PPM GUIDELINES

LAFARGE INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY PROGRAM

PPM GUIDELINES
LAFARGE INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY PROGRAM 9/13/1999 04:05:00 PM

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.1 What is Thermography___________________________________________________1

1.2 Infrared Electrical Inspection Myths_______________________________________1
1.3 Which Machine and How Often?__________________________________________6

Table 1 – Electrical Equipment_____________________________________________________________8

Table 2 – Mechanical Equipment___________________________________________________________9
Table 3 – Steam System__________________________________________________________________11
Table 4 – Refractory Inspection___________________________________________________________12
Table 5 – Building Inspection_____________________________________________________________13
Table 6 – Building Roof Inspection_________________________________________________________14

ii
PPM GUIDELINES
LAFARGE INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY PROGRAM 9/13/1999 04:05:00 PM

1 What is Thermography

Everything around us, as well as ourselves, constantly loses heat to the

environment as invisible infrared radiation. We feel infrared radiation but cannot
see it. The technique for detecting this invisible heat is called Thermography.

With Thermographic instruments we can "see" infrared radiation on a standard

television screen. The TV image can be videotaped or stored on a floppy disk to
be later analyzed. Costly heat related problems caused by poor design, poor
workmanship, or material failure in electrical/mechanical systems can be
pinpointed.

Thermographic inspections have proven to be an indispensable predictive

maintenance tool in providing positive evidence to solving heat related problems.

2 Infrared Electrical Inspection Myths

a) Introduction

There are many infrared thermography applications in our industry: electrical,

mechanical, process related, refractory (kilns, clinker coolers, preheaters), and
buildings. However, one of the oldest and most established of all applications
is infrared electrical inspections. Infrared electrical inspections have been
performed regularly for over 30 years. For a long time, infrared thermography
electrical inspections have been used in Lafarge Corporation plants; however,
these inspections have not been conducted by our personnel. Lafarge
Corporation plants have been hiring outside services for many years to conduct
infrared thermography electrical inspections. As Lafarge Corporation does not
have any expert in infrared thermography, most often we believe what outside
services tell us. Despite the level of outside service experience, there is
misconceived, mistaken, and outwardly false information circulating within the
industry regarding how to accurately perform an electrical inspection. We will
call these items “Myths.

Of the many myths being propagated today, the four main ones that,
unfortunately, can still be heard regarding infrared electrical inspections are:
 Infrared inspections are not necessary because each year all the connections
are tightened.
 Infrared inspection of electrical components can accurately be made
through cabinet doors and other covers.
 It is not necessary to obtain the current flow reading of the electrical
system.

1
PPM GUIDELINES
LAFARGE INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY PROGRAM 9/13/1999 04:05:00 PM

 Temperature measurement is accurate as long as you can see the hot spot.

b) The Myth of Tightening Electrical Connections

During conventional preventive maintenance, a number of procedures can be

carried out, they are: visual inspection, equipment cleaning, tightening
connections, over-current device testing, resistance testing, insulation testing,
etc. All of these procedures, and others, have their place except one. That is
the systematic tightening of electrical connections.

What makes a good connection?

To have a good connection, two elements must be taken into account. Clean
contact surfaces, along with the proper exertion of force and pressure. Contact
resistance decreases as forces are increased, but only to a certain point. You
can go too far.

It is important to understand that just because a connection is identified as a

thermal anomaly, it does not mean it is loose. It could have oxidized, corroded
or dirty contact surfaces. There may be a problem with cross threading or the
wrong bolt may be in place. In these situations, applying a specified torque
will not result in a proper connection.

There are four (4) possibilities:

1. The thermographer missed them.

2. Some components were operational during the follow-up that were not
during the first inspection.
3. New anomalies developed since the previous inspection.
4. During routine maintenance, new anomalies were created.

It is highly recommended that thermographers document ALL the components

not operating during an inspection, or carry additional liability insurance. If a
component were to blow and shut down the plant and/or cause injury just after
an inspection, it would be good to have documented that the component was
not operating and therefore was not inspected.

A clean vibration free climate controlled building environment requires only a

yearly inspection. While a dirty high vibration environment should have
biannual inspections.

