Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

The Hong Kong University of Science & Technology

CIVL 4750 Numerical Solu5ons to

Geotechnical Problems
I: Use of Computers in Geomechanics

Jidong Zhao

 About This Course
•  CIVL4750 Numerical SoluDons to Geotechnical Problems
–  Lecture: Room 4503, Tuesday/Thursday: 12:00-13:20
–  Course Instructor: Dr. Jidong Zhao
–  Office: Room 3589
–  Email: jzhao@ust.hk
–  TAs: Xingyue Li (xlibp@connect.ust.hk), Room 4028
Huanran Wu (hwuan@connect.ust.hk), Room 4028

•  Course Format
–  Lectures
•  Reference lecture notes can be purchased later
•  Lecture PowerPoint can be downloaded from Canvas
•  Chalk-talk/PowerPoint – Note-taking is necessary
•  Popup quesDons for anyone

–  Tutorials (taking normal lecture Dme)

•  ComputaDonal Lab (Room 3207)

–  Assignments /Midterm/Group project

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 2

 Course Content & Schedule
1.  Use of computers in geomechanics W 1
2.  1D Finite difference and finite element methods W 2
•  Tutorials:
1D Finite Difference Analysis on Terzaghi’s 1D ConsolidaDon

3.  2D finite element method for seepage analysis W 3-4
•  Tutorials:
Seepage analysis I (steady-state analysis)
Seepage analysis II (Transient analysis)
4.  Slope stability analysis W 5-6
•  Tutorials:
Slope stability analysis using Slope/W
Slope stability during rainfall infiltraDon
5.  IntroducDon to consDtuDve soil models W 7-9

v  Mid-term (TentaDvely on a night Dme in W9) W 9

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 3

 Course Content & Schedule
6.  2D finite element method for stress-strain analysis W10-11
•  Tutorials:
Strip fooDng on sand using PLAXIS 2D
ExcavaDon using a De back wall by PLAXIS 2D

7.  2D finite difference method and FLAC2D W12-13

•  Tutorials:
Mesh generaDon with FLAC2D
ExcavaDon analysis with FLAC2D

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 4

 Grading & Weight
•  Three Assignments
•  One Midterm
•  One group project

3-3-4

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 5

 Prerequisites & References
•  Prerequisites
–  CIVL 3730 (Fundamentals of Geotechnics)
–  CIVL 3740 (Geotechnical Analysis & Design)

•  References
–  Zhang, L.M., 2010. CIVL 375 Lecture Notes, HKUST
–  Geo-Slope 2007: Seep/W, Slope/W 2007 Manuals. Website:
hmp://www.geoslope.com
–  Itasca FLAC (Fast Lagrangian Analysis of ConDnua), Ver. 4.0. Website:
hmp://www.itascacg.com
–  PLAXIS 2D/3D 2010 Manual. hmp://www.plaxis.nl
–  Other sonware: PLAXIS 3D, 3D Tunnel, 3D FoundaDon, etc.

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 6

 This Lecture
•  Chapter 1: Computer use in geotechnics

–  Problems in geotechnical engineering?

–  Approaches for geotechnical problems

–  Solve a problem with the aid of computer

•  Pros & Cons

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 7

 Geotechnical Problems
•  Stability of slopes/embankment
–  Landslide/avalanche/debris flow

Po Shan Road Landslide, Hong Kong, 1972 (Death toll: 71) La Conchita Landslide, CA, USA, 2005

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 8

 Geotechnical Problems
Taiwan No.3 Freeway Landslide, Taipei, 2010 (Four killed)

•  Landslides/Debris flow
Zhouqu mudflow, Lanzhou, China, 2010 (Death toll: 1471; missing 294)

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 9

 Geotechnical Problems
•  Bearing capacity of foundaDons
–  FoundaDon failures

Residen5al Building Founda5on Failure, Shanghai, China , 2009

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 10

 Geotechnical Problems
•  DeformaDon & semlement
–  Large deformaDon
–  Excess/uneven semlement
The Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 11

 Geotechnical Problems
Oil Container Leak

•  Environmental geotechnics
–  ContaminaDon
–  HeaDng/noise/vibraDon
–  Solid waste disposal

