here we see an
internal view of the EFI
with the components
identified

2.3.4.6.Secure
Detonator
The secure detonator
is a third-generation on
S.A.F.E type device that

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also uses an EFI. it does not contain primary high explosives or a down-
hole electronic cartridge. A microcircuit performs the same function as
the electronic cartridge and EFI together in a package. It is similar in size
to a conventional electric detonator. The secure system has all the
technical advantage of S.A.F.E detonator, but is more reliable and fully
expandable. It is also smaller in size and therefore allows the gun strings
to be shorter.

Both secure and safe system fire using high voltage and current.
Their electronic circuits are protected and they don't fire accidentally in
case of malfunction.

2.3.5. Casing guns

Casing guns are a type of carriers. Traditionally, casing guns
were run on wireline to perforate wells before completion is run.

There are two types of casing guns:

 Reusable-carrier Port Plug Gun (PPG)

 Expandable High-Efficiency Gun System (HEGS)

Both types of casing guns are fully retrievable.

Casing guns are designed as systems comprising specific

carriers, detonating cords and boosters to provide maximum
perforator performance. To ensure the performance meets design
specifications, charges are quality control-tested during
production in actual gun carriers.

Loaded casing guns contain only secondary high explosives

(detonating cords, boosters and charges), allowing safe transport
and handling when safety procedures are being observed.

2.3.6. Parameters of gun selection

After deciding to use wireline casing guns in the completion, the
selection of the most appropriate gun depends on several parameters.
These are:

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 Casing internal diameter

 Bottomhole temperature and pressure
 Deep penetrator or big hole application
 Required shot phasing and density
 Perforator performance and value

2.3.7. High shot density guns

High Shot Density (HSD) guns are another type of carrier guns.
They comprise of specific carriers, charges, detonating cords and
boosters to provide maximum perforator performance. HSD guns
provide increased shot available for natural, stimulated or sand
control completions.

HSD are the most flexible guns in the field. They are
expandable, retrievable carriers and can be run on any type of
conveyance (tubing, completion, slick line, TCP, wireline, coil
tubing, etc.)

HSD gun features:

 Expandable carriers
 Shot density
 Helical shot pattern
 Automatic ballistic connection
 Firing modes
 Mechanical connections
 Exclusive use of secondary
explosives
 Quality assured

HSD perforating guns

incorporate shaped charges,
detonating cord and detonators.

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Standard operating procedures must be followed when loading or

running these gun systems. Loaded guns should be enclosed in
protective tubes during storage to protect the exposed explosives.

Three critical tests are performed on HSD perforating guns for

reliability testing. These are:

 Mechanical / Pressure / Temperature test

 Perforating gun Split / Swill test
 Drop Test

2.3.8. Through-tubing Guns

Through-tubing guns are used primarily for underbalanced initial or
subsequent completions that have the tubing and bottomhole assembly
already in place. Optimal underbalance can be applied to achieve clean,
productive perforations while maintaining absolute well control.

The through-tubing guns are designed as systems comprising of specific

carriers, charges, detonating cords and boosters to provide maximum
perforating performance.

Loaded through-tubing guns contain only secondary high explosives

(detonating cords, boosters and charges), allowing safe transport and
handling when standard safety procedures are being observed.

Through-tubing guns include:

1. The hollow carrier guns

2. The exposed guns

Types of hollow carrier guns

They include Scallop gun systems .these guns are fully retrievable and
are the most rigged through-tubing guns, capable of withstanding the
highest temperatures and pressures .the hollow carrier guns can be run
at very high speeds .enerjet gun are wireline conveyed ,capsule charge -
type ,perforating guns in the enerjet gun systems each shaped charge is

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encapsuled and loaded on a strip carrier rather than being enclosed in a

hollow tube carrier.

This permits larger charges for the same overall gun diameter .Also, due
to the greater charge size; enerjet guns outperform hollow carrier guns
of the same diameter.

enrjet guns are classified into two main types

1.with retrievable carriers

2.fully expendable carriers

The retrievable system is designed for rugged conveyance while running

down-hole .it provides shot verification.any charge that does not
retrived from the well along with the carrier strip .as the carrier is
retrieved there is less debris in the well. Expendable systems are useful
for applications where well components or conditions make the
retrievable of the carrier strip difficult after the gun is shot.