2
PPM GUIDELINES
LAFARGE INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY PROGRAM 9/13/1999 04:05:00 PM

The basic purpose of a bolt in an electrical system is to bring two metal

surfaces together and hold them in position with the least amount of resistance
to current flow as possible. It is important when assembling bolted
connections that a torque wrench be used and appropriate torque values as
received from manufacturers, codes or standards, be applied. It has been
suggested by several experts that the routine tightening of electrical
connections be stopped and only perform maintenance on the anomalies
identified with infrared thermography.

c) Inspections Through Cabinet Doors

Why does it not work? Infrared thermography works in wavelengths (approx.

2 - 12 micron.) which behave similar to the visible spectrum. When infrared
energy is emitted from the surface of an object, it travels through the
atmosphere until it strikes another object. At this point, the infrared energy is
either absorbed or reflected from this receiving object. In some instances, the
infrared energy will be transmitted.

However, after stating this, it is good practice to take a quick look at the
cabinet doors prior to the electrician opening them. The reason is, should an
exceptionally warm door be found, the electrician can be cautioned. There
may be an exceptional problem behind the door and it is in fact creating
enough thermal energy to warm up the cabinet and the door. Be careful.

Some electrical cabinets cannot be opened up while under load, if you attempt
to do so, it will shut down. What method can you use to inspect these with
thermography? One method is to document a number of parameters to
establish a baseline to compare future readings.

The parameters are:

1. An equipment load reading.

2. The ambient temperature.
3. A thermal image to establish the thermal pattern.
4. A temperature profile of the cabinet.

If on future inspections the overall cabinet temperature has risen and the load
and ambient temperatures are the same, one can suspect a problem. If the
thermal pattern has changed and the load and ambient have remained the same,
suspect an anomaly again. Please note this is not exact. When the cabinet is
opened, the actual anomaly will still have to be identified from many
possibilities. If possible, open up the cabinet quickly after shutdown and
attempt to identify the anomaly by looking at the residual heat.

3
PPM GUIDELINES
LAFARGE INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY PROGRAM 9/13/1999 04:05:00 PM

Another method is to drill small holes, approximately 1/2", into the cabinet
door in strategic places. When performing the inspection, place the lens of the
instrument against the hole and observe the thermal pattern of the components
in the cabinet. Before drilling any holes, make sure this is legal for the specific
equipment and industry.

The best method is to put an infrared window into the cabinet door. The
windows are approximately 3" in diameter and are both transparent to SW and
LW infrared as well as the visible spectrum. This makes it simple to identify
anomalies and measure the temperatures. There are transmission losses that
will have to be taken into consideration for accurate temperature measurement.

d) The Question of Load

The concern is that some thermographers consider there is enough load on the
circuit as long as they can see some thermal emitting from the components.
Without knowing the actual load, temperature measurement is misleading.
Without accurate temperatures, it is difficult, if not impossible, to evaluate and
classify the severity of the problem.

If thermography inspections are being performed without taking load readings,

the client should be made aware that no attempt was made to establish loads
and the temperature measurements are not an accurate indication of the
severity of the anomaly. In other words, the thermographer must be honest
with the client and indicate the level and accuracy of service being offered. It
should be up to Lafarge’s representative what type or level of service is
required. This type of service is called a qualitative inspection. No
measurements are made, the thermal image is evaluated to find an anomaly and
identify where it exists.

What are the disadvantages in this qualitative approach?

 The true severity of the anomaly cannot be determined.

 A repair priority cannot be established.
 Trending is not possible.
 Difficult to diagnose certain types of anomalies without load reading on
each phase.
 Equipment may fail before the repair is performed.
 Repairs may be made on equipment not requiring it.
 Wrong diagnosis of anomaly is more prevalent.
 No correlation with other inspection techniques.

4
PPM GUIDELINES
LAFARGE INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY PROGRAM 9/13/1999 04:05:00 PM

What are the advantages?

 It takes less time to perform the inspection and report.

 Less application knowledge and infrared knowledge required by the
operator.
 Lower equipment investment as temperature measurement is not required.

With this understanding, it is our opinion that all thermographers, when

performing infrared condition monitoring on electrical systems, must take a
load reading at the time of inspection. Obviously there are exceptions to the
rule, but very few!