Solid Waste Treatment Chemical container

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 12

 Modeling & Analysis
•  Physical models
–  Laboratory tests
–  Field tests
–  Centrifuge tests
–  LimitaDons:
Hydraulic flow tests on offshore plaaorm
•  Cost Triaxial tes5ng apparatus

•  UnrealisDc constraints
•  Scaling laws

CPT Tes5ng Truck Centrifuge @ HKUST

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 13

 Modeling & Analysis
•  AnalyDcal models
–  Simplified mathemaDcal problems
–  Solved for soluDons
–  Typical examples:
•  1D ConsolidaDon
•  FooDng semlement
–  Advantages:
•  Clear mathemaDcal 1D Consolida5on

relaDons for inputs/outputs

–  Disadvantages:
•  Workable for simple geometry
homogeneous, isotropic, steady
state, 1-D, etc. Foo5ng Problem

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 14

 Modeling & Analysis
•  Numerical methods
–  Becoming popular the past 30-40 years
–  General access of PCs
–  Development of specific sonware Discrete Element Method

•  FEM/FDM/DEM/etc
–  Advantages:
•  VersaDle, flexible, good for
complex boundaries/loading
Finite Element Analysis on a Tunnel
condiDons, heterogeneous,
transient, 2D/3D, coupled behavior
–  Disadvantages:
•  Garbage in/garbage out Finite Element Analysis on Retaining Wall

•  Capable people do the simulaDons/analysis

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 15
 Numerical Methods
•  Programmed mathemaDcal
models solved by computers

•  MathemaDcal models are
normally differenDal equaDons
imposed by boundary and
iniDal condiDons.

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 16

 Numerical Methods
•  Advantages
–  EvoluDon of stress and strain in the soil and
structural elements and appropriate design
decisions.

–  Step beyond "recipe" and onen simplisDc design approaches to strive

for real understanding of soil behavior and soil structure interacDons.

–  Explore likely collapse mechanisms.

–  Structural members may be added and withdrawn during the

numerical simulaDon to model field condiDons.

–  Allows the complete history of the excavaDon's behavior to be

predicted; a single analysis can provide informaDon on all design
requirements.
CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 17
18
 Numerical Methods
•  Disadvantages
–  Necessity of acquiring sufficient background knowledge and
experience
•  Numerical approximaDons
•  ConsDtuDve models
•  Computer languages

–  Accuracy of mathemaDcs vs. soil models

•  Example slope stability analysis (Duncan 1996)
–  Error in FS from the methods that saDsfy all equilibrium condiDons (Janbu’s,
Morgenstein and Price, and Spencer’s) is around 6% (+/-)
–  Errors in geometry, pore pressure, unit weight etc >6%
–  Errors in shear strength >>6% (usually 30%)

–  SoluDons should be checked against the intuiDon of experienced

engineers, standard soluDons, and field monitoring.

–  Check computer output; disclaimer of sonware.

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 19

 Rela5ons Among Various Methods
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Modelling Modelling

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 20

 Fundamental Steps of Analysis
a)  Define the geometry of the problem,
consider the loading condiDons with
physical boundaries

b)  Simplify the problem both geometrically

and physically
A Concrete Beam Bridge
c)  Formulate and solve the mathemaDcal
relaDons (onen differenDal equaDons) that
describe the physical phenomena of
interest, with appropriate boundary
condiDons.

d)  Evaluate the structural performance based

on soluDon data.

e)  Verify the results by performing field trial

tests on real life size or suitably down-
scaled models.
CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 21
 Two Ways for Solu5ons
a)  Exact theoreDcal soluDon to an
approximated problem
•  Examples: Boussinesq's soluDon in
semi-infinite linearly elasDc space
•  Accuracy: approximately (+/-) 30%
when applied to soils!

