Research Methodology Overview

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
AND PROJECT CONCEPT NOTE
Eylachew Zewdie (PhD)

Associate Professor in Soil Science
Woldia University
College of Agriculture, Mersa
Dec. 2017
Research Methodology and Project Concept Note
CONTENTS
PART ONE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER -I . PROJECT IDENTIFICATION AND SELECTION
TECHNIQUES
1.0. What is Research?
1.1. Project Identification
1.1.1 Observation
1.1.2. Theory and Scientific Concepts
1.1.3 Previous Research
Practical Concerns
Personal Interest
Resource and Financial Support Interest
Research Project Selection Technique
Using Attribute Grids for Selection of Research project
Setting the Limits on the Research Study
Setting Financial Limits to Research
Setting Limits for Time
Setting Limits for Resources
Priority Setting For Research Project
CHAPTER – II. RESEARCH PROJECT PROPOSAL

2.0. What is a Research Project Proposal?
2.1 Purpose of a Research Proposal
2.1.1 Convince Other People
Demonstrate Expertise
Demonstrates Competency
To serve as a contract
To Serve as a Planning Tool
Content of a Research Proposal
Description of a Research Problem
2.2.2 Why the Proposed Research is Important
Literature Review
Methodology
Priority and scheduling of various research activities
Detailed Project Budget
Limitation of the Study
Ethics in Proposal Writing
Submitting the Proposal
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CHAPTER – III. TECHNIQUES IN PROJECT PLANNING &

PROGRAMMING
3.1. Activity Listing
3.2 Framing Research Objectives
3.2.1 Limiting Research Objectives
3.2.2 Defining Boundaries
3.3 Exploring for Research Project
Literature Search and reading
3.3.2 Critical Thinking
3.3.3 Debate and Discussion
3.3.4 Computer and Internet
3.3.5 Record Keeping
Priority Setting and Scheduling Research activities
Priority Setting
Scheduling Research Activities
Selection of Methodology
Collection of Secondary data/ information
Preparations for the Field Work
Field Work and Collection of Data
Field Activities
Field data recording, mapping and sample keeping
Care and Precautions during Field Work
Data Analysis, Laboratory Testing and interpretation of Results
3.10 Techniques for Research Project Progress Monitoring
Monitoring the schedule of research activities
CHAPTER – IV. RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT

4.0 What is a Research Project Report?
4.1 Purpose of Research Project Report
4.2 Content of a Research Project Report
Preparations for Project Report
Cover or Title Page
Ethics in Project Report Writing
Presentation of Graphical Data and Photographs
Project Report Submitting
CHAPTER – V. RESEARCH PROJECT DEFENCE AND DISSEMINATION

OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
5.0. What is a Research Project Defense?
5.1 Defense Preparation
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5.2 Activities
Preparations for Research Defense Presentation
Structure of Presentation
Self Preparations
Mode of Presentation
Research Defense Presentation
Dissemination of Research Findings
Means of Dissemination of Research Findings
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CHAPTER – I
PROJECT IDENTIFICATION
AND SELECTION TECHNIQUES
1.0 What is Research
The best way to sharpen the scientific knowledge and skills in the respective
field of science it is necessary to conduct research. Research is not just a
compilation of report after gathering data from field but it is a systematic
phenomenon, a scientific culture that has to be learnt by a researcher in order
to produce a good quality research. A systematic research comprises;
 Proper research project identification.
 Various research project selection techniques.
 Proper assessment of time and resources.
 Usefulness and limitations of the proposed research study.
 A good systematic and self contained project proposal.
 Proper and systematic framing of project objectives.
 Identification of systematic and feasible methodology.
 A thorough literature review to explore previous research studies in
the related field.
 Techniques in project planning and programming.
 Project design for data collection, analysis and interpretation.
 Techniques for research project monitoring and evaluation.
 Research findings and data presentation.
 Research project reporting and technical writing.
 Techniques and capability to present and defend the research work.
1.1 Project Identification
Research project identification or selection is the most important and crucial

aspect of any research. Proper identification of a research project/ topic
means half of the assignment is completed before the initiation of actual
project study. Identification of a research project/ topic may be made by a
researcher by adopting either of the following means;
 Observation
 Theory and Scientific Concepts
 Previous Research
 Practical Concerns
 Personal Interest
 Resource and Financial Support Interest
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1.1.1 Observation
A researcher in his respective field of science may find few concepts, which
are not answerable, and a researcher start to wonder about it, why it is like
this. Such observations may produce a research problem.
Example: As a fact we know maximum landslides occur during or

immediately after rainy season. A researcher may make his observation and
come up with a research topic/ project – “Role of water in inducing instability of
slopes – in ‘ABC’ region of Northern Ethiopia”.
Another example – It is generally observed that there is an increase in

vegetation growth in the downstream of a dam project. For a researcher
observation would be why it is so. Therefore, a possible research problem will
be “Impact of dam projects on vegetation growth – with special reference to ‘A’ and
‘B’ dam projects”
1.1.2 Theory and Scientific Concepts
In different scientific fields there exist several theories and analytical

techniques that explain the same phenomenon in different ways. By
examining the different theories and analytical techniques carefully it is
possible to design a research project which may help to understand which
theory or analytical technique is more accurate. Thus, such comparative study
of different theory and analytical techniques are possible good research
studies.
Example: Geomechanics classification or Rock Mass Rating System (RMR)

and ‘Q’ System both provide quality of rock mass in underground
excavations. Both classification systems also suggest the possible support
measures. For a researcher a possible research topic will be “Comparison of
RMR and ‘Q’ system – effectiveness of two rating systems to evaluate rock mass
quality”.
1.1.3 Previous Research
No research study ever answered all the questions that may be asked about a
particular subject. New research findings always inspire new research
questions. Sometimes it is because these findings are surprising, or because
they conflict with existing theory, or other research findings.
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With the limitation of time, resources and financial constrains it is not always
possible to meet out all the objectives set for the proposed study. Therefore,
there is always a scope to continue the previous research work and the
objectives, which were left unsolved, fully or partially, are covered in the later
study.
Example: A researcher proposed to work on a research problem entitled

“Identification and Engineering geological studies of small hydropower sites in sub-
basins of Abay”. In the study area a total of 36 potential small hydropower sites
were identified. However, with the limitation of time, resources and financial
constrains only 4 small hydropower sites were selected to carry out
Engineering geological studies. In such case there exists a possibility to
continue this research by another researcher and carry out engineering
geological studies for remaining 32 small hydropower sites.
1.1.4 Practical Concerns
Researcher may be motivated by looking into the problems in the real world,
which are faced by him and the community around him. Much research
problems are aimed at solving immediate problems in the world.
Example: A hydro geologist may frame a research problem related to

drinking water problem being faced by the community in a particular area. A
possible research problem may be “Exploration of ground water sources around
‘ABC region’.
Another problem related to practical concern may be “Landslide studies and

remedial measures for stabilization of slopes along the road cut in Abay Gorge –
Gohatsion – Dejen road section”
1.1.5 Personal Interest
It is often the case that researchers have its own special area of interest and
the researcher is inspired by his own interest. In such cases a researcher will
be motivated by his own way and he may follow his own criteria of selection
of research project.
1.1.6 Resource and Financial Support Interest
Often it happens that if a researcher is employed with some organization

where some research project is ongoing. In such circumstances a researcher
may be motivated to identify a research problem, which is related to the
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ongoing project in the organization. In such cases a researcher may get all
kind of resource and financial support.
Example: A researcher working with Roads Authority may identify his

research problem as “Behavior of expansive soils and remedial measures for safe
pavement design along ‘Serbeta – Wolkete road section”.
Thus, finally it may be concluded that for good research project identification
a researcher must look in many different places at the same time. A researcher
must do a thorough literature review, interact to people working in the
related stream and observe carefully the world around him.
1.2 Research Project Selection Technique
For a researcher it is always good to generate several possible research

projects and than choose the best one. After all, no body would walk into a
shop and buy the first shirt that he saw. Instead he would look at several
shirts, will compare as per his choice for color, design, price, and finally will
purchase the one which is best. The same applies to selection of research
project.
Every research project has its strength and weaknesses and the choice of the
best topic is sometimes difficult. The selection of research project must be
made based on certain criteria which can be used to judge the usefulness of
the research project.
The criteria for the selection of research project are listed below;
 Availability and access to the data/ information needed for the
proposed research project.
 Relevance of the research project as per the stream under which
research is performed.
 Skill set and capability of a researcher to undertake the proposed
research project.
 Usefulness and limitation of the proposed research project.
 Interest and willingness of researcher to conduct the proposed
research.
 Accessibility and workability for field work of the proposed research
project.
 Time required financial support and equipment / instruments to
conduct proposed research.
 Potential to generate further research for later researcher.
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 Other specific criteria that relate to particular discipline, field of study

or institution.
1.2.1 Using Attribute Grids for Selection of Research project
Often with many proposed research projects and various criteria for the
selection of appropriate research project it is confusing to make the selection.
Attribute grids are the right solution to make an appropriate selection of a
research project. This involves the following steps to be followed for right
selection:
 First make a table with 9 columns (or number of columns as per set
criteria) and as many rows equal to possible research projects.
 To each criteria assign a score (between 1 to 10) based on its merits and
demerits.
 This system allows comparing various possible research project
proposals systematically.
Thus, by using attribute grid system the selection of a proposed research

project will be more logical and feasible.
1.3 Setting the Limits on the Research Study
It is a known fact that in the initial stages of planning of research project

researcher are very ambitious. During this stage a researcher plans to frame
number of research objectives which are very wide for his proposed study
without looking into the limitations which he has to undergo during the
execution of real research. These limitations are on resources, time and
financial constrains. Therefore, it is necessary that the researcher must specify
the limits of the study in a way that makes it clear what is, and is not, to be
studied.
A common mistake is to define the problem too broadly (or to set no limits at
all) and then find that the resources and the time required for such a large
study are not available. Say for example a researcher proposed a research
problem “Behavior of expansive soils for building foundations in Ethiopia”. This
research problem is very wide and exhaustive which may require a huge
amount of financial support with good and wide infrastructural support.
Such research problem may be feasible to execute by an organization but not
by an individual who intend to perform this research for his M.Sc thesis.
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1.3.1 Setting Financial Limits to Research
Research studies are normally conducted with financial support from some
institution or organizations. Such financial support may be of two types;
 Fixed financial support.
 Financial support as per the requirement.
Fixed Financial Support: In such financial support the amount to conduct a

research project is fixed. Under such financial support a researcher has to
identify his research project in such a manner that it may be completed within
the allotted fixed financial support. In other words, for such financial support
a researcher has to set the financial limits and the research project has to be
completed within the fixed financial limits. Fixed financial supports are
generally provided by the educational institutions to the students to perform
research for their degree.
Financial support as per requirement: - This type of financial support is

provided by the financial institutions or organizations to conduct research.
Under this category the actual financial requirements to conduct the research
are submitted with the research proposal to the financial institution /
organization. As per the project budget, after scrutiny the funds are released
in installments to the researcher.
1.3.2 Setting Limits for Time
For any research project it is important to schedule all the activities in such a
way that the research project is completed within the allotted time. The total
allotted time to complete the research project will depend upon the nature of
study and the norms set by the financial institution or organization. While
scheduling the various research activities it is essential to keep some room for
eventualities. Particularly the activities like field data collection, secondary
data/ information to be collected from secondary sources and the laboratory
testing in some other laboratories, other than the parent institution. All these
activities are beyond the control of a researcher.
Activity Schedule Chart
Activity schedule charts is a simple and effective means to plan the research
activities well in advance at the initial stages of the research study. For the
preparation of Activity Schedule Chart following systematic steps are
followed;
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 First draw a table divide it into columns equal to the total length of the
proposed time for the completion of the research study. If the total
project time is 12 months, the table has to be divided into 12 columns.
 Now draw the rows equal to the number of activities to be covered for
the proposed research project.
 Now draw the bars for each activity from the proposed start time to the
completion of the activity.
Table 1.1: Demonstrate a sample Activity Schedule Chart for a proposed

research project which has to be completed within 12 months.
Activities Year
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Initial
Planning and
Resource
appraisal
Literature
Review
Preliminary
Field planning
and base map
preparation
etc.
Field work
Lab. Testing
Data analysis
and
interpretation
Draft Report
Preparation
Final Report
1.3.3 Setting Limits for Resources
Before the initiation of any research project it is advisable to assess the actual
availability of the resources required for the proposed study. Resources may
be research study specific, however; some common resources required for any
research study are;
 Relevant study material – Books, Related Journals, Previous research
study reports etc.
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 Available Laboratory Facilities – Testing equipments, technical support

to perform the required laboratory tests, cost for laboratory facilities
etc.
 Availability of transportation for the field work – Vehicle condition,
maintenance requirements, driver, cost etc.
 Equipment and Instruments required for testing in field and other data
collections.
 Computation facilities – computers, required software, printing
facilities and other computer peripherals.
There may be limitation on these resources therefore; a researcher must plan

his research study keeping in mind the limitation on resources.
1.4 Priority Setting For Research Project
The research study has to be performed in a systematic and well organized

manner. Each research activity has to be performed as per it’s priority. Say for
example it may not happen that you start writing your report before
collecting and analyzing actual field data. Therefore, it is important to fix the
priority for each research activity before the actual initiation of the research
study. The priority of various research activities to be taken up as per there
order of importance are listed below;
 Identification of research Project/ Problem.
 Exploring the availability of resources required for the proposed
research study.
 Preparation of draft research proposal and get it examined by other
researcher working in the related field. Incorporating comments by
other researchers and submitting it to the funding institution/
organization.
 Literature review and reviewing the related previous studies.
 Preparation of working plan and scheduling the various research
activities.
 Finalization of the methodology to be adopted for the proposed study.
 Collection of secondary data from other sources.
 Preparation for the field work (equipments/ instruments, working
maps, transport etc)
 Field work.
 Data analysis and laboratory testing.
 Interpretation of the results.
 Field visit if required for data verification.
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 Draft report preparation.