2.4. Explosives Classifications

Explosives were invented first by the Chinese in the 10th century, then
independently by the Arabs in the 13th century. The low explosive, or
black powder, was characterized by slow reaction rates, 500 to 1500
m/sec, and relatively low combustion pressure. Much later, in 1846, the
first high explosive was discovered by an Italian, Ascanio Sobreto, and
then made commercially by Alfred Nobel in 1867 with the development
of dynamite, a combination of nitroglycerin and clayey earth. High
explosives, unlike the earlier low explosives, detonate at very rapid rates
of 5000 to 9000 m/sec and generate tremendous combustion pressures.
The terms low and high explosive are still used to characterize chemical
explosives.

2.4.1.Low explosives (propellants)

Are used in modern oilfield applications as power charges for pressure
setting assemblies, bullet perforators and sample taker guns as well as
for stimulation (high-energy gas fracturing, perf wash, etc.). High

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explosives are found in shaped charges, the detonating cord and

detonators, and blasting caps.

2.4.2.High explosives
are further classified by their sensitivity or ease of detonation.

2.4.2.1. Primary high explosives are very sensitive and easily

detonated by shock, friction or heat. For safety reasons, primary high
explosives, such as lead azide, are used only in electrical or percussion
detonators in Schlumberger gun systems.

2.4.2.2. Secondary high explosives

are less sensitive and require a high-energy shock wave to initiate
detonation (usually provided by a primary high explosive). Secondary
high explosives are used in all other elements of the ballistic chain
(detonating cord, boosters and shaped charges). PETN, RDX, HMX and
HNS are secondary high explosives used in oilwell perforating. The rate
of reaction, combustion pressure and sensitivity of chemical explosives
are affected by temperature. Consequently, maximum safe operating
temperatures are defined for all explosives. Exceeding temperature
ratings may result in autodetonation or reduced performance. The table
below lists the 1- and 100-hr temperature ratings and uses for the
various explosives in gun systems.

2.4.3. Effect of temperature

Temperature affects the rate of reaction, combustion pressure and
sensitivity of chemical explosives. Consequently, maximum safe
operating temperatures are defined for all explosives. Exceeding the
optimum temperature rating may result in autodetonation or reduced
performance.

The table lists the 1-hr and 100-hrtemperature ratings and uses for the
various explosives in schlumberger gun systems.

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2.5. Types of perforation techniques

2.5.1. According to the relation between reservoir and hydrostatic

pressures

2.5.1.1. overbalanced perforation

main features of overbalanced perforation
1- hydrostatic pressure of fluid in well bore greater than reservoir pressure
2- provide control over well while performing completion
3- perforation can be plugged with debris in well bore "difficult in cleaning
process"
2.5.2.2. underbalanced perforation
main features of underbalanced perforation

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1- Hydrostatic pressure of fluid in well bore is less than the reservoir

pressure
2- Well is "Live" after perforation and must be controlled
3- Perforation will be clean from surge into well bore

2.5.2. According to where we do perforation

2.5.2.1.Shop perforated casing are classified to

- Round perforated

- Slotted perforated

In round perforated casing the diameter of slots are 1/8 to 3/8 in

and it made by milling or by oxyacetylene torch. The diameter of hole
depends on the casing diameter.

In slotted perforation the slots are 0.05 to 0.3 inch wide & 1.5 to 3 inch
long and it also made by milling or by oxyacetylene torch. And we should
take care that the total area of slots equal 2% of casing area. We can
also use screen to prevent sand to enter the well. And we prefer slotted
casing than rounded one in sandy formations.

2.5.2.2. Gun perforated casing:

The second type of perforation is gun perforated casing which is our
main point in our study.

Optimum perforation
Perforating is a critical part of any well completion process . perforating
is the only way to establish conductive tunnels that link oil and gas
reservoirs to steel cased well bores which lead to surface . however
perforating also damage s formation permeability around perforation
tunnels .this damage and perforation parameters like formation
penetration hole size ,number of shots and the angle between holes
have a significant impact on pressure drop near a well ,therefore, on
production .optimization the perforation parameters and mitigating
induced damage are the vital aspects of perforating. Ongoing before

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perforating is less than the formation pressure is essential in removing

damage and debris from perforations.

2.5.3. According to how we do perforation

There are three basic techniques employed today to perforate a well.
Although the variations are virtually endless, the following discussion is
limited to a basic description of the three techniques. Wells can be
perforated using casing guns conveyed on wire line, through-tubing
guns, and tubing-conveyed guns. Because each method has advantages
and limitations, the completion engineer must choose the most
appropriate technique for each well.