b)  Approximate soluDon to the

"exact" problem
•  The problem simplificaDon is kept
to a minimum, while an approximate
numerical soluDon is obtained using
one of the many techniques available
in the field of numerical analysis.
CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 22
 Numerical Programs/Methods
•  Numerical methods
–  Finite difference method
–  Finite element method
–  Boundary element method
–  Discrete element method
•  Computer programs
–  Seep/W, Slope/W, Sigma/W, FB-Pier, CRISP, PLAXIS (and
PLAXIS FoundaDon/Tunneling), ABACUS, ANSYS, SVFLUX,
SVSLOPE, SVAIR, SVSOLID, GRLWEAP
–  Check what we have at HKUST:
•  hmp://www.ce.ust.hk/faciliDes/lab_geo_engineering_sonware.html
–  Market place:
•  hmp://www.ggsd.com

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 23

 Preliminaries on Numerical Methods
•  ParDal differenDal equaDons (PDEs)
–  A PDE of order n: the order of the highest derivaDve
∂u ∂u
•  E.g., is of first order
A − B2 =0
∂x ∂y
–  Linear PDE: one in which the coefficients of the funcDon
and derivaDves of the funcDon do not depend on the
funcDon or its derivaDves.
–  Quasi-linear PDE: one in which the coefficients are
funcDons of the dependent variable (e.g., u).
–  Nonlinear PDE: one in which the coefficients are
funcDons of the derivaDves (e.g., u,x).
u,x + Bu,y = 0 (linear)
u,x + uu,y = x2 (quasi-linear)
u,x+ (u,y)2 = 0 (nonlinear)
CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 24
 Preliminaries on Numerical Methods
•  IniDal and boundary condiDons
–  Example: The transient (x = time) temperature (u)
distribuDon in a homogeneous bar of finite length (y = 1)
with insulated sides
ux = k u yy x > 0, 0 < y < 1 (PDE)
u( 0, y) = f (y) x = 0, 0 < y < 1 (Initial conditions)
u(x,0) = φ (x) y = 0, x ≥ 0
u(x,l) = θ (x) y = 1, x ≥ 0 (Boundary conditions)

–  Three basic kinds of boundary condiDons:

•  Dirichlet: Value specified, unknown specified
•  Neumann: Slope, or derivaDve of unknown specified
•  Cauchy: Both value and slope specified (2 equaDons)
–  Well‑posed problem: a soluDon exist, is unique and
depends conDnuously on the auxiliary (I/B) condiDons.
CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 25
 Preliminaries on Numerical Methods
•  Second-order parDal differenDal equaDons
–  General form of a two-dimensional linear PDE:
∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ∂φ ∂φ
A 2 +B + C 2 + D + E + Fφ + G = 0
∂ x ∂x∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y
–  Three standard or canonical forms:
•  EllipDc if B2 – 4 AC < 0
•  Parabolic if B2 – 4 AC = 0
•  Hyperbolic if B2 – 4 AC > 0
–  Examples of ellipDc PDEs are:
•  Equilibrium analysis of soil or rock; steady state seepage or temperature
–  Examples of parabolic PDEs are:
•  Transient seepage in soil or rock; consolidaDon behaviour; contaminant
migraDon
–  Examples of hyperbolic PDEs:
•  Periodic waves at some natural frequency; water hammer in a pipe;
natural frequency of a bridge in the wind; elasDc waves in plates, pile
driving.

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 26

 Preliminaries on Numerical Methods
•  Physical meanings of PDEs
–  EllipDc PDEs are mulD-dimensional equilibrium problems y
(Dme‑independent)
•  Ellipse x2 y2 B
x
+ 2 =1
•  Closed A 2
B
A
–  Parabolic PDEs: problems with transient or y

Dme‑dependent disturbances (finite propagaDon)

x
•  Parabola y2 = Ax
•  Open one way

–  Hyperbolic PDEs: natural frequencies and periods y

where disconDnuiDes persist (eigenvalue problems). -A A

x

2 2
•  Hyperbola x y
− =1
•  Open two ways A 2
B 2

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 27

 Example of linear 2nd order PDE in Civil
•  EllipDcal PDE Examples
–  Laplace's EquaDon:
•  Steady‑state flow of incompressible non‑viscous fluid in a porous
media.
•  Laplace's equaDon expresses the idea that the rate at which fluid
enters any given region is equal to the rate at which it leaves it.
(Kx)h,xx + (Ky)h,yy = 0
•  For isotropic, homogeneous porous media,
h,xx + h,yy = 0
•  Torsion of a Straight Solid Bar
φ,xx + φ,yy + 2Gθ = 0
φ: Prandtl stress funcDon for calculaDng the displacements and shear
stresses within a long solid elasDc cylinder under torsion