 Submission of draft report to the funding agency/ institution/
advisor.
 Preparation of final report after incorporating comments from the
reviewers (Funding agencies, institutions/ organizations, advisors
etc.)
 Presentation and defense of the research study.
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CHAPTER – II
RESEARCH PROJECT PROPOSAL
2.0 What is a Research Project Proposal
A research project proposal is a systematic compilation of idea that how one is

going to perform his research on a proposed problem. It also states that what
would be the objectives and with what methodology one is going to perform
his research. In a research proposal one also explains that how the proposed
study will be useful to the scientific community and the community in
general. Besides, a research proposal also comprises the detailed project
planning, scheduling of various research activities and the detailed project
budgeting.
2.1 Purpose of a Research Proposal
A good research proposal is one which fulfills the following purpose;

 Convinces the other people
 Demonstrates expertise
 Demonstrates competency
 Serve as a contract
 Serve as a planning tool.
2.1.1 Convince Other People
The main function of any research proposal is to convince other researchers,

research funding agencies, educational institutions and supervisors/ advisors
that your research is worth spending resources on. You convince people of
the value of your work by showing them how your research will make a
difference, or by identifying the short comings and gaps in the existing
theory/problem which your research will help in resolving.
2.1.2 Demonstrate Expertise
Research proposal helps to demonstrate expertise in a particular area of

study. With your research proposal you convince people that you have
enough understanding of the research topic to be able of the research
properly. In a research proposal this is done by intelligently summarizing,
comparing and integrating all the relevant theory and existing research
pertaining to the proposed research project.
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2.1.3 Demonstrates Competency
Research proposal also helps to demonstrate competency in a particular area

of study. It is also important that your research proposal convinces the reader
that you have all the necessary skills to carry out the proposed study. This can
be done by describing an appropriate and feasible research methodology.
2.1.4 To serve as a contract
Research often involves contracts between different individuals or groups or

people. The proposal states clearly what each individual party is expected to
do, how resources will be used and when the research will be completed.
2.1.5 To Serve as a Planning Tool
Many research projects fail because they are not properly planned. When
there is a clear plan of action from the beginning the research is much more
likely to proceed smoothly and will be successful. Finally, it may be
concluded that because the main purpose of the research proposal is to
convince other people, it is important that the writing style must be simple,
clear and professional.
2.2 Content of a Research Proposal
What goes into a research proposal is the most crucial and important aspect of
any research proposal. As a fact there is no single format for a research
proposal. This is because every research project is different. Different
disciplines, funding organization and academic institutions all have different
formats and requirements. However, there are several key components which
must be included in every research proposal. The key components for any
research proposal are;
 A description of a research problem.
 An argument as to why that problem is important.
 A review of literature relevant to the research problem.
 A description of the proposed research methodology.
 Priority and scheduling of various research activities.
 Detailed budget description for the proposed research study.
 An explanation on the limitation of the study.
2.2.1 Description of a Research Problem
Before the proposal can make a sense to a reader, he or she must understand
clearly what the proposed research study will be about. Therefore, it is
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important to explain clearly in the initial paragraphs of the proposal what

does the research proposal actually means. Say for example if the proposed
research problem is “Impact of hydropower dams on vegetation growth – with
special reference to ‘A’ and ‘B’ dam projects”. Now in the introductory paragraph
of the proposed research proposal this problem has to be defined as “by
comparing the satellite imagery for pre dam construction and post dam
construction of downstream area of ‘A’ and ‘B’ dam sites. It has been noticed
that there is considerable increase in the growth of vegetation. In the present
research study it is intended to study why and how this increase in vegetation
growth has occurred. What are the various factors which has influenced this
increase in vegetation growth”?
It is also important to mention that by what means this research problem has
been identified. Is it your observation or it has a practical concern? Mention
clearly while describing the research problem.
2.2.2 Why the Proposed Research is Important
Importance or the usefulness of the proposed study is the key paragraph in

any research proposal. Only through this paragraph a researcher attempts to
convince the other researchers or the funding institutions that in what way
this research is unique. Some key points that can be mentioned in this
paragraph are;
 How the results and findings of the proposed study will be used for
the betterment of concerned scientific concepts or how they may be
utilized for the welfare of the society.
 The results and findings may overcome the short comings or gaps in
the existing theoretical concepts and analytical techniques.
 If you are expecting other contributions from your proposed research
study describe them in detail.
2.2.3 Literature Review
The literature review presents one of the greatest challenges of the research
proposal to experienced and inexperienced researchers. The literature review
provides a conceptual framework for the reader so that the research problem
and methodology of the proposed research is better understood.
The literature review demonstrates to the expert reader that the researcher is
aware of the breadth and diversity of literature that relates to the research
problem.
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It is important that a researcher provides an integrated overview of the

proposed problem. For this the researcher has to show the awareness of the
most important and relevant theories, studies and methodologies. The
researcher has to show that how these are related to the proposed study and
how these works are similar to and/or different from the proposed research.
The literature review is not simply a list or summary of books and articles that
the researcher has read. Instead, it has to be combined and synthesized in an
integrated description of the field of study. A good literature review shows
how the text compiled from various books and articles relate to the broad
topic. It also demonstrates to the expert reader that a researcher have
surveyed much of the appropriate literature. A good literature review also
demonstrates that for the proposed study different approaches will be used
and in combination will produce an original study. Literature review is a
systematic study and needs a thorough study of the relevant study material.
The literature review has to be structured as per the following points;

 Identification of relevant books, journals, reports related to your
proposed research topic.
 What results the previous researchers have produced.
 What theoretical concepts or analytical techniques relate to the
proposed study? Describe these in detail.
 What methodologies were used by the previous researchers? If you are
going to adopt one of these methodology for the proposed research
explain it in detail.
 What is the most recent finding related to the proposed study.
 What gaps and contradictions exist among these findings? What new
research problem do these findings suggest?
It is important to structure your literature review for the better understanding

and the continuity of concepts. Do not start writing your literature review
until you have developed a broad and deep understanding of the proposed
research topic.
2.2.4 Methodology
The methodology section of the research proposal is the second component

which often causes great difficulty. As such there is no standard methodology
to perform research in sciences. For each discipline and specific research
problem these methodologies will differ. The methodology section of the
research proposal is designed to explain the expert readers precisely that how
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you intend to find the solution for the proposed objectives of the research
study. In this section a researcher has to put enough details so that the reader
will understand precisely that how actually you are going to perform the
research. Though the methodologies to be followed for the proposed research
study specific but, broadly it comprises three basic components;
 Research design
 Sampling design, technique and tools
 Data collection methods
o Primary data collection from field.
o Secondary data collection
 Data analysis and synthesis
 Interpretation and results
2.2.5 Priority and Scheduling of various research activities
Another important component of a research proposal is to describe the

priority and scheduling of the various activities for the proposed research. For
any research it is important that each research activity is performed as per its
priority. The priority of various research activities to be taken up as per their
order of importance has already been discussed in Chapter I. In the research
proposal one must describe briefly the priority of various research activities to
be taken up under the proposed research study. Further, for any research
project it is important to schedule all the activities in such a way that the
research project is completed within the allotted time. Therefore, it is
important to present a activity schedule chart in the research proposal.
2.2.6 Detailed Project Budget
A research proposal must include a detailed project budget. Amounts

budgeted must be realistic and up to date. It is good to check before
submitting that what kind of costs is acceptable to the funding institution. For
a good project budget it is essential to give full breakup of each individual
activity to be covered in a proposed research study. The detailed budget must
be presented in a tabular format in which the various activities may be kept in
rows and the budget component in columns. For each activity subtotal must
be presented. Amount to be mentioned should be in round figures. Always
keep 10 – 15% extra budget for unforeseen expenses.
2.2.7 Limitation of the Study
Every research study has to undergo some form of limitations. These

limitations may be on resources or it may be theoretical. Therefore, it is
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always good to indicate such limitations in the research proposal. Never

mention limitations on time and finance in a research proposal.
2.3 Ethics in Proposal Writing
Writing and style makes a research proposal impressive and convincing.

Writing is a difficult skill to master and it comes through practice and
dedication. However, some important tips to help for better writing are
mentioned below;
 Always structure the work in advance.
 Know what you want to say before trying to write it.
 Every sentence must contain one idea only.
 There must be continuity in sentences. A well written text is a “chain of
ideas”.
 While writing keep your reader’s need in mind. This means provide a
“verbal map” of your document so that your reader knows what to
expect. Also place “verbal signposts” in your text to explain what is
coming next.
Besides a researcher must concentrate on the style of proposal presentation.

Some important tips on style of presentation are given hereunder;
 Proposal must be professional looking.
 It must be interesting and informative.
 Writing style must be simple with small sentences and simple
vocabulary.
 A content page must be included in a proposal.
 Use clear headings and sub-headings.
 While writing proposal be concise and precise.
 Use simple language.
 Construct clear arguments.
 There should not be any spelling and grammatical mistakes in the
proposal.
 Reference your work fully using an acceptable format.
 Do not use such words for which you are not sure for their meaning.
 Do not use difficult words to impress your readers.
 Do not use overly simplistic language.
 Do not make unnecessary repetitions in the text.
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2.4 Submitting the Proposal
Fatigue and impatience can ruin the research proposal. Therefore, it is

expected that a researcher must have spent a little more time making sure that
the proposal is perfect before submitting it. Also make sure that before
submission the following steps are completed;
 Proof read the proposal carefully.
 Ask a friend or relative to read your proposal.
 Ask an experienced researcher or your supervisor/advisor to read the
proposal.
 Ensure that your proposal meet all the requirements laid down for the
research proposal by the funding organization/ institution to which
the proposal has to be submitted.
 Submit the proposal with a covering letter to the contact person and
address, before the last date of submission fixed by the funding
organization/ institution.
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CHAPTER – III
TECHNIQUES IN PROJECT PLANNING
AND PROGRAMMING
Research project planning and programming is the most important activity,

which not only ensures the good research findings but it also helps in timely
completion and submission of the project. Any research project comprises a
research problem, specific objectives, and a feasible methodology involving
data collection, analysis, and interpretation and finally reporting results. In
order to perform all these activities it is essential that each of these activities is
properly planned before the actual execution of the research project.
3.1 Activity Listing
Any research study has to be performed in a well planned, systematic and