2.5.2.1. WIRELINE CASING GUN TECHNIQUES

Perforating with a casing gun conveyed on wire line has been a standard
technique for many years. Before the tubing and wellhead are put in
place, a hollow carrier casing gun is lowered into the well on wire line,
positioned opposite the productive zone, and detonated. The main
advantages of this system are as follows:

- The diameter of the gun is limited only by the ID of the casing;

therefore, large, high performance shaped charges can be conveyed in a
multiphase, high shot density carrier.

- The casing gun offers high reliability because the blasting cap
detonating cord and shaped charges are protected from the wellbore
environment and the carrier is mechanically strong.

- Selective firing is available between guns.

- Guns are accurately positioned opposite the zone of interest using a

casing collar locator.

- No damage occurs to the casing and virtually no debris is left in the

well.

There are two main limitations to this method:

- As a general practice, the well must be perforated with the wellbore
pressure greater than the formation pressure. This pressure differential

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may prevent optimum cleanup of the perforations. The situation is

aggravated when perforating in drilling mud. The mud plugs are difficult
to remove even when subjected to high reverse pressure. Perforating in
clean liquids such as salt water is recommended.
- The strength of the wireline and the weight of the casing guns limit the
length of the assembly which can be run on each trip into the well.
There are three basic types of casing guns:
1. Port Plug Guns
2. Scalloped Guns
3. Slick Walled Guns
Each gun design has the same primary purpose to seal the guns from the
wellbore pressure and fluids. The differences are in how this is achieved
and how the individual charges are secured in place. Port Plug guns are
re-usable carriers that use the port plug to secure the charge (Figures
B17 and B18). The perforating charge has to penetrate the carrier before
it can perforate the casing. Port Plug guns are designed so that the
charge perforates a port plug which can be replaced and the gun re-
used. Gun life is not indefinite but being able to distribute the carrier
cost over 10 to 15 jobs reduces the overall cost of perforating. Fig. B18:
Port Plug Gun.

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 Perforation

Scalloped guns are typically used when high shot density perforating
(greater than 4 spf, 13 spm) is required. The carrier is a metal tube with
Flat bottomed holes milled on the outside, about 3 mm deep. These
scallops are aligned with the perforating charges inside the gun so that
the charges fire through the centre of the scallop. This does not
significantly change the
penetration of the charge but
rather is to ensure
that any burring that may have
occurred on the gun wall does not
exceed the overall gun outside
diameter.
The charges are held in place by a
tube or triangular strip (Figure B19)
which is slid into the gun itself. The
scalloped gun is used for high shot density because the cost of
machining so many port plug holes (up to 39 per meter) is prohibitive
and the chance of a port plug leaking and flooding the guns is obviously
increased. Another common use for the scalloped carrier is for TCP
work. Whenever a TCP system is used for a permanent completion, the

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 Perforation

guns will not be retrieved,

for this case the cost of
machining port plugs will
not be recovered. Fig. B20:
Slick Walled Gun.

The Slick Walled guns are a unique carrier designed for a moderate
environment (Figure B20). The gun carriers have neither port plugs nor
scallops. It is simply smooth surfaced pipe through which the charges
perforate. This causes some burrs on the outside of the carrier but as
long as enough clearance exists no problems will be encountered. The
carrier and explosives are rated for lower pressures and temperatures

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 Perforation

than other gun systems (27.5 MPa, 99 degree C for 1 hour) and can only
be loaded to a maximum of 13 spm (4 spf). The charges are held in place
by a moulded Styrofoam case which allows quick efficient loading. The
system allows for cost effective perforating of shallow to medium (2500
m) depth wells
2.5.2.2. THROUGH-TUBING PERFORATING TECHNIQUE
In 1953, Humble Oil and Refining Co. pioneered the permanent-type well
completion.
This technique involves setting the production tubing and wellhead in
place and then perforating the well with small diameter guns capable of
running through tubing. The main advantages of this technique are as
follows:
- The well may be perforated with the wellbore pressure below the
formation pressure allowing the reservoir fluids to instantly clean up the
perforating debris.
- Completion of a new zone or a workover of an existing zone does not
require the use of a rig.
- A casing collar locator allows for accurate depth positioning.
The main limitations of this method are as follows:
- To allow the gun to run through tubing, smaller shaped charges, with
reduced penetrations, must be used. To achieve maximum penetration
with through tubing perforators the gun is usually positioned against the
casing to eliminate the loss of performance when perforating through
the liquid in the wellbore. This arrangement restricts the gun to 0o
phasing.
- In an effort to improve the penetration performance, gun system
designers eliminate the hollow steel carrier and place pressure tight
capsule charges on a strip or wire. These guns are called expendable or
semi-expendable depending on whether the wire or strip is retrieved.
Removing the steel carrier allows a larger charge to be used; however,
charge case debris is left in the well after perforating and the casing may
be damaged by the detonation.
- The charges are exposed in the expendable and semi-expendable
systems restricting these guns to less severe well environments and
lower running speeds.