Along with load, there are a number of important parameters to consider when
evaluating the severity of an anomaly on an electrical system. They are: size
and mass of the component, angle of view, obstructions between the infrared
instrument and the component, heat transfer rates of conduction, radiation and
convection, size of the target and distance, importance of component to the
system or process, calibration of the infrared instrument, ambient fluctuations,
equipment cycling, component temperature rating and so on.

e) Temperature Measurement and Spatial Resolution

There are several different types of infrared imaging radiometers with varying
optics. The effect of object size, thermal contrast, and distance-to-the-object
are very different from a classroom and in the field. The other lesson that is
drilled home is just because you can "see" the anomaly that does not mean you
can measure it accurately. The criticality of the target size and distance ratio
for electrical inspection ranks right up there with emissivity, reflectivity, and
load. In many cases, this ratio is the greatest source of error both for
qualitative and quantitative evaluation. With this in mind, what can be done to
reduce the problem to a manageable level? The answer is simple, education!
Just by being aware of the problem gives us a good beginning to increased
accuracy.

5
PPM GUIDELINES
LAFARGE INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY PROGRAM 9/13/1999 04:05:00 PM

f) Conclusion

These four myths are the most prevalent to infrared electrical inspections.
Furthermore, not considering operator competence or specific equipment
capabilities, there are three important factors to consider and correlate when
making a temperature measurement: object size and distance, electrical load
and wind speed. Also when performing IR analysis, additional studies and
investigation must be undertaken for resistance temperature, the effects of
convection on electric components, fault classification - combining delta-T
method, direct temperature, component temperature rating, and temperature
trending.

3 Which Machine and How Often?

a) Purpose

Temperature is one of the first observable parameters that can indicate the
condition of operating equipment. Infrared condition monitoring is a technique
capable of revealing the presence of an anomaly by virtue of the thermal
distribution profile which the defect produces on the surface of the component.
The defect will normally alter the thermal signature of the surface due to the
change in the amount of heat generated and the heat transfer properties of the
component. To determine an adverse operating temperature of a component, it
is necessary to first determine a baseline. This is the thermal signature and
temperature distribution indicating a normal loading condition. Once the
baseline is established, new data collected on a regular schedule will be
compared to it.

b) Infrared Thermography Applications

Application diversity is one reason why companies choose infrared

thermography as one of the key condition monitoring instruments for their
predictive maintenance program. Thermography is a quick and efficient means
of remotely identifying thermal anomalies of virtually all types of plant
equipment, electrical, mechanical or process related. The cost cutting benefits
are well documented, insurance premiums are lowered, inspection time and
problem diagnosis is reduced, downtime is reduced, repairs and new
installations are quickly evaluated to insure reliability. Safety is improved by
identification of design, workmanship or equipment failure, and by monitoring
high risk processes such as furnaces and high voltage electrical equipment.

6
PPM GUIDELINES
LAFARGE INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY PROGRAM 9/13/1999 04:05:00 PM

c) Alarm Levels

There are two methods for several classification of faults, the temperature rise
(Delta T) method and the direct temperature method. The first method has
been the standard in the industry for 20 years but has some weaknesses. This
classifies the temperature rise to be minor, intermediate or major. For example,
a temperature rise between 10C and 30C would be classified as an
intermediate fault with a recommendation to be repaired at the next shutdown.

The main problem with this method is it does not take ambient and running
conditions or the maximum rated temperature of the component into
consideration. This means that a 30C rise may not be an intermediate fault
classification but a major fault because the actual temperature of the
component exceeds the rated component temperature and should be dealt with
immediately.

The trend today is to create fault classifications based on the actual component
temperature. This means that the thermographer will have to do his/her
homework to obtain the rated temperature from manufacturers and electrical
standards institutes. As well, temperature corrections must be made for
varying load conditions and wind.

d) Electrical Equipment

One of the oldest, most established of all applications is infrared electrical

inspections. Whether inspecting a breaker panel in a building or connection on
a transmission line, the principle is the same. As the resistance to the flow of
current increases, the temperature goes up. If left unchecked, the temperature
will continue to rise until failure occurs which could be catastrophic with
explosion and/or fire. The infrared camera allows you to "see" the temperature
increasing from the start. At this point, a temperature is established with the
load taken into consideration. This will assist in the decision of either fixing
the problem in short order or continuing to monitor it until such time it is
possible to shut down the operation with less inconvenience to the process.