organized manner. Therefore, it becomes very important to identify various
research activities prior to the initiation of the research study. Proper
identification and listing of activities as per their priority may help in smooth
running of the project. Research activities may be project specific, which may
vary from project to project. Some of the activities, which form a part in
almost every research project, are listed below as per their priority;
 Framing the objectives.
 Literature review and reviewing the previous research reports.
 Priority setting and scheduling various research activities.
 Finalization of methodology to be adopted for the proposed research
study.
 Collection of secondary data/information.
 Preparations for the fieldwork – equipment, working maps,
transportation etc.
 Primary data/information collection, mapping and collection of
samples from the field.
 Data analysis and laboratory testing.
 Interpretation of results.
 Field visit, if required for data verification.
 Compilation of draft report.
 Submission of draft report to funding agency/ institution.
 Preparation of final report after incorporating comments from
reviewers/ examiners (funding agency, institution, advisors etc.)
 Preparing for defense.
 Dissemination of research findings.
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3.2 Framing Research Objectives
Framing of the research objectives is the most important part of the research
study. These research objectives have to be very specific and must relate
directly to the proposed research project. These research objectives must act
as a ‘road map’ for the proposed research study. As such there are no set
criteria for the framing of research objectives, as these may vary for study to
study.
3.2.1 Limiting Research Objectives
Each research study has to undergo various limitations. These limitations may
be theoretical or it may be on time, resources and financial support. Therefore,
it is important to keep in mind these limitations and frame the objectives of
the proposed study, accordingly.
Theoretical Limitations
While framing objectives for the proposed research study one must keep in
mind the theoretical limitations. There may be certain phenomenon in the
respective field of study for which no theoretical or analytical techniques are
available for the analysis.
Limiting Research Objectives for Time
For any research project it is important to limit the research objectives for
time, so that the research project is completed within the allotted time.
Limiting Research Objectives for Resources
Before the framing of research objectives of a proposed research study it is

advisable to assess the actual availability of the resources. This may help in
limiting the proposed research objectives.
Limiting Research Objectives as per Financial Support
This is important for fixed financial support research study. It is essential to

assess the expenditure one has to make to achieve the proposed research
objectives. Based on this assessment one may limit his research objectives.
3.2.2 Defining Boundaries
It is necessary that a researcher, while framing the objectives of the study,

must clearly specify the boundaries for the study area. These boundaries may
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be geographic or administrative. However, selection of these boundaries

would be study specific. Say for example; for a hydro-geological problem one
has to frame his objectives in terms of a basin – “Water balance study in Awash
basin”, whereas, for an engineering geological problem the objectives has to be
framed in terms of administrative boundary – “Engineering Geological mapping
of Awasa town”.
3.3 Exploring for Research Project
For a good research project planning and programming it is important that a

researcher must become an explorer. Normally, it happens that when a
researcher identifies a good research problem he/she will stop further
exploration. As a fact, an initial research problem is only the starting point for
deeper and ongoing exploration. Exploration means finding out as much as
possible about the proposed research project. To be a good explorer a
researcher needs to develop the following skills;
 Literature search and Reading
 Critical Thinking
 Debate or Discussion
 Computers and Exploring Internet
 Record keeping
3.3.1 Literature Search and reading
Reading is the best means to develop the necessary skill and the best possible
foundation to perform the proposed research. The researcher may find
suitable references from;
 Consulting advisor/ supervisor
 Consulting other researchers working in the same and related fields
 Consulting researchers from other disciplines who may give
interesting perspectives, which might not be available within your own
discipline.
 Searching journals that relate to the proposed research project.
 Using subject indexes and abstracts.
 Looking closely at the reference sections of key books and articles
relating to the proposed research project.
 Spending time searching library shelves.
 Searching the Internet for related information.
 Reading previous unpublished reports, thesis and technical papers
related to the proposed research study.
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How to Develop a Good Reading Skill
In the initial stage of literature review a common problem, which a researcher

has to face is the reading problem. One need lot of patience and good
concentration for an effective reading. Some important tips, which may help
for effective reading, are;
 Reading takes time but it is time well spent. One has to create enough
time to read.
 The reading time must be un-interrupted; this may help in keeping
concentrated in your reading.
 A researcher must prepare a list of all the articles and books, which he
thinks he should read.
 Prioritize reading material so that one can start with the most relevant
item and gradually gets more general.
 Find a general article or book that will provide a ‘map’ of the
theoretical landscape.
 Try to fit all subsequent reading on to this ‘map’.
 When reading a text try to ‘pin down’ the concepts or arguments that
you do not understand. Later, all these concepts or arguments may be
discussed with someone in the area.
 Take clear detailed notes of everything that you read. For this always
keep your research project in mind to avoid recording pages of
information which are not relevant to your research work.
 Do not try to read when you are not willing to read. This may create
fatigue and you may lose your interest in reading.
3.3.2 Critical Thinking
It is important for a researcher that he thinks long and hard about his research
project and the specific objectives proposed to achieve through the research
study. To guide the thinking process following points may be helpful;
 Why the proposed research project was identified.
 What results are expected from the proposed research study?
 What may be the appropriate methodology to achieve the proposed
objectives?
 What problems may come in the way in adopting different
methodologies?
 What would be the possible solutions to the expected problems?
 How to generate additional resources for the proposed research study.
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One way to assist the critical thinking process is to do it with someone else,
especially someone who is more experienced researcher or who has a deeper
understanding of the proposed research problem than you do at this early
stage.
Another method to stimulate thinking about the proposed research project is

by looking the research problem from different point of view.
3.3.3 Debate and Discussion
Talking about research project is an excellent way to develop the thinking

process. This is particularly true when you are discussing the project with an
experienced researcher or with someone who understand your area of work.
However, do not limit your discussions to these people but discuss your
research project with everyone who is interested in your work. Even people
with very little expertise in your research field may be able to make helpful
suggestions or they may ask few questions that may stimulate your own
creative processes.
It is very easy to become too attached to one’s own ideas, which makes it very
difficult to listen to constructive criticism from other people. You may always
choose not to use other people’s ideas, but if you don’t listen you cannot
benefit from their advice. Advisors and supervisors are particularly important
in this regard; therefore it is important to spend some good time for
discussions before you actually start your research work.
3.3.4 Computer and Internet
In today’s world, computers are one of the researcher’s most powerful tools.
Developing good computer skills will enable you to;
 Do your own word processing, which saves time and money. This may
reduce the inconvenience caused due to repeated proof reading and
correcting the typing work done by a professional typist.
 Prepare various maps and other graphics required for the proposed
study.
 Enter and analyze data using a quantitative or qualitative software
package.
 Make effective use of the Internet as a networking tool, source of
information and medium for conducting research.
The internet may provide lot of data/information for the proposed research
project. E-mail and electronic discussion lists facilitate scholarly
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communication between researchers in different cities and countries. The e-

mail alerting services offered by many journals send you tables of contents
from journals in your field. The World Wide Web gives the researcher access
to a vast range of resources, some free, others on a commercial basis. The
following means of data/information is available on the World Wide Web;
 On line library catalogue.
 Working papers
 Journals
 Bibliographies
 Contact details for other researchers.
 Newspapers and newspaper archives.
 Database and research related information
It is important that for up-to-date research the researcher should familiarize
themselves with the basic tools of the Internet, such as e-mail, electronic
discussions lists, browsers and search engines.
3.3.5 Record Keeping
Record keeping is an important skill, which a researcher must develop. Often

you will remember reading something but will not know where you read it. If
you have kept a detailed record of your reading, you should be able to track
these lost references. One of the very simple methods to keep a proper record
of all the references is by making ‘reference cards’. A sample reference card is
presented below
Research project : “Influence of various factors causing instability of rock and soil
slopes”
Reference Card No : 178
Research on : Plane mode of failure
Author(s) : Raghuvanshi,T.K. and Nehemia Solomon
Year of Publication : September, 2005
Title of Article : A sensitivity analysis of a natural rock slope having
planar mode of failure.
Title of Book/ Journal : Journal of Ethiopian Association of Civil Engineers
Volume Number Vol.4, No. 1
Publisher and City : EACE, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Where Available : Faculty of Technology Library, Addis Ababa University
Notes : A careful sensitivity analysis has been carried out to
study the effect of slope geometry and the influence of
various other factors causing the instability of the
slope having planar mode of failure.
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3.4 Priority Setting and Scheduling Research activities
Research project planning and programming is the most important activity of

any research project. For project planning and programming it is essential that
each of the research activity is prioritize and scheduled prior to initiation of
research project. The priority and scheduling of various research activities are
project specific and may vary from study to study.
3.4.1 Priority Setting
In general the activities prioritize as per their order of performance can be

listed as;
 Framing the objectives of the proposed research study.
 Literature review and reviewing the previous studies.
 Identification and finalization of methodology to be adopted for the
proposed study.
 Collection of data/ information from secondary sources.
 Secondary data analysis.
 Planning and preparation for fieldwork (working maps, equipments,
transport etc.)
 Fieldwork – primary data collection, sampling, map preparation etc.
 Laboratory testing and data analysis.
 Interpretation of results.
 Field visit if required for data verification.
 Draft report preparation.
 Submission of draft report to funding agency/ institution.
 Preparation of final report after incorporating comments from
reviewers (Funding agency, institution/ examiners)
 Presentation and defending research work.
 Dissemination of findings and results.
3.4.2 Scheduling Research Activities
For any research project it is important to schedule all the activities in such a
way that the research project is completed within the allotted time. While
scheduling the various research activities it is essential to keep some room for
eventualities. Particularly the activities like field data collection, secondary
data/ information to be collected from other sources and laboratory testing in
some other laboratories other than the parent institution. All these activities
are beyond the control of a researcher. For an effective scheduling of research
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activities ‘activity schedule charts’ are very useful. The activity schedule
charts has already been discussed in Chapter – I.
3.5 Selection of Methodology
Selection of methodology poses many fold problems to the researcher. As

such there is no standard methodology to perform research in sciences. For
each discipline and research project one has to adopt different methodologies.
Though the methodology to be followed for a proposed research are study
specific, still broadly each methodology comprises three basic components;
 Data collection
o Primary data collection from field
o Secondary data collection
 Data analysis and synthesis.
 Interpretation and results.
While finalizing the methodology for the proposed research study a
researcher must consider the following criteria;
 Feasibility of proposed methodology.
 Limitations of the proposed methodology.
 Availability of required resources for the proposed methodology
(equipment, testing facilities, software etc)
 Assessment of time required executing the proposed methodology.
 Capability and skill set to execute proposed methodology.
 Merit and demerits over other methodologies.
It must be clear before the execution of proposed methodology that what

input data/ information are required and with the existing resources and
availability of time how effectively one can generate the required data/
information. Thus, a clear understanding of all above criteria may facilitate a
researcher in adopting a most suitable and feasible methodology for the
proposed research project. Further, for a logical selection of an appropriate
methodology “Attribute Grid” may be an effective means.
For attribute grid preparation make a table with number of columns equal to
number of set criteria. Place each methodology in separate rows. Further, for
each criteria assign ratings ‘between 1 to 10’ based on its merits and demerits.
Thus, finally this system may help the researcher to quantitatively select the
most appropriate methodology for the proposed research study.
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3.6 Collection of Secondary data/ information
Data, documents, records and other related materials that are collected from
various sources, to be utilized partly or fully as supporting data or
information for the proposed research study, is known as secondary data.
Secondary data are in existence prior to the beginning of the research study.
Secondary data forms an important part of any research and no research can
be completed successfully without this data. There may be a variety of these
secondary data and may depend upon requirement and the nature of the
proposed research study. However, some common types of secondary data,
normally required for research are;
 Meteorological data – rainfall, temperature, humidity, sunshine hours
etc.
 Published maps and reports.
 Soils cover maps.
 Land use/ land cover maps.
 Forest cover maps.
 Land hazard maps.
 River/ stream observed discharge data.
 Groundwater and surface water quality data.
 Borehole data, trench, test pits, exploratory drifts data and water
pressure test data.
 Engineering properties of rocks and soils.
 Other related data generated in the previous studies.
For the collection of secondary data a researcher must consider the following
important points;
 Type of data required for the proposed research study.
 Possible source of secondary data/ information – organization,
department, libraries etc.
 Availability of data – duration, quality, mode of data; digital or hard
copy etc.
 Requirements for data procurement – request letter, cost for data etc.
 Time in which data may be provided by the source.
For the procurement of secondary data a request letter must be prepared by

the researcher. In the request letter clearly it must be mentioned that what
type of secondary data is required. For secondary data procurement following
systematic steps may be followed;
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 Identify the source department/ office from where the required

secondary data may be obtained.
 Prepare a request letter addressing the source department/ office and
mention briefly about your research project and details of the required
secondary data.
 Follow up the request by personal visit to the source department/
office or try to contact the concern officer telephonically or through E-
mail.
 If possible make a personal visit to the source department/ office
- Ask for an appointment with the dealing officer of the
concerned section.
- Inquire for your request for the secondary data. Be polite and
talk patience.
- If data is received convey thanks for the cooperation and early
action.
3.7 Preparations for the Field Work
Fieldwork forms an important part of any research in natural science.