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 Perforation

As stated earlier, these guns, designed

to pass through tubing are used for a
variety of reasons:
1. Critical sour gas wells where a
permanent packer is to be in place
before perforating occurs.
2. Older wells where a retrievable
packer cannot be un-set due to failure.
3. Perforate slim casings or liners (89
mm).

.
The small outside diameter of
through-tubing guns implies that if the
charges are to be contained inside of a
tube (HSC) the explosive load will have
to be small. Such is the case with our

hyper dome guns (Figure

B21). With explosive
weights of 1.8 gm to 6.5
gm, penetrations can be
limited but exposure to
wellbore fluids and
potential failure thereby
is eliminated. Fig. B22:
Enerjet Gun.

If deeper penetration is
required, an expendable
or semi-expendable
carrier is required.
Because the gun outside

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 Perforation

diameter is governed by the charge size, a maximum load can be placed

down hole after passing through the tubing. Care must be taken not to
attempt too large of an explosive charge. If unenclosed charges in excess
of 20 grams are allowed to detonate downhole, casing damage could
result.
Typical of these carriers is our Enerjet gun where the charges are
threaded into a steel bar (Figure B22). Explosive loads can go as high as
15.5 gms and after detonation the steel bar and threaded caps are
retrieved from the well. In this manner only a minimum amount of
debris, in the form of powder is left behind.

2.5.2.3. TUBING-CONVEYED PERFORATING TECHNIQUE

Although various attempts were made to convey perforating guns into
the well on tubing it was not until the early 1980's that widespread use
of the service began. The basic technique involves assembling hollow
carrier steel casing guns vertically with a firing head on top. There are
several types of firing heads including drop bar, differential pressure,
direct pressure, and electrical wet connect. On top of the firing head is a
sub used to allow reservoir fluids to flow into the tubing. A production
packer is attached above the fluid communication sub. This entire
assembly is then lowered into the well on the end of the tubing string.
The string is depth positioned usually with a gamma ray survey. After the
guns are positioned, the packer is set, and the well is readied for
production. This includes establishing the correct underbalanced
condition in the tubing. The guns are then fired and the surge of
reservoir fluids is used to clean up the perforations. Depending on the
situation the guns may be retrieved or dropped to the bottom of the
well. Many variations of the procedure described above are in use today.
The main advantages of this technique are as follows:
- The well can be perforated with large diameter, high performance; high
shot density casing guns with the wellbore pressure lower than the
formation pressure (underbalanced) allowing instantaneous cleanup of
the perforations.
- The wellhead is in place and the packer is set before the guns are fired.

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 Perforation

- Large intervals can be perforated simultaneously on one trip into the

well.
- Highly deviated and horizontal wells can be perforated by pushing the
guns into the well.
The main limitations of the technique are as follows:
- Unless the guns are withdrawn from the well it is difficult to confirm
whether the entire gun fired. Effective shot detection systems may
overcome this limitation.
- Explosives degrade when exposed to elevated temperatures, reducing
shaped charge performance. It takes many times longer to run a TCP
string into the hole than a wire line gun. To compensate, a more
expensive and, in some cases, less powerful explosive must be used on
TCP operations.
- Selective perforating options with TCP are limited. Small intervals over
large intervals may not be economical with TCP.
- Accurate depth positioning of the gun string is more difficult and time
consuming than wire line depth positioning.
2.5.2.3.1. TCP FIRING SYSTEMS
Several firing techniques are available for various types of completion or
testing operations. They include percussion, pressure, and electrically
activated systems.
2.5.2.3.2. Percussion-Activated Firing Head (Drop-bar)
The drop bar is the simplest TCP firing system. A cylindrical weight or
sinker bar is dropped into the tubing and strikes a percussion- type
detonator in the gun firing head.
Hydraulic pressure on the tubing fluid column is adjusted to achieve the
desired underbalance on the formation before dropping the bar. The bar
can be dropped by hand through an open wellhead control valve or
contained in a wireline lubricator and released when wellhead valves are
opened and can also be run on a slickline.
2.5.2.3.3. Bar Actuated Pressure Firing System
The gun is not fired by the impact of the drop bar on the firing head.
Instead, the drop bar shears a pin, which releases the catch on the firing
piston. The firing piston is then driven hydrostatically towards the
percussion cap to set off the detonating train. A minimum hydrostatic

