Fluvial Systems

The first lecture described how individual grains, bedforms and

sedimentary structures respond to fluid flow and how they vary with
changes in current velocity, or more accurately, shear stress

To understand fluvial systems, that one-dimensional analysis must be

expanded to two, and then three, dimensions

If the one-dimensional concepts are applied to a simple channel cross-

section, it is clear that flow, and sedimentary response vary
considerably in two dimensions
From the equation for bottom shear stress, τo = ρgys, shear stress
on the bed changes rapidly laterally as water depth changes;
current velocity is greatest where frictional effects are least

Therefore grain size, bedforms and the sedimentary structures that

are deposited also will vary laterally within one channel

Water depth, and bottom shear stress, are greatest in the deepest
part of the channel so the coarsest grain size and the highest
energy bedforms occur there

Grain size decreases and successively lower energy bedforms

occur toward the channel margins in this simple example

y = max

current τo = max
ing
τo
a s
velocity re
contour
dec
 Natural river channels are more complex in their geometry. There are
four basic types of channel, Straight, Anastomosing, Meandering and
Braided. Generally, meandering and braided are the most common
and meandering channels are the most important in SE Asia

Channel type varies as a function of slope and river discharge and there
are transitional phases between the types. Rivers often are classified by
their channel geometry but they can be viewed as a continuum where
channel shape changes in response to hydraulic conditions

anastomosing

meandering

straight braided

(after Miall 1977)

The flow properties that cause a channel to meander are complex and not
well understood, but they do generate a three-dimensional velocity
component that results in a downstream spiraling effect called Helical Flow

The sense of rotation of the spiral changes downstream so that there

always is a component of motion toward the inner bank of a meander
 This drives sediment towards the inner bank and creates an
asymmetrical channel cross-section, with the deepest part, called
the Thalweg, near the outer meander bank

The outer bank also is the area of highest shear stress and
therefore erosional, while deposition occurs on the inner bank, or
Point Bar

deposition erosion

point
bar

inner outer
bank bank

thalweg
 As a result, the channel migrates laterally towards the erosional
outer meander bank

As the channel migrates, a sedimentary succession is deposited on

the inner bank that reflects the grain size and bedform distribution of
the bedload in the channel

point
bar

inner outer
bank bank

thalweg
 The basal deposit is the coarsest sediment. Often, this is a relatively thin Lag
Deposit of pebbles or cobbles that are too coarse for the river to transport. They
occur in the channel thalweg and are the remnants of a mixed population of
grains where the finer clasts have been carried away.

Shear stress is too high for dunes but parallel lamination does not form
because deep water keeps the Froude Number relatively low

lag
deposit
 Dunes made of relatively coarse sand lie adjacent to the thalweg. Mean grain
size gradually decreases laterally toward the inner bank, and upward in the
stratigraphic succession, as bottom shear stress decreases with water depth

Dunes pass laterally into current ripples near the inner channel margin and
large-scale planar and trough cross-bedding changes to ripple cross-lamination
in the stratigraphic succession. Channel and point bar migration forms inclined
Lateral Accretion surfaces that are bed boundaries in the channel succession

dunes
current
ripples

lateral
accretion
surfaces
Continued channel migration tightens the meander loops. Eventually,
adjacent meanders can intersect or break through just before they
intersect

This straightens the channel and leaves a water-filled abandoned

section known as an Oxbow Lake
The area occupied by the meander loops is the Channel Belt

oxbow
lake

channel
belt

(after Miall 1977)

 Continued meandering creates a complex distribution of sandy
point bar (brown), muddy oxbow lake (yellow) and minor floodplain
(green) deposits within the channel belt; the active channel is blue

(after Sun et al 1996)

 The actual meander breakthrough often occurs during a Flood on the
river, when heavy rain raises the Discharge, or volume of water moved
by the river per unit time, beyond the carrying capacity of the channel

The excess water spreads over a large area known as the Floodplain
and deposits sediment that was being transported in suspension as
Overbank Deposits; these are mostly silt and clay and when preserved
often are rooted and/or include soil horizons