Fieldwork is carried out mainly to collect the primary data, to prepare various
maps and to collect samples. Preparations for the fieldwork may vary from
project to project. However, some preparations are common for almost all
research projects, these includes;
 Identification of type of primary data to be collected from the field for
the proposed research study.
 Preparation of base map of the study area – this is used to prepare
various other maps, to locate data collection localities and to locate
sample locations.
 To arrange field equipment/ instruments, topographical maps and
other field related materials.
 To arrange transport – driver, car maintenance, fuel etc.
 To prepare a working plan for the fieldwork.
 Personal preparations.
 To prepare a check list, a sample check list for the field work
preparation
3.8 Field Work and Collection of Data
Fieldwork is the most essential and most important activity for any research
project in natural science. The fieldwork comprises primary data collection,
which forms an essential input data for any methodology. The quality and
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quantity of this input data forms an important foundation for good research.
Therefore, it is important that this activity must be performed seriously and
systematically. The fieldwork may vary from research project to project
however; the following are the common activities, which are normally
conducted in every fieldwork;
a) Mapping – In fieldwork mapping is the common activity in which

different type of mappings is carried out. These may be lithological
mapping, engineering geological mapping, structural mapping or any
other mapping relevant to the proposed study.
b) Collection of primary data - Under this field activity primary data is
collected from the field. This data may be structural data, rock mass
classification data, hydro geological data or any other data relevant to
the proposed research study.
c) Collection of Samples - Under this activity various samples such as;
rock samples, soil samples, surface or ground water samples or any
other samples relevant to the proposed research study, are collected.
d) In-situ tests – Under this field activity in-situ tests are conducted.
3.8.1 Field Activities
Prior to the fieldwork a researcher must be clear on various activities that he

has to carry out in the field. Therefore, it is important that he must do
thorough preparations on this account before taking up actual fieldwork.
Primary Data Collection
No research can be completed successfully without proper input of primary

data. Thus, it becomes essential that a researcher must have a clear
understanding on the following;
 For the proposed research methodology what data has to be collected?
 What appropriate method has to be adopted for the required data
collection?
 From what locations this data has to be collected.
 What are the boundaries within which the required data has to be
collected?
 What are the possible sources of errors in the required data collection?
 What instruments are needed to collect the required data?
 In what quantity this data has to be collected.
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Example: A researcher intending to carry out slope stability study of a rock slope
has to collect the following data;
Possible Questions Answers
1 What data has to be collected? Orientation–Direction / Amount
2 What appropriate method has to Random Data Collection.
be adopted for the required data
collection?
3 From what locations this data has Data to be collected all over the
to be collected slope face.
4 What are the boundaries within Crest point to slope toe.
which the required data has to be
collected?
5 What are the possible sources of Nil
errors in the required data
collection?
6 What instruments are needed to Compass, GPS and Measuring
collect the required data? tape.
7 In what quantity this data has to Around 300 joint observations are
be collected. to be made.
Mapping
Mapping is an essential activity associated with most of the research work in

natural science. Mapping is mainly done to transfer ground information on
paper at a desired scale. Any feature, which has a geographical extent, can be
mapped. The various map able features can broadly be classified into three;
 Line features – features such as streams, faults, roads etc.
 Polygon features – features such as lithology, soil cover etc.
 Point features – features such as borehole, test pits, hand dug wells etc.
Mapping of various features is done on a base map. The base map is prepared
from the existing topographical maps and the available aerial photographs.
For the preparation of base map a researcher must know the following;
 At what scale mapping is required.
 What are the boundaries of the study area?
 In which year the survey for the topographical maps was done.
 On which date aerial photographs were taken.
For mapping of various features the following systematic steps must be

followed;
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 Refer the existing maps and the aerial photographs and transfer the
relevant information over the base map – this activity is done prior to
the fieldwork.
 Reconnaissance survey of the study area – this may help to give an
overview of the area and help in fieldwork planning.
 Identify and mark the traverse lines over the base map.
 Mapping various features along the traverse lines.
 Collection of primary data is done simultaneous to mapping activity.
 Primary data collection locations are also mapped as a point data on
the base map.
 Sample collection locations are mapped as a point data on the base
map.
Sample Collection
Sample collection is important for reference and laboratory testing. These

samples may be of rock, soil, surface or ground water etc. Type of sample and
sampling method may depend upon the nature of study and the methodology
adopted to perform the proposed study. For sample collection important
points to be considered are;
 Nature and type of sample required for the proposed methodology.
 Location from where these samples are to be collected.
 Number/ quantity of sample required for the proposed study.
 Description / information to be collected along with the sample.
 Precautions to be adopted while collecting the samples.
In-situ Tests
As a part of field activity in-situ tests are also conducted in the field. In situ
tests are the tests, which are conducted on the soil, rock mass and water.
There are several types of in-situ tests some are simple and other complicated
and require heavy equipment to be performed in the field. These tests are
research project specific and description of all these tests is beyond the scope
of this course. However, some relevant information related to these tests,
which a researcher must understand before the execution of these tests are;
 What in-situ test has to be performed for the proposed methodology?
 What results are obtained from the proposed in-situ test and how these
results will be useful in the proposed study?
 What equipment/ instruments will be required to perform the
proposed in-situ test?
 Availability of the equipment – source, requirements, cost etc.
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 Skill set and capability to perform the proposed in-situ test.

 Procedures and precautions to be followed to perform the test.
 Data recording and analysis.
3.8.2 Field data recording, mapping and sample keeping
Field Data Recording

Field data recording is an important skill, which a researcher must develop.
Often it happens that a researcher collects the required data in sufficient
quantity following the appropriate procedures, but at the time of analysis he
is confused that what data he has collected from which location. This happens
because he did not recorded data properly. For data recording the following
systematic steps may be adopted which may help a researcher in keeping
proper records of the data collected from the field;
 Always assign a code to the data collection location. The coding must
be logical. Keep a note of the logic for coding in your field book for
later reference.
o Example: If the data is collected on the left bank of Awash River
on a rock exposure in the northern part of the study area a
logical code may be ‘’LAR-01’’. Similarly, if the data has been
collected from the right bank of Awash River from a soil mass
the possible code may be ‘’RAS-08’’. In this example the first
letter (L or R) stands for the bank of the river, the second letter
‘A’ stands for Awash, the third letter (R or S) stands for rock mass
or Soil mass and the last two digits stands for data collection
location. For numbering also follow some logic say, from
northern part of the study area towards the southern part the
numeric numbers are in ascending order.
 Mark data collection location points on base map as a point feature and
write the code by the side of the point. For locating data collection
point on the map use GPS reading and other known landmarks.
 Write a proper description of the data collection location in the field
book. This may include date/ time, location code, GPS readings, local
ground reference points and other relevant description. You may also
take a photograph of the data collection location. Photograph is a good
means of recording location details.
 It is always good to review the field recordings when you return to the
camp. This may help to fill the gaps if any or you may have an idea of
collecting additional information related to the data already collected.
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Mapping
Mapping in field is done on a base map. The various features relevant to the
research study are transferred from the ground on to the base map at the
required scale. For location of such features Global Positioning System (GPS)
are used. The required features may also be mapped with the help of known
ground reference objects by using a Brunton or a Clinometer compass. For the
proper record keeping of mapping activity the following points may be
useful;
 Whatever features are marked over the base map, keep a descriptive
note in a field book also.
 It is always good to review the mapping done in the field when you
return to the camp. It is advisable to transfer all mapped feature on a
separate copy of the base map. This is done as a precaution, as the
working map may be damaged in the field.
 For the features for which you are not sure write a descriptive note and
take sufficient photographs. While taking photographs keep scale or
some standard object like hammer, pen or compass. This may help in
estimating the dimensions of the feature.
 For marking on base map in the field use lead pencil or pen with
permanent ink. This may help in protecting the working map from
water.
Sample Keeping and recording
Proper sample keeping and recording is essential for the good test results and
appropriate referencing. Therefore, it is important that a researcher must
know that what is the appropriate method of sampling and precautions must
be taken in order to keep the samples safe. Though the sampling procedures
may vary from type of sample and the testing procedures however, some
common points, which a researcher has to follow, are listed below;
 Always assign a logical code to the sample. Mark each of the samples
with its respective code and write a clear description in the field book.
This may include sampling date/ time, location code, GPS readings,
local ground reference points and other relevant description.
 Mark the sampling location on the base map and if possible take a
photograph of the sampling location.
3.8.3 Care and Precautions During Field Work
Often for a researcher the proposed field area or the study area is a place
about which he knows very little before he actually visits it. Therefore it is
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always good to collect some basic information before a researcher proceeds

for the fieldwork. This preparation and data/collection includes the following
systematic steps;
 Collection of information on accessibility and possible route maps.
 Information on climate – temperature, rainfall etc.
 Inquiring for the workability at the site.
 Collecting information on local people – culture, flooding habits etc.
 Facilities for flooding and stay in and around study area.
While in field for an effective execution of field activities it is necessary to take

proper care and precautions. Some of the important points, which are related
to the care and precautions at field, are listed below;
 Do not enter into the private land without prior permission.
 Always engage a local person who will assist you in various field
activities and may guide you for local routes.
 Do not take unnecessary risks – avoid climbing on steep slopes; do not
enter into thick vegetation without proper care etc.
 Always carry first aid medicine box with you.
 If tracking always assess the time required to return to the base camp.
It is safe to return back to the base camp before it is dark. Ideally, start
early in the morning, this may allow you to work for a maximum time
in a day.
 Always carry sufficient quantity of food and drinking water when you
leave from the camp to the field.
3.9 Data Analysis, Laboratory Testing and interpretation of Results
The primary data collection from the field has to be analyzed thoroughly by
adopting various graphical, analytical and empirical techniques. There may
be several such techniques available for data analysis. It is essential that a
researcher first identify an appropriate technique, which is most suitable for
the proposed methodology. The selection of an appropriate technique for data
analysis may depend on certain criteria, which may vary from study to study.
These criteria for selection of technique are;
 Requirement of input data for the proposed technique.
 Limitations and required general conditions for the technique.
 Merit and demerits over other techniques.
 Simplicity in application of technique.
 Quality and accuracy of output data.
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During the field work various samples, as per the requirements of proposed
methodology, are collected from the required locations. Generally, these
samples are of rock, soil, plant, water etc. The type and nature of these
samples may depend upon the type of methodology adopted for the
proposed study. These samples are collected for the laboratory testing and
later reference.
Laboratory tests are the tests, which are conducted on the samples (rock, soil
plant , water, etc.) collected from the field for the proposed research study.
These tests are conducted on the samples for various purposes. These tests
may be performed to know the physical, chemical or engineering properties
of the samples. The nature and type of laboratory test may vary from research
study to study. However, some important points related to laboratory tests
are as follows;
 Make sure that all samples are properly coded and the same code is
followed throughout the experimental stage.
 Each test must be performed at least two times from each sample. This
is to ensure that the experimental results are correct.
 All equipment must be calibrated as per the instructions manuals.
 Make sure that the procedure followed for testing is correct and free
from errors.
 If handling with instruments/ equipment read instructions manuals
carefully and ask for assistance from skilled person.
 Recording of experimental data must be as per the predefined format.
The primary data and samples collected from the field are the representative
data/ samples of rock or soil formation. The results obtained after primary
data analysis or from laboratory experiment conducted on individual samples
must collectively represent the overall rock, soil or research material
formation condition. Thus, it becomes important that the interpretation of the
laboratory results or analyzed primary data gives a clear picture for the
overall rock, soil or natural body formation condition.
3.10 Techniques for Research Project Progress Monitoring
Research project progress monitoring is an essential component of project

planning and programming. Scheduling of various research activities is
essential for the timely completion of any research project. On the same time
it is equally important to monitor from time to time the progress of various
research activities and to make sure that each of these activities are going as
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per schedule. Monitoring of research project is done following four basic

assessment techniques;
 Monitoring the schedule of research activities.
 Monitoring quality of research.
 Monitoring achievements of research objectives.
 Budget monitoring.
3.10.1 Monitoring the schedule of research activities
Each of the research activity is scheduled prior to their execution. Time