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 Perforation

head of 500 psi is needed in the tubing to set the gun off. With this
feature, it is not possible to accidentally fire the gun at surface by
dropping anything on the firing head. If the well is perforated dry, the
500 psi required can be obtained by pressuring the tubing with nitrogen
prior to dropping the bar.
2.5.2.3.4. Differential-Pressure Firing Head
The differential-pressure firing head utilizes a flowtube through the
packer to transfer annulus pressure above the packer to an isolated
piston in the firing head located beneath the packer. The advantage of
this firing method is that, after setting the packer, the tubing and packer
can be tested in the direction of well pressure by internally pressuring
the tubing and transmitting this pressure to casing beneath. After
Pressure testing, the desired underbalance pressure is fixed before firing
the guns. The annulus pressure forces the release piston downward,
breaking the shear pins and releasing the locking lugs which secure the
firing pin. The hydrostatic pressure in the rathole below the packer then
drives the firing pin into the percussion cap, igniting the Primacord
which fires the perforating guns.

2.5.2.3.5. Tubing - Pressure Firing System

This system uses a percussion-activated firing head similar in principle to
the differential pressure and drop-bar systems, except that it is activated
by internally pressuring the tubing. This same system is used, without
modification, for DST’s or permanent completions. After setting the
packer, it is tested by pressuring the tubing annulus. Next, the tubing
pressure is raised through three specific pressure cycles to arm the gun.
Two of these are redundant safety cycles built into the system to
account for unanticipated excursions such as high pressure surges, swab
pressures, and high circulating pressures. After the three cycle sequence,
there is a variable time delay before firing in order to correct
underbalanced pressure and adjust wellhead choke manifolds.
An advantage of the tubing-pressure system is that it can be fired in
wells where the casing above the packer is leaking; e.g., split or corroded
pipe and old squeeze perforations.

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2.5.2.3.6. Electric - Wire line Firing System

The electric-wire line firing system uses electric current and logging
cable for firing. Conventional wire line pressure-control equipment
(lubricator, blowout preventer, etc.) is used during flow testing with
cable in the hole. The wet connector contains a mechanical latch that
secures it to the TCP firing head, preventing the cable from being blown
uphole. With these firing systems, an electric current transmitted to a
wet connector at the gun head fires the detonator. One of the major
advantages of these systems is that they cannot be inadvertently armed
and fired before the electric power source is connected with the firing
head. A gamma ray and collar log can be run with the electric-wire line
firing system.
2.5.2.3.7. JOB PLANNING AND OPERATIONAL
CONSIDERATIONS FOR TCP
Personnel safety is one of our highest concerns; Schlumberger requires
the use of a minimum three meter safety spacer above the gun. This
ensures that the guns are below the rig floor when the firing head is
connected. Cleanliness is the most important factor governing success or
failure of a TCP operation. A dirty workstring with pipe scale, dope, or
gelled mud with high solids content can prevent access to any of the
firing head systems. Any workstring (new or used) should always be
rattled or washed clean before picking up the TCP assembly. Pipe dope
should be used sparingly. Once on bottom, circulation should be
established to flush trash through the circulating sub. A joint of tubing
filled with clean fluid should be run immediately below the circulating
sub. If the TCP assembly contains a closed annular production valve and
the workstring is filled on the floor with clean brine or diesel while going
in hole, circulation is not necessary. In high-angle holes the drop bar
should not be used, and pressure-type firing systems are recommended.
Gun release subs should be used with permanent completions to allow
production logging and access to perforations for remedial stimulation
work. If sufficient casing rathole is not available to accommodate the
fired guns, they can be pulled out of the well if a stabthrough TCP
arrangement is used with a larger bore packer. However, this is not
desirable since the well will have to be killed and equipment pulled and

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 Perforation

rerun. Such a system would

likely require guns with smaller
OD’s. The optimum
underbalance pressure is
dependent upon several factors
such as perforation size and
length, rock strength, reservoir
permeability, and fluid viscosity.
All of these, in theory, affect the
ability of the perforation to be
cleaned. As a practical matter,
the underbalance pressure
should be between a minimum
of a few hundred pounds per
square inch and a maximum of
the design collapse rating for
the casing. Low-permeability formations and zones producing gas
require larger pressure differentials to clean up the perforations.
Some of the most common TCP accessories are listed on the following
pages.
2.5.2.3.7.1. Radioactive Marker Sub
The sub is run in line with the workstring above the packer, or can simply
be a tubing collar or a drill pipe tool joint where one or two small cavities
have been drilled and threaded to receive a sealing plug. A radioactive
pip tag is installed in each cavity. A pip tag is a very weak gamma ray
source (1 microcurie of Cobalt 60). The radiocative marker sub is run
above the packer, and all the radioactive material is fully recovered
when the string is pulled (Figure B23).