Other electrical applications include electric motors, transformers, and more as

per Table 1.

7
PPM GUIDELINES
LAFARGE INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY PROGRAM
Table 1 – Electrical Equipment
Application Conditions Detected
Power Distribution, Loose/corroded/improper
Capacitors, connections and splices,
Lightning Arrestors, inoperative capacitor, failed
Circuit Breakers, lightning arrestors, poor
Conductors, Splices, breaker connections,
Disconnects overheating, overloading,
conductor strands broken.
Miscellaneous Loose or corroded
Electrical Apparatus, connections, poor contacts,
Switches, Breakers, unbalanced loads,
Load Centers, Motor overloading, overheating.
Control Centers
Transformers Loose/deteriorated
connections, overheated
bushings, poor contacts (tap
changer) overloading
unbalanced 3-phase load,
blocked/restricted cooling
tubes, fluid level, internal
arcing and general
overheating.
Motors/Generators Overheated bearings,
unbalanced load, short or
open windings, poor brush
contact, poor connections,
heating of brushes, slip rings
and commutators,
overload/overheating, blocked
cooling passages.
Emergency Power - Poor battery terminal
Stand-by connections, dead cells in
Generators, batteries, defective or
Batteries, Terminal inoperative contactors or
Connections, stand-by switches.
Contactors,
Automatic Stand-by
Switches
9/13/1999 04:05:00 PM
Potential Impact
Overheating, arcing, burning,
fire, conductor strands broken -
overhead line could come down.
Inoperative capacitor causing
lack of protection from power
surges and possible early failure
of associated electrical
equipment. Defective lightning
arrestors leaking power to
ground. Safety consideration.
Arcing, short-circuiting, burning,
fire. 25% of all miscellaneous
electrical apparatus failures are
caused by loose electrical
connections. Safety
considerations.
Arcing, short circuiting, burning,
fire. Rewind.
Defective bearings causing
damage to iron and/or windings.
Defective brushes, causing
damage to slip ring or
commutators. Resulting in
damage to windings. Damage to
driven object. Safety
consideration.
Loss of stand-by power for
essential services, telephone
systems, computers, etc.
8
PPM GUIDELINES
LAFARGE INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY PROGRAM 9/13/1999 04:05:00 PM

e) Mechanical Equipment

Oil and vibration analysis techniques are normally used to evaluate the
condition of rotating equipment. Oil and vibration analysis techniques are
used to detect and diagnose equipment problems. Excessive heat is normally
generated at a later stage in the equipment deterioration when there is an
inadequate lubrication, misuse, overload, and/or abnormal wear.

Infrared thermography can be used for the same reasons, however, this
technique is very useful to confirm problems and to find the root cause of
problems.

The following equipment in Table 2 can be checked using thermography:

Table 2 – Mechanical Equipment

Application Conditions Detected Potential Impact

Internal combustion Valve or injector malfunction,
engines blocked radiator tubes and oil
coolers. Thermal distribution,
high radiator inlet and outlet
temperature.
Refrigeration/HVAC Electrical, air leaks, energy
Systems loss, heat exchanger efficiency,
clogged condenser/heat
exchanger tubes. Cooling/hot
water/steam leaks, pumps, air
locks.
Drive couplings, Overheated bearings or rollers,
Pillow Blocks - misalignment of shaft or
Bearings pulley, uneven pressure
(overload), inadequate
lubrication.
Pumps, Overheated bearings, high
Compressors, Fans, compressor discharge
Blowers temperature, high oil
temperature, broken or
defective valve/blades, cooling
problems, air filter cleanness.
Bucket Elevator Cracked chain, bucket missing. Cracked chain, production loss,
safety consideration.
Overheating, valve breakage and
damage to piston, rods, and
shafts. Damage to driven
object.
Inefficient operation, wasted
energy. Control room
computers shutdown because of
overheating. Leaks can create
additional damage.
Uncomfortable occupants. Loss
of production.
Defective bearings causing
damage to equipment, uneven
pressure or misalignment
damages bearings, rollers
possibly damaging driven
object. Loss of production.
Loss of bearings, damage to
shaft and internal parts with
possible damage to driven
object. Loss of production.