required for each activity is assessed and placed accordingly in the activity
schedule chart at the planning time. It is important to monitor from time to
time, that each of the research activity is going as per their schedule. This is
essential to ensure that the research project is completed within the allotted
time.
Often it happens that some of the research activities are not completed within
the scheduled time or while monitoring it is assessed that some of the
activities may exceed their scheduled time. Such situations may happen
because of several reasons such as;
 Underestimation of time during the planning stage.
 Non-availability of secondary data within the scheduled time. This
may happen due to non-cooperation of the source authorities or due to
some technical problems.
 Non availability of the laboratory facilities due to non functioning of
the required equipment, lack of technical support, non availability of
required chemicals, non cooperation of the concerned officers etc.
 Theoretical limitations such as, non-availability of required input data,
application difficulties in empirical or analytical techniques, due to
poor skill set or incapability of the researcher.
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CHAPTER – IV
RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT
4.0 What is a Research Project Report?
A ‘Research Project Report’ is a systematic compilation of research work

which a researcher prepares after successful completion of the proposed
research work. In very simple words research project report is a written
record of entire project from start to finish and highlight all the activities and
findings pertaining to the respective research project. A research project
report comprises, in general, an introduction to the research problem, general
and specific objectives for which research is conducted, data accumulation
from primary and secondary sources, methodology used and the findings of
the research.
4.1 Purpose of Research Project Report
The main purpose of the research project report is to explain, to the reader
that how the research was conducted on a proposed research problem. A
project report when read by a person unfamiliar with the research project,
must clearly understand that exactly what you did, why you did it, what the
results are, whether or not the research is supported by the experimental
evidences and what are the final findings of the research. This written
document is your spokesperson when you are not present to explain your
project. The purpose which a project report serves is;
 To make people understand about your research work.
 To serve as a written document. This may be utilised or referred by the
later researchers.
 To make people convince that your research is authentic and well
supported by experimental results and logical concepts.
 To fulfil the requirements for the academic degree and to convince the
examiners that you have developed an expertise in a particular area of
study and you have enough understanding of the research subject.
 Project report also helps to demonstrate competency in a particular
area of study. By your report you convince the reader that you have
developed all the necessary skills required to carry out the research in
the related field.
 To satisfy the sponsoring agency/ institution that you have utilised the
funds or the resources, provided by the sponsoring agency/
institution, in a satisfactory manner and produced useful findings from
the research study.
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4.2 Content of a Research Project Report

What goes into a research project report is the most crucial and important
aspect of any research project. Project report is a document which by itself
demonstrates the overall quality of research work. As a fact there is no single
format for a research project report. This is because every research project is
different. Different disciplines, funding organization and academic
institutions all have different formats and requirements. However, there are
several key components which must be included in every research project
report. The key components for any research project report are;
 An introduction to the research problem, an argument as to why that
problem is important and an explanation on the limitation of the study.
 Specific objectives of the research study.
 An overview of the study area, location, physiographic, climate or
other relevant themes related to the proposed study.
 A description of the research methodology adopted to perform the
research.
 A description on primary and secondary data collection and analysis.
 A description on experimental data generation, if any.
 Interpretation of results and final findings.
 Conclusions and recommendations, if any.
In addition to this a project report must also include a self explanatory title
page, abstract, list of contents, acknowledgements and references.
4.3 Preparations for Project Report
The very first step for the preparation of the project report is to structure the
research work. This means to frame the research work in terms of order you
plan to present in the project report. For this, first plan the chapter scheme
and then plan what content will go into each chapter. The sequence of the
chapters must be systematic and there must be continuity in various chapters.
This may help the reader to understand the research work very easily.
4.3.1 Chapter Scheme and Content Matter
As such there is no standard format for the chapter scheme. The chapter
scheme and the number of chapters may vary from study to study and may
depend on the researcher’s choice. Even, for a researcher it is sometimes
difficult to plan the chapter scheme. After the finalization of the chapter
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scheme the next step is to frame the content matter to be covered in each
individual chapter.
While framing the chapter scheme and the content matter to be covered in
individual chapter the following guideline may be useful;
 Each chapter must address a particular activity only. Do not cover
many activities in a single chapter. This may create unnecessary
confusions and discontinuity in the write up.
 The chapter name must be small and it should directly relate to the
content matter to be discussed in that chapter.
 The chapter scheme must start with an introduction to the research
problem followed by the overview of the study area, methodology
used, interpretations of the results and should terminate at conclusions
and recommendations. However, the distribution of chapters and the
content matter to be covered in respective chapters will vary from
study to study and on researcher’s choice.
 The content matter to be covered in each chapter must be covered
under relevant headings and subheadings.
 Each chapter must start with a brief introduction or preamble of the
content matter to be discussed in the respective chapter.
Though it is difficult to generalize the chapter scheme to be followed for a

research study however, for a ready reference a sample chapter scheme is
presented as followed
Cover page (title of the project, author, institution, year of publication)
Abstract
Acknowledgement
List of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
Chapter – I Introduction
Background
Significant of the study
Limitation of the study
General and specific objective
Chapter - II Literature review
Chapter – III Methodology
Description of the study area or materials
Research design
Sampling design
Sampling technique and tools
Data analysis
Chapter – IV Results and Discussion
Chapter – V Conclusion and Recommendation
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Abstract
The abstract is a brief overview of the research project. It should not be more
than one page and should include a brief introduction to the research
problem, a statement describing importance of the study, brief description
about methodology and the findings of the study. There is no one way to
write an abstract, but it should be brief and should explain clearly that what
your research is all about.
Acknowledgements
In this section of the project report a researcher acknowledge direct or

indirect support extended by various individuals and organization/
institutions, without which the research project could not be completed
successfully. It is necessary that if one receives any kind of support for his/
her research work, it must be duly acknowledged and documented in this
section. As such there is no standard format for acknowledgement section
and it varies from individual to individual. However, the following points
may be useful for the writing of this section;
 Those who have contributed the most in your research work must be
acknowledged first. The contribution made by the advisor/s or
supervisors is crucial in any research work. Therefore, it is advisable
that they must be acknowledged first.
 Write specific and do not use abbreviations. Use full name or address
of the individuals or the organizations those have extended support
for your research work.
 Do not use difficult words to impress your readers.
 Do not use overly simplistic language and use decent vocabulary.
List of Contents, Tables and Figures
For the convenience of the reader, research project report must be provided
with a list of contents, tables and figures. Normally, it is placed immediately
after the acknowledgments in the report. Though, its position may change as
per the prescribed format designed by some institutes/ organizations. It is
advisable to mention the name of chapters, headings, subheadings, figure No.
with titles, Table No. with Table headings along with respective page Nos. in
the list of contents.
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Introduction
Introduction chapter must start with a clear definition of the research

problem. It is important that in the initial paragraphs of this chapter you must
explain that what the present research is all about and how you were
motivated to select the present research problem. What is the importance of
the present research and how the results and general findings will be helpful
to the scientific community and community in general. As such there is no
standard format for introduction chapter and it varies from individual to
individual. However, some important components of the research, which
may be addressed in introduction chapter, are;
 A clear definition with a background note on the present research
problem.
 Importance of the study and describe how the results and the findings
of the present research work will be utilized.
 A description on the study area – details on accessibility of the study
area, climate, physiography and other relevant themes. The details
must be well supported by maps, graphs and figures. This section may
be dealt in a separate chapter.
 Clearly mention the specific objectives of the present study. A brief
description of each of the specific objective may further help the reader
to clearly understand the objectives.
 A clear description of the methodology followed in the present study.
 A description of analytical tools, software and other related material
used for the present study.
 A note on the limitation of the present study.
 A note on future studies and extension of the present research work.
 A description on the Chapter scheme
Literature Review
Literature review may be presented as a separate chapter or may be discussed

within related chapters. For example; literature review related to geological
settings of the study area may be discussed within the chapter dealing with
Geological Settings. Similarly, literature review related to various
methodologies may be discussed in the main chapter on methodology. The
place for literature review in the project report entirely depends upon type of
research study and on the researcher’s choice.
The literature review provides a conceptual framework for the reader so that
the research problem and methodology of the present research is better
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understood. The literature review demonstrates to the expert reader that the
researcher is aware of the breadth and diversity of literature that relates to the
research problem.
It is important that a researcher provides an integrated overview of the

proposed problem. For this the researcher has to show the awareness of the
most important and relevant theories, studies and methodologies. The
researcher has to show that how these are related to the present study and
how these works are similar to and/or different from the present research.
The literature review is not simply a list or summary of books and articles that
the researcher has read. Instead, it has to be combined and synthesized in an
integrated description of the field of study. A good literature review shows
how the text compiled from various books and articles relate to the broad
topic. It also demonstrates to the expert reader that a researcher have
surveyed much of the appropriate literature. A good literature review also
demonstrates that for the present study different approaches has been used
and in combination of all researchers has produced an original study.
Literature review is a systematic study and needs a thorough study of the

relevant study material. The literature review has to be structured as per the
following points;
 Summarize the relevant literature and integrate it with other works
with a relevance to the present research work.
 Briefly describe what results the previous researchers have produced.
 What theoretical concepts or analytical techniques relate to the present
study? Describe these in detail.
 What methodologies did the previous researchers used? If you have
adopted one of these methodologies for the present research explain it
in detail.
 What is the most recent finding related to the present study.
 What gaps and contradictions exist among these findings?
It is important to structure your literature review for the better understanding

and the continuity of concepts. Do not start writing your literature review
until you have developed a broad and deep understanding.
Main Chapters of the Report – Body Text
Main chapters of report or the body text comprise text matter, which deals
mainly with the methodology, results, interpretations and final findings of
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the research. The format for these chapters may depend on the type of
research study or on researcher’s choice. However, broadly main chapters of
the report may be classified into two sections. Section one, comprising
chapters mainly dealing with methodology whereas, section two chapters
mainly deals with results, interpretation and research findings.
Section one Chapters
In these chapters methodology adopted and executed for the present study is
discussed. These chapters must comprise the following;
 Detailed discussion on the methodology adopted for the present study.
 Processed secondary data with relevance to the methodology adopted
for the present study.
 Primary data collection, analysis and its use in the present
methodology.
 Analysis of data using various analytical, empirical, and experimental
and computer programs as per the methodology adopted.
 Data presentation – tabular formats and/or graphical presentation as
per methodology.
Section Two Chapters
Section two chapters mainly deal with results, interpretations and final
research findings. The results must be presented in tabular format. If possible
present results graphically also. Some important points which may help in
compilation of this chapter;
 While discussing results give broad range within which the value for
various parameters falls and accordingly write a qualitative
description of the related parameter.
 The results must be presented in simple tabular format. Tabular format
is a good means for comparison of results and it provides a
convenience to the reader for better understanding.
 If possible present results graphically also. This not only helps in better
understanding of results but also, makes your text more attractive.
 All interpretations made must be logically supported with the
quantitative data or theoretical concepts.
 Each interpretation must be presented as a separate point or as a
separate paragraph.
 How the results and findings of the present study will be used for the
betterment of concerned scientific concepts or how they may be
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the existing theoretical concepts and analytical techniques, discuss
briefly if any.
 If your research has made other contributions describe them in detail.
Conclusion and Recommendations
In this chapter the entire research work is concluded and the

recommendations, if any are made. Conclusions and recommendations are
discussed in separate subheadings. While writing conclusions the researcher
has to be very specific and systematic. By reading this section of the report the
reader must easily understand that what the present research is all about. By
reading conclusions the reader must clearly understand that exactly what you
did, why you did it, what the results are, whether or not the research is
supported by the experimental evidences and what are the final findings of
the research. In this section the researcher has to conclude his entire research
work into two or three pages. Recommendations made must be logical and
well supported by the research findings. Each recommendation must be
made as a separate point or paragraph. Do not made recommendations based
on assumptions. Some important points, which may be helpful in compiling
conclusions of the research work, are listed below;
 Frame your conclusions first before you start writing.
 The conclusions must be presented in not more than 2-3 pages.
 Always start with the definition and a brief background of the research
problem, followed by the objectives, data collection, methodology,
interpretation of the results and finally the findings of the research
study.
 Each activity must be discussed in separate paragraph or point.
 While writing about results give broad range within which the value
for various parameters falls and accordingly write a qualitative
description of the related parameter.
 How the results and findings of the present study will be used for the
betterment of concerned scientific concepts or how they may be
the existing theoretical concepts and analytical techniques, discuss
briefly if any.
 If your research has made other contributions describe them briefly.
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References
For any research work a researcher has to consult various published or
unpublished literature in the form of research papers from technical journals,
reports and other articles. It is quite common that you remember reading
something but will not know where you read it. If you have kept a detailed
record of your reading, you should be able to track these lost references. One
of the very simple methods to keep a proper record of all the references is by
making ‘reference cards’, already discussed in Chapter-3.
It is essential that whatever literature is utilized for the research purpose