2.5.2.3.7.2.Cone-Type Debris Circulating Sub

The debris circulating sub (Figure B24) consists of a ceramic cone seated
into a ported sub. The sub is positioned between the packer and the
guns, typically 10 m above the firing head. The isolated space below the
sub is filled with a clean fluid. Once the assembly above the sub has
been circulated clean, the packer is set. A debris circulating sub is often

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 Perforation

used with a drop bar or a wet connected firing

system to prevent debris from settling on the
downhole portion of the firing head. The drop
bar or female wet connector will easily break the
fragile cone to reach the firing head.
Fig. B23: Radioactive Marker Sub. Fig. B24: Debris
Sub.
2.5.2.3.7.3.Mechanical Gun Release Sub
The operating principle of the mechanical gun
release sub (Figure B25) is similar to other gun
release subs. After a
release sleeve is
shifted, the lower sub
locking fingers
retract. The lower sub
and the gun string are
then released and fall
to the bottom of the
well. Fig. B25: Gun
Release Sub. Fig.
B26: Surge-Disc Sub

2.5.2.3.7.4.
Surge-Disc Sub
The surge-disc sub (Figure B26) features a
fragile, high strength, sealed, glass disc inside a
sub. The disc is designed to withstand a high
differential pressure.

The sub is positioned above the circulating sub,

completely sealing off the portion of tubing
above it. This portion of tubing can be dry or

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 Perforation

partially filled with a clean fluid cushion to create an underbalance

condition after the packer is set and the disc broken. In the presence of
old perforations, the sub can be used with a drop bar firing system. In
this application, the underbalance will be established a few seconds
before firing the guns. The underbalance will remain effective during
firing and at the time of the surge immediately after firing.

2.5.2.4. COILED TUBING CONVEYED PERFORATING FOR

HORIZONTAL WELLS
2.5.2.4.1. Principle
The principle of this system (Figure B27) is particularly simple: the guns
are mounted directly on the end of tubing coiled on a reel in which the
electric cable has first been inserted. The connection between guns and
tubing ensures the mechanical and electrical bottom link, while on the
surface; the cable outlet passes through the shaft of the drum by a
rotating device. The lowering and raising movements are provided by
the standard coiled-tubing injector head, and the depth measurements
are made on the tubing near the injector. This technique is equally
capable of conveying small-diameter guns and standard guns, but the
performance capabilities will be affected by gun weight. In addition,
circulation through the coiled tubing remains available, although the
cross section is reduced, owing to the cable.

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2.5.2.4.2. Procedure
The logging procedure with this system is exactly the
same as that for normal use of coiled tubing. Should it
be necessary to work under pressure, a lubricator
adapted to the guns should be added. The weak link in
this system is its relative fragility, rendering it incapable
for pushing heavy guns over great distances. Fig. B28:
Perforating Depth Control.

2.6.1. WIRELINE DEPTH CONTROL

Depth control for perforating is almost universally
obtained through radioactivity instruments run in the cased hole in
conjunction with the Casing Collar Locator (CCL). The Gamma Ray Log is
generally used (Figure B28) though, in some cases, the Neutron Log or
both Gamma Ray and Neutron are run. Accurate correlation of
radioactivity logs with open hole logs establishes the position of casing
collars with respect to the formation to be perforated. A short sub in the
casing string is highly desirable to eliminate ambiguities with CCL
identification, particularly when all joints of casing are about the same
length. If the depth control log is made on a separate trip in the well, the
proper shooting depth is determined on the perforating run by recording
a second collar log with the collar locator attached to the perforator.

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2.6.1.1. Gun-Gamma Ray Tool

If the combination Gun-Gamma Ray Tool is used, the entire equipment
for depth control and perforating is run on a single trip in the well. The
Gun-Gamma Ray Tool includes a rugged, shock proof gamma ray
detector. A casing collar locator and a perforating gun can all run
together. This offers greater assurance of accuracy and considerable
saving of rig time. Depth control should always be used to accurately
position TCP guns. A reference radioactive collar is run in the work string
and its distance from the top shot is measured. Once on bottom, a
through-tubing GR/CCL log is run and compared to open hole logs to
establish how guns should be moved for exact positioning opposite the
target formation. A variation of this procedure has been used from
floating vessels in sand control completions. A sump packer is positioned
and set with a wireline and becomes the locating device. The TCP gun
string then is run with a locator and collet assembly on bottom. The
distance from bottom gun shot to the collet latch is selected to place
guns on depth. A radioactive collar should still be run to allow
adjustment by logging in case of pipe tally discrepancies or slippage of
the sump packer downhole.

