Science

- From the Latin word “scientia” which means knowledge.

- Is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable
explanations and predictions about the universe.

Chemistry
- Branch of science that studies the properties, structures and interaction of matter and
the changes it undergoes.

History of Chemistry

a. Prehistoric man
- used metals and mud pottery and bricks

b. 400 B.C
- beginning of Chemistry as a science; Four Element Theory proposed

c. 1st century
- Combination of the arts of the Egyptians and the Greeks; First book of alchemy written
in Egypt; also the beginning of Alchemy in China

d. 12th century
- Alchemy reached Europe through Spain

e. 16th & 17th century

- Chemistry applied to medicine study of gases begun; quantitative experiments begun;
first textbook of chemistry written (1957); Boyle’s studied gases and criticized the basic ideas of
alchemy in his textbook “The Skeptical Chemist”

f. 18th century
- Phlogiston Theory proposed; oxygen discovered (1774); careful quantitative work by
Lavoisier generally described as the beginning of modern chemistry

g. 19th & 20th century

- Atomic Theory (Dalton) periodic law and theories of the structure of the atom led to
modern theories of the nature of matter.

Further development and application of these theories is currently taking place.

Measurement
- Is the process of expressing the size and quantity of an object, which uses measuring
tools. The complete expression of the measured quantity consists of a number, the unit,
and the reliability of the number. However, the measurement of any physical quantity is
 subject to some uncertainty. To become competent in making measurements and
gathering data, the distinction between precision and accuracy must be understood.

Accuracy is the nearness of a measurement to the accepted value. It refers to the correctness
of the measurement and is expressed in terms of experimental and percent error.

Precision is the set of measurements that have been made in the same way. It refers to the
reproducibility of measured data.

Significant Figures
- Significant figures consist of all digits that are known with certainty plus a doubtful or
estimated digit. The number of significant figures is easily recognized when the figures
are nonzero. However, when zero is included in an expression, it is not easy to
determine whether “that zero” is significant or not. The following are the rules in
determining the number of significant figures in a measured quantity.

Rule 1: All nonzero digits are significant.

Example: 23.4 = 3 SF
1136 = 4 SF

Rule 2: Zeros between nonzero digits are significant.

Example: 4.03 = 3 SF
1001 = 4 SF

Rule 3: Zeros to the right of a nonzero digit, but to the left of an understood
decimal point are not significant unless specifically indicated by a bar placed above the
rightmost zero that is significant. When the decimal point is expressed in a whole number,
zeros are considered significant.

Example: 10600 = 3 SF 10600 = 4 SF

10600 = 5 SF 1000 = 1 SF

12. 00 = 4 SF 1500.0 = 5 SF

Rule 4: All zeros to the right of a decimal point but to the left of a nonzero digit are not
significant.

Example: 0.00406 = 3 SF

Rounding Off
The numbers for calculated results in a measurement are rounded off to give the proper
number of significant figures.
Rule
a. less the 5, the preceding number is retained or left unchanged
b. equal to or greater than 5, add one 910 to the preceding number

Scientific Notation
Scientific work often involves the use of numbers that are very, very small or extremely
large. To minimize error in calculations, these numbers are expressed in much simpler way.
Exponents are used which are equivalent to the number of decimal places that have been
moved either to the left or to the right to conform with the formula M x 10 n , where M is a
number having one digit to the left of the decimal point and n is a (+) or (-) exponent. This
exponent notation is known as scientific notation.

Example: The speed of light is 30, 000, 000, 000 cm/s

Exponential form: 3.0 x 1010 , the decimal point is moved 10 decimal places to the left,
therefore the exponent is +10.

Example: The wavelength of yellow light is 0.000059 cm.

Exponential form: 5.9 x 10-5 , the decimal point is moved 5 decimal places to the right, the
exponent is -5.

Rule 1. Numbers must be expressed in the same powers of ten in addition and subtraction.
Example:
2.43 x 104 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.43 x 104
+ 5.834 x 103 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.5834 x 104
3.0134 x 10 4

5.869 x 10-5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.869 x 10-5

- 3.5 x 10-6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.35 x 10-5
5.519 x 10-5

Rule 2. In multiplication the exponents are added; while in division the exponents are
subtracted.
Example:
(6.02 X 102)(3.35 X 1010) = 20.167 X 1013

(9.45 X 10-5) ÷ (2.3 X 10-4) = 4.1 X 10-9

Units of Measurement
The common systems of measurement are the English and the Metric Systems. For
scientific, the metric system is the recognized system of units and considered as the
international unit. However, conversion of units from the English to the Metric System, is still
found helpful.
Some conversion Factors: (Metric to English)

1 m = 39.28 ft = 39.37 in 3.79 L = 1 gal 1g = 15.43 grain 1 kg =

2.2lbs
1 yd = 3 ft 28.35 g = 1 ounce 1 qt = 0.946 L

The numbers expressing measured quantities have no meaning without the accompanying
units. Chemistry work uses measurements exclusively in the System International or SI, for the
reason that is based on the metric system. The metric system is a decimal system that facilities
conversion. The metric units of length, mass and volume make use of prefixes to represent very
small or large values.