must be mentioned in the ‘references’ section of the research report. The
format for reference writing may vary as per the instructions of individual
institute/ organization. The following points may be helpful in preparing
references in the project report;
 Arrange all references in the alphabetical order and as per the year of
publication.
 Author/s name will come first followed by year of publication,
Research title or book title, Journal name, Publisher, Volume No. and
reference page numbers (Plate 4.5).
 Make sure that the references written in the ‘references section’ have
actually utilized in your research work. For this you must write the
author name with the year of publication in parenthesis in the text
where you have used it.
o Example: “Significant increase in the factor of safety can be achieved
by making the slope face concave in section (Hoek and Bray, 1997)”.
4.3.2 Cover or Title Page
Cover page must contain a clear title, name of the institution or organization,
name of the researcher and month-year of report preparation. The cover page
may vary as per pre defined format set by the related institution or
organization. The cover page has to be attractive and must invite reader to go
through the report. This may be done by placing good photographs or by
placing some meaningful figures. The selected pictures or figures must be self
explanatory and they must highlight the research problem.
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The font size and font style must be A sample cover page
selected in such a way that the title
and other details on the cover page
are clearly readable and
proportionate to each other. The
cover page design basically depends
on the creativity of the researcher.
For designing an attractive cover

page following points may be
useful;
 Identify a good photograph, map
or a meaningful figure which
directly highlights or relates to
the research problem.
 If cover page is designed on A4 size (21 x 29.7 cm) paper, the title may be
in font size 17 to 19 and good font styles may be, Arial Bold, Comic Sans
MS Bold or any other as per the researchers choice.
 Other details on the cover page are clearly readable and proportionate to
each other in reference to the title.
4.4 Ethics in Project Report Writing
Writing and style makes a research report impressive and convincing. Writing
is a difficult skill to master and it comes through practice and dedication.
However, some important tips to help for better writing are mentioned below;
 Always structure the work in advance. For this purpose, frame the
research work in terms of order you plan to present in the project
report. Plan the chapter scheme and then plan what content will go
into each chapter. The sequence of the chapters must be systematic and
there must be continuity in various chapters. This may help the reader
to understand the research work very easily.
 For the content matter know what you want to say before trying to
write it.
 Every sentence must contain one idea only and the sentences must be
small.
 There must be continuity in sentences. For this purpose use connecting
words like; Further, In continuity to this, In addition to above etc. A
well written text is a “chain of ideas”.
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 While writing keep your reader’s need in mind. This means provide a
“verbal map” of your document so that your reader knows what to
expect. Also place “verbal signposts” in your text to explain what is
coming next.
 Distribute your text, within individual chapters, into headings and
subheadings. The numbering of the headings and subheadings must be
as ‘N.X’ and ‘N.X.Y’ , respectively where ‘N’ is the chapter number, ‘X’
is the heading number and ‘Y’ is the subheading number.
4.5 Presentation of Graphical Data and Photographs
The graphical data in a project report may be in the form of maps, figures and
graphs. This data serves as “gems in crown” and quality of this data makes any
report impressive. The graphical data not only facilitates the reader with easy
understanding but it also makes any report attractive. The following points
may help to enhance the quality of graphical data;
 Plan in advance what maps, figures and graphs are to be presented in
the report.
 The text to be written in the maps, figures and the graphs must be
readable and proportionate to the figure/maps.
 There must be a similarity in all drawings in the report in terms of font
size, font style, color scheme and frame of the drawing.
 In all maps and sections show legend covering all features shown in
the map and sections. Maps must also be provided with North
direction, strip scale and grid.
 While framing maps try to cover maximum area of the page. If the
width of the map is more, then present it in landscape layout of the
page.
 Use cool color tones for the filling of polygon features and use dark
colors for line features.
 In graphs clearly indicate what X-axis and Y-axis represents. Indicate
units also, if any. If representing number of line or point data on a
graph clearly mention each feature using a legend.
 Photographs are good means of presenting facts observed in field.
Photographs are the evidences to support your writing. It helps in
making your text more impressive and informative.
 Make sure that the photographs to be presented in the report are of
good quality and the features that you want to highlight are clearly
visible.
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 For small scale features take close ups and place reference scale – paper
strip scale or some standard object like hammer, pen etc.
 Write clear description at the bottom of the photograph.
4.6 Project Report Submitting
Fatigue and impatience can ruin the research project report. Therefore, it is
expected that a researcher must spent a little more time making sure that the
report is perfect before submitting it. Also make sure that before submission
the following steps are completed;
 Proof read the report carefully. It is a fact that every time you read
your report you will improve it.
 Ask a friend or relative to read your project report, you may get some
new ideas to enhance the quality of the report.
 Ask an experienced researcher to read your report with this you may
get some critical comments which will help in improving the quality of
the report.
 Give sufficient time to your supervisor/advisor to read the research
project report.
 Ensure that your project report meet all the requirements laid down for
the research project report by the funding organization/ institution to
which the project report has to be submitted.
 Submit the project report with a covering letter to the contact person
and address, before the last date of submission fixed by the funding
organization/ institution.
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CHAPTER – V
RESEARCH PROJECT DEFENCE AND
DISSEMINATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
5.0 What is a Research Project Defense
Research project defense is a systematic presentation and defense by the

researcher, of his/ her research work in front of the reviewers/ examiners
committee and other audience. At research defense a researcher has to briefly
explain his entire project from start to finish and highlight all the activities
and findings pertaining to his research project. He is also required to explain
and answer the questions asked about his research work by the reviewers/
examiners and audience.
5.1 Defense Preparation
It is necessary that a researcher before he finally faces his research defence

must do thorough preparations for his research defence. Once he is confident
about his preparations then only he should arrange/ ask for his research
defence. At research defence a researcher needs to make people understand
about his research work. In addition to this it’s an opportunity for the
researcher to convince people that his research work is authentic and well
supported by experimental results and logical concepts. Further, he also
justify that the present research work carried out by him fulfil the
requirements for the academic degree and he has developed an expertise in a
particular area of study. For this he has to make a systematic presentation of
his research work.
5.2 Activities
Before a researcher actually prepare for his defense he must know clearly that
what he is going to present, how he will organize his presentation, what are
the most expected questions and how he will answer to those questions. The
following activities may help a researcher for effective and systematic defence
preparations;
 A researcher must structure his presentation before he actually
starts working on it.
 Self-assessment of research work and identifying possible
questions. Preparing answers for all such possible questions.
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 Discussions with advisors/ supervisors and other researchers on

his research work. To have their views/ suggestions for a better
presentation of the research work and expected questions on his
research work.
 Find opportunities to discuss your research work with your friends
and colleagues. You may have some new questions on your
research work.
 Read your thesis thoroughly and try to identify aspects of your
research that are particularly confusing and need further
explanation. Also, try to identify such contents for which you feel
that you have missed to discuss in your report.
 Try to attend one or more defenses prior to yours. At the defense
try and keep your focus on the interactions that occur. Does the
other researcher seem relaxed? What strategies does the other
researcher use to keep relaxed? How does the other researcher
interact with the defense committee members? Does the other
researcher seem to be able to answer questions well? What would
make the situation appear better? What things should you avoid?
You can learn a lot from sitting in such a meeting.
 Assess your weaknesses – nervousness, confusions, poor vocal
expression or any other. If you find any of such weaknesses try to
work on it so that you overcome such weaknesses before your go
for your research defense.
 Rehearse well for your presentation. Ask some of your friends to
attend such rehearsal. If possible, you may invite your advisor/
supervisor and other senior researchers for one of such rehearsals,
this may give you confidence and you will know where you were
lacking in your preparations. Further, you may record one of such
rehearsal on a small tape recorder or if possible, on a handy camera.
You may watch your presentation later on, this may help you to
find out your weaknesses and you may have an idea for further
improvements.
5.3 Preparations for Research Defense Presentation
Presentation includes two key components one, what you are going to
present and other how you are going to present. Therefore, it is essential that
you must structure your content matter that you are going to present. Also,
plan an effective mode of presentation.
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5.3.1 Structure of Presentation
Before a structure for presentation is planned, a researcher must be clear

about the time allotted for the presentation. As a general rule no presentation
should be very long, ideally it should not be more than 30 minutes. However,
in most of the cases the chairman of the research defense committee may allot
some additional time or he may ask the researcher to present his research
work in less than 30 minutes. Therefore, a researcher must prepare his
presentation in such a manner that he may easily adjust to such variations at
the time of defense.
What goes into a research project presentation is the most important and
crucial aspect of any research defense. At presentation one has to be the best
not only on his presentation but also to answer all the questions asked by the
committee members in a very convincing manner. His presentation by itself
must demonstrate the overall quality of his research work. As a fact there is
no single format for a research project presentation. This is because every
research project is different. However, there are several key components,
which must be included in every research defense presentation. The key
components for any research defense presentation are;
 An introduction to the research problem and an argument as to why
that problem is important
 Specific objectives of the research study.
 An overview of the study area, location, physiography, climate or
other relevant themes related to the proposed study.
 A description of the research methodology adopted to perform the
research.
 A description on primary and secondary data collection and analysis.
 A description on experimental data generation, if any.
 Interpretation of results and final findings.
 Conclusions and recommendations, if any.
 A note on the limitation of the present study.
 Describe how the results and the findings of the present research work
will be utilized.
 A note on future studies and extension of the present research work.
In addition to this a research defense presentation must also include a self-

explanatory title slide, acknowledgements and a note of thanks.
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5.3.2 Self Preparations
It is necessary that a researcher before he finally faces his research defense

must be well prepared for the defense. Once he is confident about his
preparations then only he should arrange/ ask for his research defense. He
must know clearly that what he is going to present, how he will organize his
presentation, what are the most expected questions and how he will answer
to those questions.
Prior to defense a researcher must assess his weaknesses. These weaknesses

may be nervousness, confusions, poor vocal expression or any other. If any of
such weaknesses are present he must try to work on it so that he overcomes
such weaknesses before he faces the research defense. The following points
may be helpful in overcoming such weaknesses;
 To overcome nervousness always think positive and believe in yourself.
You must understand that you are the most knowledgeable person as
far as your research problem is concerned. Realize your capabilities and
trust your knowledge on concerned research subject. Concentrate more
on such portions of your research work where you feel that your
knowledge on theoretical concepts is shallow.
 Confusions will only occur when you are not well prepared for your
presentation. The only means to overcome confusions is to make sure
that you prepare yourself well prior to the defense. Repeated readings of
your presentation content matter and rehearsing it for number of times
may help you to overcome confusions. If not clear on certain portions of
your research work further reference readings and consultation with
your advisor may help to remove confusions.
 Poor vocal expression is a very serious weakness; if an individual is poor
in his vocal expression he will ruin his research work at the time of
presentation. Vocal expression means the way an individual speaks and
what feelings are exposed on his face when he speaks. Vocal expression
and style makes a presentation impressive and convincing. Vocal
expression is a difficult skill to master and it comes through practice and
dedication. However, some important tips to improve vocal expression
are mentioned below;
o Read the content matter of your presentation repeatedly so that
you remember the text and sequence correctly.
o Rehearse loudly your presentation content matter number of
times facing a mirror and watch out your expressions on your
face.
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 When confidant, call some of your friends and rehearse in front of

them.
5.3.3 Mode of Presentation
Before a researcher decides on which mode he is going to make his

presentations he must check the availability of the required resources for the
proposed mode. There are two modes of effective presentation; i) The ‘Over
Head Projector (OHP)’ and ii) ‘Data Projector’. For Over head projector the
content matter has to be prepared over transparencies. The transparencies
may be prepared by freehand writing with permanent OHP pens or content
matter may be photocopied over the transparencies. For ‘Data Projector’ the
presentation may be prepared on ‘Microsoft Power Point’ software and
directly it may be displayed with the help of a Personal computer or laptop.
Of the two modes ‘Data Projector’ is an effective means of presentation.
Some important tips for power point presentation preparation are listed
below;
 Make your presentation in Landscape layout and use simple
background or apply simple design template. Ideally the background
color or design template must be of dark color and the text written
should be in bright color.
 While preparing slides be concise and precise. The text written over
each slide must be in points. Write only important points in the slide.
Use small sentences, ideally not more than two lines. Do not over
crowd the slides with text. Underline or highlight the key words in the
sentences. Headings must be in capital, bold letters and underlined.
Ideally headings must be in 18 point and other text in 16 or 15 point.
However, adjustment in font size may be made depending upon the
font style selected by an individual. Avoid using custom animation
effects on text as much of the time is wasted in animated display.
 Keep slide transition on mouse click mode; do not make it on
automatic mode. If you keep slide transition on mouse click mode you
will have a flexibility to change the slide as per your choice at the time
of presentation.
 Show only important results and try to display results and findings of
the research graphically. This may improve the presentation.
 Use maps, figures and photographs to support various concepts and
results of your research. This will not only make you comfortable in
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convincing the defense committee but it will also make your