2.6.2.2. Precision Identified Perforations

P.I.P. tags are used to provide a record of the position of perforations
with respect to casing collars and/or formation boundaries. Special
shaped charges fired at top and bottom of the perforated section leave
traces of radioactive material within the perforations. The top and
bottom perforations are then identified by sharp peaks on a Gamma Ray
curve after perforating. Small size, low activity and short half-life of
radioactive material used in the special charges prevent significant
contamination of produced fluid. When run with Gun-Gamma Ray tool
and Hollow Carrier perforators, no additional rig time is required other
than that needed to log through the perforated interval.

2.6.2. TCP DEPTH CONTROL

Four main techniques are used to ensure that the guns are at the correct
perforating depth:

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 Perforation

- Running a through-tubing gamma ray collar locator to locate a

reference point in the string and tie into openhole logs.
- Setting the packer on wireline at a known depth, and stinging through
the guns and completion string.
- Setting the packer and guns on wireline at a known depth, and stabbing
the completion string in the packer.
- Tagging a fixed and accurate reference point such as a bridge plug. The
first method is the most accurate. It relies on a radioactive marker sub in
the string, and the distance from the radioactive marker sub to the top
shot being precisely measured at surface. The string is run in the hole to
approximately the correct depth and a short section of GRCCL (Gamma
Ray-Casing Collar Locator) log is run over the zone where the sub is
located. The gamma ray log indicates the position of the sub (a short
radioactive peak anomaly) relative to the formation gamma ray as
shown in Figure B30. As the distance from the sub to the top shot is
known, the position of the guns can be calculated, and corrected if
necessary by spacing out the string at surface. After the packer is set, the
gamma ray may be rerun to ensure that the guns are at the correct
depth. Fig. B30: TCP Depth Control Log.

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 Perforation

As the cased hole gamma ray log can be considerably attenuated, a low
logging speed will achieve better correlation results between the cased
hole and the open hole gamma ray logs. If the formation gamma ray
curve does not show much activity, a radioactive pip tag may be placed
As the cased hole gamma ray log can be considerably attenuated, a low
logging speed will achieve better correlation results between the cased
hole and the open hole gamma ray logs. If the formation gamma ray
curve does not show much activity, a radioactive pip tag may be placed
in or below one casing joint. (Placement of the pip tag must be included
in the casing setting program.) Alternatively, a TDT or a neutron log can
be run in place of the gamma ray log.

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 Perforation

2.7. GENERAL SAFETY PROCEDURES

The following comments are applicable to both TCP and wireline

conveyed methods.
Additional comments are given in section specific to wireline conveyed
perforating.
a) All perforating operations, since they involve the handling and use of
explosives and possibly radioactive materials, require special safety
procedures to be strictly observed at all times.
b) Perforating operations should be carried out strictly according to the
safety policies of Eni-Agip and the perforating Contractor. In the event of
any inconsistency between policies, the most conservative policy will
apply.
a) Operations involving the use of explosives shall only be performed by
Contractor’s specialized personnel responsible for perforation and
similar operations. The number of persons involved shall be as low as
possible.
b) Only perforating Contractor’s personnel are allowed to remain in the
hazardous area (gangway, rig floor etc.) during arming of guns. The
number of personnel should be limited when the guns are within 500ft
of surface when tripping in and out of the hole.
c) Any operation involving the use of explosives is not allowed in the
presence of thunder, lighting and thick fog, as these are sources of
electric potential.
d) Explosives shall be kept on site for the shortest possible time, any
remaining at the end of the operation shall be removed from the
installation.
e) Explosives shall be stored on site in proper containers, within a
confined area on the rig. Detonators shall be stored in separate boxes, in
the same area as explosives.
f) Warning signs must be placed around the hazardous area where
explosives are used.
g) All radio transmitters, radio beacons included, within a radius of 500ft
from the well, shall be turned off, (since they may detonate blasting
caps), starting from gun arming until perforating guns are 500ft below
the sea bottom (similarly, when pulling guns out of hole and guns above
500 ft). All portable transmitters (both Eni-Agip’s and Contractors) shall
be placed inside the Eni-Agip office and turned off to avoid accidental
transmission. Avoid critical periods of perforating coinciding with arrival
and take-off of helicopters.