9
PPM GUIDELINES
LAFARGE INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY PROGRAM 9/13/1999 04:05:00 PM

Table 2 – Mechanical Equipment (cont’d)

Application Conditions Detected Potential Impact

Hydraulic Heat exchanger efficiency,
Systems, clogged condenser/heat
Oil/Water exchanger tubes. High lube oil
Cooling Systems temperature, high bearing
temperature, faulty stop/control
valve operation, bad oil filtration,
dirty filter, piping leakage
Ball Mill Missing liners, distribution load
in the mill, trunnions/journals
surface contact, inadequate
lubrication, blockages in
hydraulics. Mill shell stresses.
Kiln and Mill Overheating gears and pinions,
Drive Train gear and pinion alignments,
inadequate lubrication, blockages
in hydraulics.
F.K. Pumps Overheated bearings,
misalignment of screw, uneven
pressure (overload), inadequate
lubrication. Air sealed problems.
Dust Collectors, Leaks/infiltrations in the casing,
Electrostatic air leakage in the piping system,
Precipitators and build-up.
Ducts
Loss of bearings, damage to
shaft and internal parts with
possible damage to driven
object. Water induction with
damage to internal parts. Lack
of lubrication damages internal
parts. Loss of production.
Mill worn shell, loss of journal
and/or trunnions. Loss of
production.
Mill gear and pinions
misalignment, damage to driver
object, safety consideration, loss
of gear and/or pinions.
Defective bearings causing
damage to equipment, uneven
pressure or misalignment
damages screw possibly
damaging driver object. Loss of
production.
Environment consideration.
Loss of production.

Transportation Wear pattern. Environment consideration.

Lines
Storage Tanks, Determination of fluid levels, Over filling, product spillage,
Propane, Gases inadequate insulation, leaks, environment problems.
defective valve.
Process Fired On internal tube surface, faulty Wasted energy, process
Furnace Tubes, burners. inefficiencies, low production
Burners, capacity, tubes overheating and
Refractory / warping or complete failure
Insulation which could cause an explosion
with tube replacement or
furnace replacement. Safety
consideration.

10
PPM GUIDELINES
LAFARGE INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY PROGRAM 9/13/1999 04:05:00 PM

f) Steam Systems

Infrared thermography is highly effective in locating various problems in

piping systems. Some applications in Table 3 are boiler tube leakage, tube
overheating, flame impingement, locating steam leaks, insulation defects on
distribution lines, and defective steam traps.

Table 3 – Steam System

Application Conditions Detected Potential Impact

Boilers/Furnaces Refractory/insulation
breakdown, blocked cast. Iron
section/scale buildup, hot gas
leaks, furnace tube
blockages/internal scale
buildup, safety valve leakage.
Steam Systems Valve or joint leakage,
insulation effectiveness,
underground system leakage,
restricted or blocked
condensed return line.
Steam Traps Trap malfunction, wrong size
trap, back up from
malfunctioning trap down
steam.
Wasted energy. Furnace tube
overheating and failure, tube
and/or boiler replacement.
Safety considerations.
Loss of steam/wasted energy.
Damage to parts as result of
leakage.
Trap failed to open, loss of
steam, wasted energy. Trap
failed to close: carry over of
water, air and non-condensable
gases to equipment.

11
PPM GUIDELINES
LAFARGE INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY PROGRAM 9/13/1999 04:05:00 PM

g) Refractory Inspections

Inspection of refractory and insulation on preheaters, cyclones, pipes, ducts,

and kilns is based on the theory that a uniform heat flow rate exists through the
wall. The resulting exterior thermal patterns are a direct function of heat
conduction through the insulating medium and external wall.