presentation attractive.
 While preparing layout of slide try to arrange a figure or a photograph
at least after every alternative slide. This will keep the audience
attentive and involved in your presentation.
Do not use difficult words to impress audience. Do not use overly
simplistic language in the slides.
5.4 Research Defense Presentation
For an effective presentation it is essential that a researcher not only make a

good presentation of his research work in front of Research defense
committee but it is equally important that he must present himself in a very
confident manner. For a good presentation the following points may be
helpful;
 Enter into meeting hall confidently with a gentle smile on your face.
Before you start your presentation convey thanks to the meeting
member / organizer who has invited you for the presentation. Simply
say ‘thank you Sir’ facing towards him.
 While presenting look towards the defense committee members and
the general audience. Do not look continuously towards the screen or
in a particular direction. While speaking do not stand at one place only
gently move towards right or left.
 Speak clearly and loudly; give emphasis on the key words. Avoid
using words like ‘I mean’, ‘You see’, ‘you know’, ‘Of course’ etc. While
presenting if you forget something do not try to recall it, as it may give
unnecessary pause and you will break your continuity.
 Avoid reading word by word from the slide. Just look at the key words
and frame your own sentences.
 Finish your presentation with a note of thanks.
 Listen carefully to the questions asked by the defense committee
members and the audience. Think for a while frame the answers in
your mind and explain gently, use supporting slides. If you are not
sure for the answer, do not try to answer it, gently say sorry sir.
 Take proper note of the suggestions made by the committee members.
All such suggestions may be helpful for the improvement of your
report.
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5.5 Dissemination of Research Findings
No research study is complete without dissemination of research findings. By

dissemination you will explain how the results and findings of the research
study will be used for the betterment of concerned scientific concepts or how
they may be utilized for the welfare of the society. The results and findings
may overcome the shortcomings or gaps in the existing theoretical concepts
and analytical techniques. By dissemination of research finding you will
explain that what the further possibilities of extension of present research are.
For this purpose, prepare an article or paper that shares the findings of your
research. There will be no better time to do this than just after your defence.
Immediately after your defence is the right time, as you know your study the
best and you will be in the best position to put your thinking on paper. If you
don’t do it immediately after your defence probably you will never get it
done. Capitalize on all of the investment you have made in your research and
reap some additional benefits.
5.5.1 Means of Dissemination of Research Findings
There are several means of dissemination of research findings. Some

important means are listed below;
 Technical Journals - National and International
 Seminars, symposia, conferences and workshops
 Presentations in concerned Departments/ organisations
Technical Journals
Technical Journals provides an opportunity to the researcher to publish his

paper, which is widely circulated among a group of scientist working in the
respective fields. Before publishing the paper technical editorial board of the
Journal will sent the paper to the eminent researchers/ reviewers for the
examination of the quality of research work. Based on the comments /
remarks on the quality, received from the eminent researchers/ reviewers the
editorial board will publish the paper. These Journals are national and
international depending upon their circulation. These are published monthly,
bi-monthly, quarterly, Bi-annually or annually. A list of such reputed journal
may be obtained by Internet browsing. Most of the Journals have their web
sites and provides instructions and general requirements for the authors
intending to contribute technical papers to the respective Journal.
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Technical Paper Preparation for a Journal
Each technical journal has its own format and general requirements.
However, there are some basic requirements, which are common for all
technical journals. The following points may be useful for the preparation of a
technical paper, to be submitted to a reputed journal;
 Identify the relevant technical journal in which you can publish your
paper. You may have information in this regard from your advisor or
any senior researcher working in the related field. Also, you may get
this information by Internet browsing.
 Next step is to get the instructions and general requirements for the
authors. This you may find at the last page of any reprint of the
technical paper published in that journal. You may also get this
information from the web site of the respective journal.
 While writing a technical paper strictly follow the instructions and
general requirements set by the respective journal. The technical paper
should not be very long, ideally not more than 15 pages. Write specific
and to the point. Show only relevant figures having proportionate well
readable text. Only show important data used for the research
methodology. Avoid putting number of tables, if necessary try to
merge tables so that the number of tables becomes less. Write clearly
and precisely particularly, the abstract and conclusions; so that by
reading this section of your paper reader easily understands that what
your research is all about.
Seminars, symposia, conferences and workshops
Seminars, symposia, conferences and workshops are organized by various

organizations from time to time throughout the year. The organizing
departments/ organizations make vide publicity vide various media prior to
these events. These can be national or international. By submitting a technical
paper to such seminars, symposia, conferences and workshops a researcher
has an opportunity to present his research work personally in front of a group
of scientists/ researcher. A researcher has an opportunity to explain to the
scientific community for his unique findings and the contributions made for
the welfare of the community in general.
Presentations in concerned Departments/ organizations
If a researcher has worked on some practical problem, which directly relates

to the welfare of the community of the area, his research findings may be
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helpful for the development of that particular area. For the dissemination of
his research findings he may approach the concern department in that area
and may propose to make a presentation in front of the concerned officers.
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PART II
PROJECT CONCEPT NOTE

1. Introduction
2. A Project - what is it
3. How to identify and define the problem?
4. Who is interested in the project? Who will benefit from the project?
5. How to analyze the problem?
6. How to define objectives?
7. What to choose? How to define the project strategy
8. What is needed to achieve the project objectives?
9. How to build and check intervention logic?
10. How to assess the project budget?
11. Is your project sustainable?
12. Final tips on writing the Concept Note
References
Annex : Methodology of Problem Tree building
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1. Introduction
The Ethiopian Government is funding research programs in various

disciplines, in particular the agricultural sector, to support more effective
and sustainable development of the regions. The government will provide
funding to eligible research and higher education institutions through
regional and federal grants facilities. In order to receive funding an eligible
organization must meet the requirements and come up with sound proposals
that address the identified priority areas. There are several restricted call for
proposals by various international organizations and potential applicants
must submit a project idea in two steps: first, submitting a Concept Note that
briefly describes the project idea or concept; next, submit the full application
form after initial evaluation. The concept note will be evaluated, and the
eligibility of the submitting organizations will be checked. Assuming the
submitting organization is eligible, the best concept notes will be selected and
the successful organizations will be asked to submit the full Application
Form. Ensuring the quality of the Concept Note is vital. This manual is meant
to help you to prepare a good Concept Note and research proposal
(application form) that is need based and demand driven.
First, you must remember that the two steps of a restricted call for proposal
reflect two consecutive stages of project preparation: Analysis stage and
planning stage
The results of the Analysis Stage will be a Concept Note and the result (if you
are selected to submit an application) of the Planning Stage will be a
completed Application Form (research proposal). In the Concept Note you
will submit an analysis of current situation and a chosen strategy, leaving
the more detailed project development information for later (which will
be developed in the Planning Stage, after you have been selected to submit
a full application). Your project idea, however, should be well thought
through before you start completing the Concept Note. This is very
important. Most successful grant recipients state that having a solidly
prepared project idea or concept is critical to a winning application. So take
the time to develop the project idea as well as you can
In the first step (the submission of the Concept Note) you will:
 Present the problem your project will focus on;
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 Describe your project objectives;

 Describe all groups that will benefit from your project;
 Discuss your project results (or what you expect to
accomplish throughout your project);
 Describe the type of activities that are planned within the
project;
 State the amount of funding requested from the grants
program
Later, in the Application Form (if your Concept Note has been selected
and you meet the eligibility requirements), you will present detailed data
about the activities, their realization, schedule and detailed budget. You must
take into consideration that the Concept Note is the only place where you
must: provide the detailed analysis of the problem; project objectives; target
group(s); and, beneficiaries. It means that your project idea should be well
thought out before you start writing your Concept Note. Remember that the
Concept Note and Application Form should be complementary to one
another to create a consolidated application, although the description of the
problem and project objective should be presented only once in your concept
note
2. A Project - what is it?

Everywhere around you, you may notice problems and difficulties. If you
have a real desire to solve a concrete problem opportunity for you is to start
working on a project concrete problem opportunity for you is to start working
on a project.
The key to developing a solution to your problem & potentially receiving

funding is the understanding of what a project is. 'A Project is a self-
contained operation with a coherent set of activities aimed on achieving
clearly defined objectives, solving problems of identified target groups,
with planned tangible results and limited timeframe, which needs to use
defined means and resources within the prescribed budget.
From a donor’s point of view, one of the most important things is that the
project must solve a concrete problem in a concrete area. If there is no
problem, there is no project. Also, it is important that the concrete problem
is solvable in the context of your project. This is why you should begin the
development of your concept and project by identifying and defining the
problem
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3. How to identify and define the problem?

A precise definition of a problem is the key to project planning and
realization. If you define the problem incorrectly and then try to adjust it to
the solution you are proposing, you will probably face difficulties with setting
project objectives. These project objectives, which will be discussed later, are
extremely important for a government/donor of financing. This is why you
should devote sufficient time to identifying and defining the problem
Firstly, analyze the situation, think of what problems need solutions and
choose a key problem that you really want to solve. Check the statistical data,
look through projects that have been implemented in your area and similar
area (donor, NGO or government), either now or in the past, and see if they
were effective Analyze available studies and publications. Ask yourself:
How do we know what the problem is?
Whom or What does the problem concern?
What is the scope of the problem? How big is the problem and how can
it be solved?
When identifying your project idea, think about local/regional development

problems. Remember that a government/ donor will have specific
parameters or a specific intention for the financial resources that it is
providing. Understanding these specific intentions or parameters is very
important because a government/donor can only finance projects that fit
these specific intentions / parameters. Therefore, read the government
development/research priorities carefully, paying special attention to
objectives of the programs, expected results and priority issues. Take
advantage of your own experience and knowledge of the situation. If there
are a lot of problems all around you, you can start with identifying the
problems that are within the scope of the government programs and choose
one the most important for your region/area. Be careful when defining your
problem it must be clear and concrete and most importantly solvable (it can
be solved with the funding that is available in the context of your project).
Example:
Incorrect: the main regional problem is our river X
Correct: High contamination of river X
The problem must be defined as an existing negative situation, not as a

lack of desired situation. It is necessary to remember that the definition of a
problem is always a negative statement. It defines the negative situation,
process or tendency, as well as shortage, limitation or unsatisfied need.
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E.g. “lack of employees meeting the needs of labor market” does not reflect
the deeper problem(employees lack necessary qualifications) ineffective and
directs the intervention into an in-correct and solution (increasing number
of workers), while the proper solution might be a series of training for
employees of an improvement in management or the development of a
specific set of skills. You must be careful when using the expression “lack of
something”.
Example
Incorrect: Lack of employees meeting the needs of labor market
Correct: Employees’ qualifications do not meet the needs of labor market
4. Who is interested in the project? Who will benefit from the

project?
Next, you must understand that the correct definition of your project idea will
properly direct the project, enable you to define the problem in details, specify
the objectives and best choose appropriate activities. Negative situations
defined as problem affects specific sectors, entities, organizations, local
population or social groups. Overcoming or the mitigation of this problem in
future will certainly benefit specific sector, entities organizations, the local
population, social groups or individuals. They are your potential allies and it
is up to you how to include these stakeholders in the definition of your
problems. It is important to preliminary stakeholder analysis. These people
and structures will be important in helping you, or they may potentially
represent a block to your project, nonetheless it is important to consider all
people and organizations that will play a role.
This is why you should analyze project stakeholders immediately after

defining the problem. Stakeholders are all the people and institutions
interested in the problem, and will be affected by its solution or Individuals or
institutions that may directly or indirectly, positively or negatively affect or be
affected by the research/project.
Therefore, simply speaking, stakeholders are all the people or institutions

that have an interest in your Project’s success or failure or may impact
your project in any way. They are either your allies or, sometimes, the
people or institutions who may block the successful implementation of your
project (if they are not effectively engaged). You should remember about
them while planning, as they may play an important role in the project.
Stakeholders must be identified; some of them may need being taken care of
through special activities aimed at them. You must remember about
stakeholders that might oppose your project realization additionally while
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identifying its risks and assumptions (discussed later in this manual).
The preparation of the List of Stakeholders will help you in keeping all these
groups in mind and to decide how to involve these stakeholders or deal with
them in an effective manner. It will help you determine the importance of the
person or institution, to best decide how you will engage or involve (or over-
come a potential future blockage) to choose the most effective approach. The
analysis table on next page will help you to determine the importance of the
stakeholder
Table 1: Preliminary Stakeholder analysis matrix
Importance of stakeholder
Unknown Little / No Some Significant