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 28

 Example of linear 2nd order PDE in Civil
•  Parabolic PDE example
–  Diffusion
•  Spreading out of a physical quanDty under some kind of driving
force: heat flow, diffusion of a concentraDon of a chemical in a
fluid, fluid flow through porous media and consolidaDon.
–  1-D: Ut = k U,xx
–  2-D: Ut = k (U,xx + U,yy)
–  2-D Richards: ∂ ⎛ ∂H ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂H ⎞ ∂Θ
⎜ kx ⎟ + ⎜⎜ k y ⎟⎟ + Q =
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ∂t

•  Hyperbolic PDE Examples

–  Wave EquaDon
•  The one‑dimensional wave equaDon
Utt= c2 U,xx
•  Transverse vibraDon of a string
•  Stress waves in a pile during driving
CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 29
 Numerical Errors
•  Roundoff errors
–  The consequence of using a number specified by n
correct digits to approximate a number which requires
more than n digits for its exact specificaDon.
–  Example:
π may be rounded as 3.1415926, 3.1416, 3.142, 3.14, 3.1, 3 …
–  If you round it to the n-digit, the error <= 5 x 10-(n+1).

–  Sources:
•  Deliberate rounding
•  LimitaDons in calculaDng device that is capable of supplying only
a certain number of digits

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 30

 Numeric
•  Integer Type Bytes Range
Integer (1) 1 With sign: -128 ~ 127
Hexadecimal (base 16) Without sign: 0 ~ 255
162 = 256 Integer (2) 2 With sign: -32,767 ~ 32,767
2562 = 65, 536 Without sign: 0 ~ 65,535
655362 = 4, 294, 967, 296 Integer (4) 4 With sign: -2,147,483,648 ~
2,147,483,647
Without sign: 0 ~ 4,294,967,295

Binary number Integer 1 byte:

max=255 without sign 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Binary number Integer 2 bytes:

max=65535 without sign

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 31
 Numeric
•  Real E↵ective digits: 102 (3) 102.0 (4)
–  Single precision: Real (4) 0.0102 (3)
•  4 bytes, 7 effecDve digits Floating point notation
–  NegaDve number: 1.02 ⇥102 (3)
•  -3.40282347E+38 ~ -1.17549435E-38 1.020 ⇥102 (4)
–  PosiDve number:
•  1.17549435E-38 ~ 3.40282347E+38
–  Double precision: Real (8)
•  8 bytes, 15 effecDve digits
–  NegaDve number:
•  -1.7976911348623158D+308 ~
•  -2.2250738585072013D-308
–  PosiDve number:
•  2.2250738585072013D-308 ~
•  1.7976911348623158D+308

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 32

 Numeric
•  Truncated errors
–  True value = approxima7on + trunca7on error
–  Example Taylor’s expansion
f ' (a) f ' ' (a) 2 f n (a)
f ( x) = f ( a ) + ( x − a) + ( x − a) + ... + ( x − a) n + ...
1! 1 2! n!
− 1 1 1 116
e 3 ≈1− + − =
3 18 162 162
error = 0 ~ 1/1944 [=1/(34 x 4!)≈0.00051]
•  Machine errors
–  If N1 + N2 + N3 is replaced by N1’ + N2’ + N3’, (rounded
approximaDons),
–  the error in the sum is the sum of the errors.
•  Random errors
–  Example: SummaDon of 1000 posiDve numbers, each rounded to n
decimal places,
0 ≤ total error (random) ≤ 500 units in the last place

CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 33

 Summary
•  Outline of this course
•  IntroducDon to computer use in geomechanics
–  Physical modeling/analyDcal methods/numerical
methods
–  Numerical methods: pros/cons
–  PDEs/Numeric data types
–  Roundoff/truncate/machine/random errors

•  Next lecture:
–  1D FDM and FEM: their use for pile/consolidaDon
–  Tutorials
CIVL 4750 | Lecture 1 | HKUST 34