Table 4 – Refractory Inspection

Application Conditions Detected Potential Impact

Kilns Refractory breakdown, high
bearing temperature, high
gear temperature, air
infiltration.
Preheaters, Refractory breakdown, flame
Precalcining Process impingement, build-up, air
infiltration.
Wasted energy, overheating and
overhanging/warping of shell,
loss of bearings, gear and
pinions. Cracks in the shell
and/in the tire. Loss of
production.
Wasted energy, process
inefficiencies, low production
capacity. Safety consideration.

With proper baseline and past verifications performed, the thermographer is

able to relate temperature to refractory lining thickness. So, all temperatures
should be recorded with process parameters related for future reference.

12
PPM GUIDELINES
LAFARGE INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY PROGRAM 9/13/1999 04:05:00 PM

h) Buildings

We are responsible to protect our equipment as well as our buildings; assets

have to be kept in good condition. Infrared thermography techniques can be
used to look at the building structure and its envelope.

Infrared thermography is used to identify energy loss due to poor construction,

missing or inadequate insulation and moisture intrusion. Correcting defects
plays a significant role in increasing building energy efficiency and structural
integrity.

Table 5 – Building Inspection

Application Conditions Detected Potential Impact

Electrical See Section on Electrical.
Envelope Heat loss,
missing/deteriorated/
misapplied insulation, air
leakage, moisture problems,
window seal failure
Concrete Locate rebar and determine
deterioration, locate and
determine problems in
parking ramp heating system,
locate hot/cold water, steam
lines, identify leaks and
excessive heat loss.
Heating, A/C System See section on Mechanical.
Florescent lights and Overheating prior to failure.
ballasts
Energy waste, uncomfortable
occupants, moisture build-up
within wall structure can cause
severe structural problems, bricks
spalling and falling off, precast
anchor deterioration and eventual
failure.
Rebar corrosion and concrete
delamination unchecked carries
severe structural problems which
are very costly to repair.
Emergency florescent lights and
ballasts replacement. Non-
planned work.

13
PPM GUIDELINES
LAFARGE INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY PROGRAM 9/13/1999 04:05:00 PM

i) Built-up Roofs

Even though a roof is part of the building envelope, we will deal with it as a
separate item. A roof inspection goes well beyond the detection of heat loss,
for the roof functions not only as a thermal barrier for conserving energy but
also as a waterproof membrane for the building.

Moisture is the number one enemy of built-up roofs. Undetected wet

insulation is the primary cause of premature roof failures and high maintenance
costs. The added dimension here for thermography is the ability to provide a
fast, accurate and inexpensive way to locate these areas of wet insulation and
leaks which gives maintenance personnel the opportunity to limit their roof
problems before they become costly.

Table 6 – Building Roof Inspection

Application Conditions Detected Potential Impact

Roof Identify leaks and moisture
intrusion on flat roofs.
Energy loss, leaks into the
building interior which can create
further costly damage, deck
corrosion. Identify and repair
roof at initial stages of moisture
intrusion rather than costly
extensive damage.

j) Lafarge Personnel or Outside Services?

It is easy enough to obtain infrared equipment either by leasing or purchasing.

But to have a successful program, the selected resource must be properly
trained to operate the equipment and analyze and interpret the results. The
resource can come from inside, Lafarge personnel, or from outside, infrared
thermography service company.

Lafarge Personnel
Using this technique on a regular basis is very helpful for the plant to properly
diagnose temperature related equipment problems and develop trending data to
predict equipment failure. However, one or two employees should be trained
and dedicated to the infrared thermography program to get maximum benefit
from the equipment investment. A regularly scheduled training program must
be established to continue the learning process and expand the program to
encompass new applications.

14
PPM GUIDELINES
LAFARGE INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY PROGRAM 9/13/1999 04:05:00 PM

Outside Services
According to cautions mentioned on the previous page, the plant should be
very careful when selecting outside services. It is recommended to use a good
company, well established, and with experienced people. The plant should
insist on always having the same thermographer performing the work.

As you can see in this section of the guidelines, everything is based on

temperature change. Thus, to analyze and interpret the results, it is very easy
to compare with a baseline and past experiences. For that reason, it is
recommended to have a computer dedicated to infrared thermography analysis
in the plant using a software to interpret, analyze and record data. When using
outside services, it is strongly recommended to own the database in case
something goes wrong with the outside services.

15