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BOOK Pharmacognosy Lab Manual
BOOK Pharmacognosy Lab Manual
Faculty of Pharmacy
Manual of Practical
Pharmacognosy &Phytochemistry
Lab.
2016/2017
1
Course/ academic calendar
First exam
Second exam
Final exam
2
Experiment (1)
Introduction
3
Diluted ethanol reagent: different strength are used for preserving
material and for hardening, alcohol acts as a clearing reagent by
dissolving oils, resins, chlorophyll, etc., while it does not dissolve gum
and mucilage (therefore it is useful for plant powder containing them).
Iodine reagent: this gives blue color with starch and hemicelluloses.
Smith's reagent: is suitable mounting reagent for starch, it is composed
of equal amount of water, glycerin and 50% acetic acid.
4
5
Experiment (2)
Starch
Macroscopical character:
Microscopical character:
6
Rice:
Origin: obtained from the grains of the fruits of Oryza sativa Poaceae
Shape: polyhedral or subspherical.
Hilum: small central points.
Striation: absent.
Aggregation: mainly compound.
Maize:
Origin: obtained from the grains of the fruit of Zea mays Poaceae
Shape: polyhedral or subspherical
Hilum: central cleft with three to five rays.
Striation: not visible.
Aggregation: simple.
Potato:
Origin: obtained from the tubers of Solanum tuberosum Solanaceae
Shape: ovoid to subspherical.
Hilum: eccentric point near the narrower end of ovoid granules.
Striation: well marked concentric.
Aggregation: mostly simple occasionally compound.
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Report sheet (2)
Title:
Student name :
Objective:
Species:
Family:
Genus:
Species:
Family:
Genus:
Species:
Family:
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Experiment (2)
Calcium Oxalate
10
Crystal layer
11
Report sheet (2)
Title:
Student name:
Objective:
12
Experiment (3)
Fibers are typified by high length to width ratio. They are usually
thick walled and have a narrow lumen and pointed ends. Fibers are
usually classified according to the area in which they occur as a pericyclic,
xylem or phloem fibers. A crystal sheath is sometimes formed around
sclerenchyma and this features, together with the size, frequency, and the
distribution of the cells, is often of diagnostic significance.
13
Ginger Rhizome
Physical Characters:
Colour: pale yellow to creamy.
Odor: pleasant aromatic.
Taste: pungent.
Shape: Pieces called hand, buffy with scars on the outer cork
layer ,on drying loose the buffy shape due to shrinking of cells.
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Report sheet (3)
Student name:
I- Objective:
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Color
Odor
Touch
Taste
Size
Shape
IV-Microscopical character:
---------------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
16
Mounting reagent used:
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Experiment (3)
Barks
Xylem: It is the principal water-conducting tissue of the plant.
Xylem is a compound tissue, the structural elements of which are:
tracheid, vessels, xylem fibers and xylem parenchyma.
Tracheid and vessels are elongated structures that are non-
living at maturity and are concerned in water conduction. Secondary
wall thickening may give rise to annular spiral scaliform or reticulate
lignified walls. The main difference between vessels and tracheids is
that vessels have pores at each end and are connected to form
continuous tube while trachieds have no pores.
Cinnamon Bark
Physical Characters:
Color: reddish brown.
Odor: pleasant and aromatic.
Taste: pleasant.
Chemical test: test for tannins with FeCl3
Shape: channeled or single quills, decorticated.
The outer surface is brown with longitudinal shiny wavy lines, and
with occasional scars and holes. Fractures are short.
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Report sheet (3)
Student name:
I-Objective:
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III-Macroscopical characters:
Color
Odor
Touch
Taste
Size
Shape
IV-Microscopical character:
---------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------
Label:-------------------------------------
20
Mounting reagent used:
---------------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
21
Experiment (4)
Leaves
Epidermis: this is the outermost layer of the plant structure and is
usually one cell thick. Important diagnostic features include the
shape of the anticlinal (vertical) and the periclinal (horizontal) walls
(e.g. straight or wavy), the presence of thickening (such as beading),
and the occurrence of striations of the surface cuticle.
Distributed among the relatively non specialized epidermal
cells are a number of highly specialized and characteristic structures
mainly stomata and trichomes.