Examples are the Latin prefixes which identify descending values;

deci- (0.1) centi- (0.01) milli- (0.001)

And Greek prefixes which identify ascending values;

deka- (10) hecto- (100) kilo- (1000)

Common prefixes, their symbols and factors are listed below:

Factors Prefixes Symbols Factors Prefixes

Symbols
109 Giga- G 10-1 deci- d
106 Mega- M 10-2 centi- cm
103 Kilo- K 10-3 milli- m
101 Deka da 10-6 micro µ

Temperature
- Measurement of hotness or coldness
- Average kinetic energy

°C = Andres Celcius
°K = Daniel Farentheit
K = William Thomson

°C = (°F-32) 5/9
°F = (°C x 9/5) + 32
K = C-273
Naming, Writing of Formulas and Balancing Equation

A. Nomenclature of Compounds

I. Ionic compounds are made up of cations (positive ions) and anions (negative ions). With the
important exception of ammonium ion, NH4+, cations are derived from metals atoms. Metal
cations take their name from the elements. For example,

Element Name of Cation

Na sodium Na+ sodium ion (or sodium cation)
Mg magnesium Mg2+ magnesium ion (or magnesium cation)
Al aluminum Al3+ aluminum ion (or aluminum cation)

a. Binary compounds are compounds formed from just two elements. For binary compounds
the first element we write is the metal cation following the nonmetallic. Thus, NaCl is sodium
chloride; the anion is named by taking the first part of the element’s name (chlorine) and
adding –ide. The charges on the cation and anion are not shown in the formula.

b. Ternary compounds are compounds consisting of three elements. The “-ide” ending is also
used for certain anion group containing two different elements, such as hydroxide (OH-) and
cyanide (CN-). Thus, the compounds LiOH and KCN are named lithium hydroxide and potassium
cyanide, respectively. Another example of ternary ionic compound is ammonium chloride
(NH4Cl). In this case the cation (NH4+) is made up of two different elements.

For transistion metals that can form more than one type of cation, it is necessary to distinguish
one from the other. Two systems are used to differentiate these cations:

a. Classical System. This system assigns the ending “-ous” to the cation with fewer positive
charges and the ending “-ic” to the cation with more positive charges.
Fe2+ ferrous ion Fe3+ ferric ion

The names of the compounds that these ions form with chlorine would be

FeCl2 Ferrous chloride

FeCl3 Ferric chloride

b. Stock System. This system differentiates the cations by writing the charge of the cation in
parenthesis using Roman Numerals right after the name of the metal. For example, manganese
(Mn) atom can assume different charges.

Mn2+: MnO Manganese (II) oxide

Mn3+: Mn2O3 Manganese (III) oxide
Mn4+: MnO2 Manganese (IV) oxide
Fe2+: FeCl2 Iron (II) chloride
 Fe3+: FeCl3 Iron (III) chloride

2. Molecular compounds contain discrete molecular units. Naming binary molecular compound
is similar to naming binary ionic compounds.

The name of the element whose symbol appears first is written in full followed by the
root of the name of the second element with the suffix -ide. Greek or Latin prefixes are
attached to the name of each element to indicate the number of atoms of that element in the
molecule.

Prefix Meaning Prefix Meaning

mono- 1 hexa- 6
di- 2 hepta- 7
tri- 3 octa- 8
tetra 4 nona- 9
penta 5 deca- 10

Examples:
CO Carbon monoxide CO2 Carbon dioxide
NO2 Nitrogen dioxide N2O3 Dinitrogen trioxide
CCl4 Carbon tetrachloride SO2 Sulfur dioxide
SO3 Sulfur trioxide PCl3 Phosphorus trichloride
PCl5 Phosphorus pentachloride Cl2O7 Dichlorine heptoxide

The following guidelines are helpful when you name compounds with prefixes:

a. The prefix “mono-“ may be omitted for the first elemenet. For example, SO2 is named sulfur
dioxide, rather than monosulfur dioxide. The absence of prefix for the first element usually
implies there is one atom of that element present in the molecule.

b. For oxides, the ending “a” in the prefix is sometimes omitted. For example, N2O4 may be
called dinitrogen tetroxide, rather than dinitrogen tetraoxide. An exception to the use of Greek
prefixes involves molecular compounds containing hydrogen.

B2H6 = diborane CH4 = methane SiH4 = silane NH3= ammonia

3. Acids, Bases and Salts

a. Acids are substances that yield hydrogen ion, H+, when dissolved in water. The names
of the acids are based on the ions produced. In its pure state, the acid is named by using the
word hydrogen followed by the name of the anion.
Examples: H2S Hydrogen sulfide
H2SO4 Hydrogen sulfate
Its aqueous solution is given another name. The following are the rules in naming acids I the
aqueous solution:

1. If the anion name ends in –ide, the prefix hydro- is attached to the root of the anion name
followed by the ending –ic acid.