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 Perforation

h) Cranes and welding machines shall be put out of service starting from
gun arming till gun pulling out and unloading.
i) District Office shall be advised by the Well Operations Supervisor on
the estimated time of radio silence two hours before starting operations.
The Radio Operator shall communicate actual timing.
j) Casing perforating can be performed during daylight or at night.
However, the first series of shots must be carried out in daylight hours.
Before perforating casing, the acceptable cement job quality shall be
ascertained by means of CBL/VDL and/or by squeeze jobs.
k) Explosives are to be transported unarmed and clearly labeled to the
site in secure and protective containers. Extreme care must be applied
during loading and off-loading.
l) At the rig it is the responsibility of the Installation Manager to ensure
that these precautions are taken.
2.7.1.Firing Systems for TCP Operations
It is normal practice to run the TCP guns with two firing systems,
whenever possible, to improve the chance of a successful operation
especially when running the guns on the bottom of a completion. A
common combination is to use a tubing pressure actuated system as the
primary means of detonating the TCP guns with a mechanical system as
the back up. There are four main types of firing mechanisms for TCP
guns. Only top down firing mechanisms should be used for safety when
arming the guns. The operation of each firing mechanism is:
2.7.2. Tubing Pressure Activated
The guns are fired by pressuring up the test string and then bleeding off
the pressure immediately. A time delay device is incorporated to allow
time to bleed off. This device can be either hydraulic or a slow burning
fuse. Some of the firing heads for this system are wireline retrievable
which gives another back up option. However, this would preclude the
use of the drop bar system as a back up. Although this technique could
be expensive on nitrogen, it is well suited to the use of a nitrogen
cushion but the time delay on the system will have to be increased to
allow time for the nitrogen cushion to be bled off.
2.7.3. Mechanical Impact
The TCP guns are detonated by the mechanical impact of a firing bar,
which for safety must be run on wireline. (This system is colloquially
known as the drop bar system.) Since the system can be affected by
debris in the tubing, the completion fluid must be kept clean. The
system is preferred as a back up instead of the primary firing mechanism
because of the need to use wireline.

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2.7.4.Electrically Activated
With this system, the guns are fired with an electrically-initiated
detonator which must be run on a logging cable. Therefore the pressure
control system must be rigged up. Since an inductive or wet electrical
connection must be made at the firing head, the system is also
susceptible to debris. This system is rarely used on well tests as the only
is that the firing heads for this system are wireline retrievable, hence the
guns can be run unarmed and, in the case of a misfire, the firing head
can be recovered on wireline to determine the cause of the misfire.
2.7.5. Retrievable Slick line Firing Head
This type of head was primarily designed to overcome the concerns over
about the possibility of guns being denoted by stray pressure or
tools/debris/unnamed articles which could fall down through the tubing
string and force the detonating pin into the initiator. With this type of
head, this possible problem has been completely eliminated due to the
design of the system. The guns are run in the hole without the firing
head. Then, when ready to arm the guns, the head is run to depth on
slick line and latched on to the firing stem or stinger. This system
provides its own back-up in that if the firing head does not work, it can
be retrieved and a replacement run.
Retrievable firing heads are available with mechanical, hydraulic or
electric triggering.

Safety
Working with explosives is one of the most dangerous professions.
While working with explosives you must concentrate on what you are
doing. You must perform each step carefully and correctly. Because
when shortcuts are taken, when concentration is broken, when
communication fails, when respect for explosives is ignored, when
instructions in the book are ignored, accidents can happen and they do
happen.
Safe operating practices are critical to the long-term success of
perforating.
Any deviation from these procedures can put lives and properties in
danger. If precautions are not taken, the danger of premature
detonation may occur!
Oil and gas are our main sources of energy and in all probability will be
for a long time. The oil and gas industry is involved in finding and
exploiting underground deposits of oil and gas in addition maintenance

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of the equipment used to provide a passage for hydrocarbon to flow

from reservoir to the surface is also critical.
Due to the nature of work involved, hazards typical to the oil and gas
industry operations exist. Therefore, in the oil and gas industry work and
safety must go hand –In -hand.
Safety measurement includes:
Properly designed, constructed and tested equipment
Well-trained, highly qualified personnel
All perforating crew members receive training on the characteristics
of the explosives they use and proper techniques for handling and
transporting these explosives .perforating engineers and technicians
also need to be proficient in the specialized process of gun arming
and disarming. They should thoroughly understand procedures and
applicable local regulations. In addition, only the engineer or
technicians is permitted to arm or disarm the perforating guns on a
perforating job.

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References
- Schlumberger course in open university

- B.1 schlumberger papers

- B.2 schlumberger papers

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