Trichomes: Most leaves and many herbaceous stems, flowers fruits,
and seeds possess hairs or trichomes of one kind or another. Many
show hair of more than one type. The trichomes (hair) may be
grouped into:
The arrangement of epidermal cells around the stoma falls into one
of four main types:
22
Anisocytic stomata: the stoma is surrounded by three or four
subsidiary cells one of which is smaller or larger than the others.
Diacytic stomata: the stoma has two subsidiary cells with their long
axis at right angles to the pore of the stoma.
Paracytic stomata: the stoma has two subsidiary cells with their
long axis parallel to pore of the stoma.
Senna Leaves
Physical characters:
Color: grayish-green to yellowish-green.
Odor: faint.
Taste: mucilaginous slightly bitter
Shape: Leaflets: ovate to lanceolate in shape, 1.5-6cm, entire margin
with brittle and thin texture, pinnate reticulate venation.
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Report sheet (4)
Student name:
I-Objective:
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III-Macroscopical characters:
Color
Odor
Touch
Taste
Size
Shape
IV-Microscopical character:
---------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------
Label:-------------------------------------
25
Mounting reagent used:
---------------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Experiment (4)
Flowers
Chamomile Flowers
Physical Characters:
Color: light brown to puff.
Odor: characteristic strong aromatic.
27
Taste: slightly bitter aromatic.
Shape: Small flowers with oval buffy receptacle, white tubular
ligulate florate (petals), stalked with bracet.
28
Report sheet (4)
Student name:
I-Objective:
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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III-Macroscopical characters:
Color
Odor
Touch
Taste
Size
Shape
IV-Microscopical character:
---------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------
Label:-------------------------------------
29
Mounting reagent used:
---------------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Experiment (5)
Fruit
Anise fruit:
Physical characters:
Color: medium brown.
Odor: characteristic aromatic.
Taste: aromatic.
Shape: Entire cremocarp with 5 ridges, which split into mericarps
and carpophores.
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Report sheet (5)
Student name:
I-Objective:
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III-Macroscopical characters:
Color
Odor
Touch
Taste
Size
Shape
IV-Microscopical character:
---------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------
Label:-------------------------------------
32
Mounting reagent used:
---------------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Experiment (5)
Seed
Linseed
Physical characters:
Color: Yellowish-brown with distinct darker brown fragments.
Odor: Slight.
Taste: Oily and mucilaginous.
Shape: Glossy brown flattened shaped.5mm length, the seed coat
called testa with hilum at the lower end and raphe near the upper end.
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Report sheet (5)
Student name:
I-Objective:
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III-Macroscopical characters:
Color
Odor
Touch
Taste
Size
Shape
IV-Microscopical character:
---------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------
Label:-------------------------------------
35
Mounting reagent used:
---------------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Experiment (6+7)
Objectives:
1. To extract and detect free anthraquinone and glycosidic anthraquinone.
2. To hydrolyze both O- and C- glycoside and to detect the presence of
free aglycones by chemical and chromatographic method.
Natural sources:
Powdered Rhubarb.
Powdered Aloe.
Powdered Senna.
Pharmaceutical Preparation.
Principle:
Anthraquinones are phenolic compounds naturally occurring in
free form, C-glycoside and O-glycoside. The principle of the test is based
on the ability of free anthraquinone to form a colored adduct upon the
addition of standard alkali (e.g. KOH, NaOH or ammonia). The reaction
involves the formation of phenolate-type ions which are visibly colored.
This fact is used to distinguish between the O- and the C-glycoside. The
O-glycoside is hydrolyzed to free anthraquinone by heating with dilute
HCl acid, while the C- glycoside releases the free anthraquinone only
after oxidative cleavage as illustrated in figure 1 and 2. Anthraquinone C-
glycoside and dimeric anthraquinone are hydrolyzed using oxidative
cleavage in the presence of FeCL3 in acidic medium releasing free
anthraquinone (or rhein in the case of anthraquinone dimmers) and the
sugar moiety.
Procedure:
Prepare and outline the TLC plate before you start the practical work.
37
II. Extraction of the anthraquinone glycoside:
5. Transfer the marc on the filter paper in step 2 into conical flask or a
beaker and add to it 20 ml of 50% ethanol.