2. If the name of the oxyanion ends in –ate , the suffix –ic acid is attached to the root of the
anion name.

3. If the name of the oxyanion (a binary ion in which one element is oxygen) ends in –ite, the
suffix –ous acid is attached to the root of the ion name.

Examples:

Anion Formula Anion Name Acid Formula Name of Acid

Cl1- Chloride HCl Hydrochloric acid
SO32- Sulfite ion H2SO3 Sulfurous acid
SO42- Sulfate ion H2SO4 Sulfuric acid

b. Base can be described as a substance that yields hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in
water.

Examples:
NaOH - Sodium hydroxide
KOH - Potassium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2 - Barium hydroxide

C. Salts are formed when acids react with bases. These compounds are named by indicating the
name of the metal ion followed by the name of the anion.

Examples:
NaCl Sodium chloride
BaSO4 Barium sulfate
CaCO3 Calcium carbonate

4. Hydrates are compound that have specific number of water molecules attached to them
For example, in its normal state, each unit of Copper (II) sulfate has five water molecules
associated with it. The systematic name of this compound is Copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate
and its formula is written as CuSO4·5H2O. The water molecules can be driven off by heating.
When this occurs, the resulting compound is CuSO4, which is sometimes called anhydrous
Copper (II) sulfate, where “anhydrous” means that the compound no longer has water molecule
associated with it.
Examples:
BaCl2·2H2O Barium chloride dehydrate
LiCl·H2O Lithium chloride monohydrate
MgSO4·7H2O Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate
Sr(NO3)2·4H2O Strontium nitrate tetrahydrate

B. Writing Formulas
The writing of formulas requires knowledge of the symbols of elements and their
oxidation numbers. A correctly written formula must always show that the algebraic sum of the
total oxidation number is equal to zero. Below are some elements (except ammonium, NH4+)
and their common oxidation numbers.

H +1 Mg +2 Al +3 F -1 O -2
Li +1 Ca +2 Cu +1 & +2 Cl -1 S -2
Na +1 Ba +2 Hg +1 & +2 Br -1
K +1 Zn +2 Fe +1 & +3 I -1
NH4 +1 Cd +2 Sn +1 & +4

Some common polyatomic ions are the following:

Acetate CH3COO- Hypochlorite ClO-

Nitrate NO3- Chlorite ClO2-
Hydroxide OH- Perchlorate ClO4-
Chlorate ClO3 Carbonate CO3-2
Permanganate MnO4- Sulfate SO4-2
Chromate CrO4 Dichromate C2O7-2
Silicate SiO2 Phosphate PO4-3

In writing formulas, the symbol of the cation (+) ion is written first, then following by the
symbol of the anion (-). It might be useful for a beginner to write the respective oxidation
numbers above the symbols.

Example: for aluminum +3, oxygen -2

+3 -2 +3(2) -2(3) +6-6=0

Al O Al O Al2O3

It can now be clearly seen for the algebraic sum to be equal to zero, the correct formula for the
aluminum oxide is Al2O3. When the ions use parenthesis whenever necessary such as:

+ +2 +1(2) +2(1) +2 +2 =0
NH4 SO3 NH4 SO3 NH4 SO3 (NH4)2SO3
Other examples:
1. Sodium nitrate NaNO3
2. Barium fluoride BaF2
3. Zinc oxide ZnO
4. Aluminum bromide AlBr3
5. Ferric hydroxide Fe(OH)3

C. Balancing Chemical Equations

A chemical equation is the chemist’s shorthand process of describing the course of a
chemical reaction. The reactants are always written on the left and the products on the right.
An arrow (→) or equal (=) separates the reactants from the products.

Chemical equations must always be balanced since the chemical reactions must comply
with the law of Conservation of Mass. A balanced equation must show the same number of
each kind of atoms on the two sides of the equation. Consider the decomposition of potassium
chlorate

KClO3 → KCl + O2
K=1 K=1
Cl = 1 Cl = 1
O=3 O=2

The least common multiple of (3) oxygen on the left and (2) oxygen on the right is 6.
Since 3 is contained two times in 6, there will be needed 2 molecules of KClO 3 and since 2 is
contained 3 times in 6, there will be produced 3 molecules of oxygen.

KClO3 → KCl + O2
K=1 K=1
Cl = 1 Cl = 1
O = 3(2) = 6 O = 2(3) = 6

The equation is written as follows:

2KClO3 → KCl + 3O2

K=2 K=1
Cl = 2 Cl = 1
O=6 O=6

Next, the KCl is balanced by simply writing 2 before KCl on the right as there are 2KCl in
KClO3. The final equation then becomes

2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2

K=2 K=2
Cl = 2 Cl = 2
O=6 O=6