Overbank deposits generally become progressively thinner with

distance from the channel, although they commonly fill oxbow lakes
where they form thick lenses

floodplain
levee

point crevasse
bar splay
When flood water moves out of the channel, current velocities drop
rapidly so fine sand traveling in suspension is deposited, along with
silt and clay, near the river channel as Channel Levees.
Levees build vertically with time and are higher than the channel and
floodplain
Sandy Crevasse Splay deposits develop where overbank flooding
causes a break in a channel levee
They are fan-shaped and have sedimentary structures indicating very
strong currents that dissipate quickly

floodplain
levee

point crevasse
bar splay
 As a meandering channel
migrates, fine-grained overbank
deposits cap the sandy channel
succession

This generates the Fining-

Upward Sequence typical of
meandering rivers where
sedimentary structures, as well
as grain size, show a general
upward energy decrease

(after Miall 1992)

Instead of a single large channel, braided channels have multiple
smaller channels that separate bars within banks that define the
channel belt

Because braided channels form at higher slopes than meandering,

grain size is coarser and can be gravel or sand

cha
n
nel
be
lt
Braid bars migrate downstream and laterally, most often during flood
events, causing the channels to shift location frequently

(after Ramos et al 1986)

 Braided stream deposits
are mostly stacked braid
bar sands and gravels

Fine-grained sediment is
a minor component of the
stratigraphic succession
because most suspended
sediment by-passes the
high gradient system

(after Cant and Walker 1976)

Braid bar conglomerates often have imbricated clasts that indicate
flow direction
 the deposits of a single
fluvial channel belt may
be relatively thin and
narrow

consequently, reservoir
potential often depends
on the amount of lateral
continuity and
aggradational stacking
that develops as channel
belts shift position with
time

(after Tyler et al 1984)

 channel belts shift
9
8
location rapidly, not
gradually, usually
6 7 during flood events;
5 the process is
called Avulsion
4
Avulsion is a
3
response to the
longer term controls
on stratigraphic
2 architecture that
include climatic and
tectonic processes
1 as well as relative
sea level change
(after Mackey and Bridge 1995)
floodplain high sinuosity
One example is the
progression that results from
a relative sea level rise
High gradient, low sinuosity
streams occupy incised
tidal sediments
valleys at a lowstand
Stream gradient decreases
and sinuosity increases
channel
deposits during transgression, forming
amalgamated channel
deposits
The highstand succession
consists of channel deposits
high gradient,
low sinuosity from low gradient, high
sinuosity streams isolated
within floodplain sediments
(after Shanley and McCabe 1993)
 km

0 10
 meandering low depositional gradient
river sea level rise

sequence braided sea level fall and lowstand

boundary? river high depositional gradient

shoreface sea level highstand

Multiple episodes of incision and deposition can occur during one
sea level cycle when channel belts shift by avulsion and sediment
and water supply vary

late hightstand
filling of incised valley
burial of alluvial plain
avulsion to new position
falling stage and lowstand
abandonment, soil development
partitioning of incised valley
multiple depositional episodes
transgression and early hightstand
initial aggradation of incised valley
multiple depositional episodes
soil formation on alluvial plain
late hightstand

multiple avulsions, valley filling

widespread aggradation
avulsion to new position
(after Blum and Price 1998)
multiple episodes of sea level change result in a
very complex architecture

models are generalizations and will not exactly fit

any real system

therefore each system must be analyzed with

respect to its tectonic, climatic and sea level
history
 Key Points
• Meandering and braided rivers are the most common types of
fluvial system; in SE Asia, meandering are most important

• Meandering river deposits are recognized by a fining-upward

succession that reflects a decrease in energy upward at the
scale of the river channel

• The net/gross of the overall succession depends on several

factors including the nature of the sediment source, the
frequency of floods and channel slope

• Reservoir potential depends on the stacking pattern of the

channel sands that is a product of basin-scale processes

• Braided stream deposits are less muddy than those of

meandering streams and can form broad, sandy braid plains
with very good reservoir potential