6. Boil for 5 minutes on a water bath.
7. Filter while warm through cotton wool into graduated beaker, spot
the filtrate into the TLC plate then wash with hot alcohol to adjust the
volume to 20 ml.
III. Testing for anthraquinone O- glycoside
8. Transfer 10 ml of the glycosidic extract powder produced in step 7
into a conical flask or a beaker and add to it 10 ml of 25% HCl.
9. Boil for 15 minutes over a boiling water bath.
10. Cool the solution and transfer into a separating funnel.
11. Shake the solution with 10 ml petroleum ether in the separating
funnel.
12. Separate the organic layer into a test tube, spot the petroleum ether
extract onto the TLC plate then shake the organic layer with 5 ml of
the standard alkali.
13. Observe and record the colour produced on standing for few
minutes and observe any change in colour
38
Report sheet (6+7)
Student name:
Objective:
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Principle:
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Answer the following questions in the report and record your findings in
tabular form.
39
Q2. draw the chemical structure(s) of the main anthraquinone for the
tested plant source showing the effect of acid and alkali on both the
free and the glycosidic anthraquinone,
40
Experiment (8+9)
Alkaloid Part 1: Specific Test for Alkaloid
Vitali’s Test:
Fluorescence Test:
Murexide Test:
Chen’s Test:
41
Report sheet (8)
Student name:
Objective:
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Mayer’s
Hager
Dragendroff
1-Vitali’s test:
-Procedure:
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Name of alkaloid:
42
2-Flurescense test:
-Procedure:
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Name of alkaloid(s):
3-Murexide test:
-Procedure:
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Name of alkaloid:
43
4-Chen’s test:
-Procedure:
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Name of alkaloid:
44
Alkaloid Part 2: Microchemical (microcrystalline) test for
alkaloids
Introduction:
Alkaloids have been among the most popular group of chemical
entities used for poisoning, either for suicide or homicide, down through
history. Advances in the science of toxicology have discouraged most
murders from using poisons to gain their goal. Since these compounds are
potent poison and only small amount can be isolated from the victim,
microchemical method lend themselves well to this type of qualitative
analysis. Another striking example of the use of this test is for the
detection of spermine in victims of rape of sexual assaults. The alkalinity
of the seminal fluid is due to the number of the amines of which spermine
is the major one. Placing a drop of saline extract of the suspect stain in a
slide and addition of a drop of saturated aqueous solution of picric acid
would produce insoluble needle-like crystals of spermine picrate which
can be observed under the microscope.
45
Identification:
Place a drop of alkaloid solution on each of clean glass slide. Add a
drop of each reagent specific for the alkaloid on the slide without stirring
or covering. Examine under the microscope using low power. Examine
the crystals within 15 minutes. They should not be allowed to dry up.
Compare with the reference shown on the chart.
46
SCHEME FOR IDENTIFICATION OF ALKALOIDS
Caffeine Ephedrine
1. Murexide Test
(+ ve Yellow residue Crimson
Purple with ammonia)
If -ve carry out TEST TUBE Chen’s Test
Quinine or Cinchonidine
Differentiate by Microcrystalline test on slide
Atropine Nicotine
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48
Report sheet (9)
Student name:
I-Objective:
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II-Principle:
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Mounting reagent used:
---------------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
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Label:-------------------------------------
50
Experiment (9)
Objectives:
Procedure:
Extraction:
Purification:
Dilute the filtrate with equal volume of water and 1 ml of strong lead
acetate solution and filter off the ppt. Shake the filtrate with 50 ml of
chloroform and take 18 ml of the chloroform extract after being dried on
anhydrous sodium sulphate. Divide into four equal portions and
evaporate off the solvent in porcelain dish using water bath under fume
cupboard.
51
NaOH. Allow standing for a few minutes, and observe the change
in color and record the time required for color development.
a. Keller-Kiliani test:
b. Xanthydrol-HCl test:
52
Identification of Cardiac Glycoside from Pharmaceutical
Preparation
Student number:
Report no.:
Group:
***********************************************************
Principle of Experiment:
Objectives of Experiment:
Material:
procedure Result
Baljet’s test
Xanthydro-HCl test
Kedde's test
53