importance importance importance
Influence of stakeholder
Significant Name of (3) (1)

influence stakeholder
Somehow
influential
Little / no (4) (2)

influence
Unknown
Based on: ‘Guidance note on how to do stakeholder analysis of aid projects and
programs’, UK Department for International Development, London 1993
Institutions/people listed in rose, blue and yellow boxes are the key
stakeholders for your project
 Rose boxes show stakeholders that are extremely important, it
means that you should establish very good relationship with them
and/or invite them to the common project implementation.
 Blue boxes show stakeholders that require a special attention, actions
protecting their interests and monitoring
 Yellow boxes show those who can affect the achievement of project
outcomes; it means they have to be monitored during the whole project
implementation process.
 Green boxes present those stakeholder requiring limited
monitoring/evaluation
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Prepare the list of your stakeholders based on the above table. Rank them
according to their influence on the project and starting with the ones in rose
boxes, then in blue and white boxes and finally those in green boxes. Keep this
list for further steps of the project preparation linked with the stakeholders’
analysis.
Example of stakeholders
 Donors
 National and regional authorities, including key officials responsible
for the sector, regulatory agencies etc
 Civil society groups, such as trade unions, NGOs with interest in the
sector, Agencies for Regional Development, Business Support
Agencies, media representatives etc
 Related public institutions
Representatives of private sector, including private sector associations,
related business in the sector etc.;
 Potential private / public sector investors
 Others (depending on project scope, sector, area).
Once you rank the stakeholders, you should analyze their interest, capacity
and motivation. Think of what activities aiming at them may be undertaken
to ensure smooth project realization. You may use the following table
Stakeholder and Interests and Capacity and Possible actions

basic how affected by motivation to to address
characteristics the problem(s) bring about stockholder
change interests
Source: Aid Delivery Methods, stakeholder analysis Volume 1: Project Cycle

Management, EC office, Brussels, 2004
Keep this list for further steps of the project preparation linked with
stakeholders’ analysis. It is very important to check at each of the following
stages whether new stakeholder appears.
5. How to analyze the problem
Once your problem is defined, you should next think of who is directly
affected by the problem, who would the project be aimed at, define the
project’s target group and final beneficiaries. Beneficiaries are those who
benefit in whatever way from the implementation of the project. A distinction
may be made between Target group(s) and Final Beneficiaries
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Target Group The group or entity that will be directly positively affected by
the project
Final Beneficiaries
Those who benefit from the project in the long term at the level of the
society or sector at large, e.g. “children” due to increased spending on health
and education, “consumers” due to improved agricultural production and
marketing
When describing your target group(s) try to be as thorough as possible. The

more detailed the description, the more the donor will see that you have
analyzed the group of recipients, learnt about their problems and needs, and
that your solution will be welcomed by them and will meet their needs. If
there is more than one target group, you should separately analyze and
describe each of them. The definition should clearly differentiate the target
group from the whole population. In case of your project, the differentiation
criteria may be, for example: age group (young people 20 – 25 years old) or
occupation (drivers, teachers, farmers etc.).
The following questions may be useful in identifying the target group:

 Who will your project aimed at?
 Who will benefit from the project and to what degree will they be
affected?
 Do the recipients know about your planned project?
 What is their opinion about your project?
 Who is affected by your project, whose need are you taken into account
when you think about the project?
Sometimes in analyzing the problem you will understand that a wider group
of people is affected by the problem defined and that more than one target
groups can be chosen. In such a case you should carefully analyze each of the
chosen target groups.
Then you should define the problem in details, set its scale and importance
for regional development. It is extremely useful to contact the stakeholders
defined, learn what their opinion is, what they find to be the cause of the
problem and what may be the results of leaving the problem unsolved.
To sum up, a problem analysis should consist of:

 Confirmation of the problem;
 Identification of any additional problems directly linked to the
main problem in the concrete area;
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 Determining problems important for the beneficiaries, existing at

the moment of your project planning ; and,
 Sorting the problems to create a structure of cause-effect relations,
called a 'Problem Tree'. This problem tree concept will be
discussed below.
Based on the recommendations of the European Union (which will assess

your project ideas / concepts) we would like to recommend you to use the
specific tools called ‘Problem Tree’ and ‘Objective Tree’ in further project
development – it is one of the easiest ways for analysis of problems and
objectives
Problem Tree: Visualization of the problems in form of a diagram (….) to

help analyze and clarify cause-effect relationship
The Problem Tree as the final result of your problem analysis is a

comprehensive summary of existing negative situation relating to your focal
problem. Focal problem is the main problem that was generated earlier in the
process and the main problem that your project will target.
When creating the Problem Tree, you start with the focal problem, defined as
a negative statement. You then identify all other problems associated with it,
e.g. if you identify the main problem as unemployment among young
inhabitants of the region, you may find connected problems such as:
helplessness, frustration, youth's lack of self-confidence, gap between
professional qualifications and current labor market needs, lack of work
experience, lack of job seeking skills, escalation of social conflicts, etc.
Problem
A
Problem Problem
G B
Focal
Problem
Problem FFFblem Problem
F C
Problem Problem
E D
Problems associated with Focal Problem
Once you define all problems associated with the focal problem, you should
carefully analyze each of them and determine the cause-effect relationship
between them. You should then present them in a way where the problem-
cause is shown a level below its problem-effect. Problems not being in direct
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cause-effect relation are shown on the same level.
For example, consider four problems: the Focal Problem (unemployment

among young inhabitants of the region), Problem A (gap between
professional qualifications and current labor market needs), Problem B (lack
of job seeking skills) and Problem C (escalation of social conflicts). Problem A
and B are causes for the Focal Problem; hence they should be positioned
below it. They are not interconnected, so they should be positioned at the
same level. Problem C is as effect of the Focal Problem (and, indirectly, of
Problem A and B), so it should be positioned above it.
Problem Effects
A
Problem Problem
G B
Problem C
Focal Problem
Focal
Problem
Problem Problem
Problem A Problem B
F C
Problem Problem
E D
Causes
Problems Associated Cause - Effect Relationship

with Focal Problem
Please note the focal problem must not contain its solution and the Problem
Tree is not a hierarchical structure (their position at the Problem Tree does not
show their importance). Remember to involve the project stakeholders in the
Project Tree preparation. As it should be a group process, try to involve as
many experts/stakeholders as you can.
See the example of the Problem Tree with marked the cause-effect
relationships in figure presented below: Example of a Problem Tree
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When your Problem Tree is finalized, you can check your stakeholders list
once again, and clarify whether any new stakeholder was noticed. All new
stakeholders identified should be included into your stakeholders’ list.
Remember that the problem tree is an open logical structure linked to the
stakeholder analysis matrix. Both problem tree and stakeholder analysis
matrix allow further development, transformations and adjustments. They
have to be checked and revised at every further phase of the project
development process. It can be used as basis for development of several
projects. In summarizing problem analysis please note the following rules:
 each card or box in the problem tree shall include only one
problem, not more than this;
 the problems must be real, not hypothetical;
 avoid, as much as possible, defining the problem in the form of
negation of the solution (ex: there is no info center);
 make sure of the sequence of causes and effects, i.e. problems-effects
stems from problems-causes;
 the problem tree is not designed in one session; you must get back to
the experts, co-applicants and/or affiliated entities and key
stakeholders to obtain the information that will help you complete the
tree;
 Problem analysis is very important as it justifies the entire project plan,
including the objectives and results; therefore, the outcome shall be
clear and accurate.
Done properly the problem tree provides obvious benefits to project

developers, helping them to avoid typical mistakes:
Negative practice Good practice

Too broad and unspecific Focused and specific definitions
definitions
No correspondence to Problems correspond to stakeholders
stakeholders
Stress on activities and Stress problems’ resolution
readymade solutions
Example of finally designed specific focal problem for: Target group – young people
25 – 30 years old with higher education
Incorrect: There is a very high unemployment rate in our region
Correct: Unemployment rate for young people with higher education (25 – 30 years
old) in region ‘N’ increased to 21% in February 2013 from 18% in February
2011
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6. How to define objectives?

Once the problem tree is constructed you can start to think how the situation
could be positively changed in the future.
Imagine the desired outcome to each problem when the negative situation,
process or tendency will have been overcome or mitigated; when a shortage
or limitation will have been eliminated and the specific need will have been
satisfied. All these desired achievements in future can be interpreted as
objectives. Conversion of these negative statements from the problem tree to
positive ones will lead to robust definitions of objectives. When defining
objectives, remember that they must be measurable and achievable.
Problem Tree Objective Tree
Figure 2: Converting problems to objectives Source: Own chart, based on Aid Delivery methods,
Volume 1: Project Cycle Management, European Commission, Europe Aid Office, Brussels
2004
The 'Objective Tree' is built through reformulating your problems into aims,
developing the means-ends relationship and then choosing one or a few
specific objective(s).
To create an Objective Tree, establish your ‘positive’ statement based on your

Problem Tree, using the levels you had created for the Problem Tree. This
way an ‘Objective Tree’ will be created in the basis of ‘Problem Tree’. The
focal problem level will turn into the specific objective, levels above it – into
overall objectives and below - results. The 'Objective Tree' is built through
reformulating your problems into aims, developing the means-ends
relationship and then choosing one or a few specific objective(s).
To create an Objective Tree, establish your ‘positive’ statement based on your
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Problem Tree, using the levels you had created for the Problem Tree. This
way an ‘Objective Tree’ will be created in the basis of ‘Problem Tree’. The
focal problem level will turn into the specific objective, levels above it – into
overall objectives and below - results.
Its aim is to present the interactions between objectives through creation of a

tree-like structure. It also enables identification of additional objectives, which
may have been previously unnoticed.
Objective Tree
Objective tree is visualization of the problems in form of a diagram (….) to
help analyze and clarify cause-effect relationship
While developing of the 'Objective Tree', check whether the positive

statements are properly defined, concrete and clear. Carefully check links and
relations between objectives. Cause-effect relations between problems now
are substituted by means-ends linkages. This means that achievement of
positive effect in the bottom is the basic condition for the improvement of the
situation in the next level. Final result of this operation is an objective tree
where problems converted to objectives and cause-effect relations to mean
sends linkages. This means that achievement of objectives at the lower level of
the Objective Tree became the basis and source for achievement of the
objectives at the upper level.
Take a further look at the Objective Tree outlined below, and see whether it is
properly constructed and whether some of the boxes should be moved. It may
happen that only while creating the Objective Tree will you notice that it is
necessary to change a cause-effect relation (what was not noticeable in the
creation of Problem Tree). Remember that once you change a position of a box
in the Objective Tree, you must change the position of the related problem in
the Problem Tree. It is necessary to remember that objective tree and problem
tree are two interdependent logical structures directly linked to each other. If
any change or adjustment is applied to one of them, an appropriate change or
adjustment is required to another one.
The objective tree is a basis for your whole future project
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Objective Tree figure

Source: Aid Delivery Methods, Volume 1: Project Cycle Management, European
Commission, EuropeAid office, Brussels 2004, p 70
7. What to choose? How to define the project strategy?

A complete Objective Tree consists of a number of 'branches', what means
separate, consistent units, each representing an alternative strategy (group of
objectives connected by a cause-effect relationship). Each 'branch' may be a
basis for a separate project. Each represents an alternative strategy. Once the
Objective Tree has been created and verified, you can begin to define your
project strategy.
Project Strategy
Project strategy is a direction in a project that contributes to success and

survival of the project in its environment
In order to ensure the success of your project realization, you must
thoroughly analyze all separate alternative strategies (all separate 'branches'
of the Objective Tree) and choose the strategy key to your project. This is one
of the most difficult steps in the project development process, because the
strategy determines your project (and will be assessed as the main part of
your Concept Note).
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Decision should be made based on such criteria as policy priorities, budget,

human resources, urgency, social acceptance, etc.
When analyzing the possible strategies, decide which of them:
 best complies to the national policy for regional development,
 complies to the requirements of the Call for Proposals,
 consists only of realistic, achievable objectives,
 meets the needs of project beneficiaries,
 is highly effective (ensures achievement of objectives with low
financial requirements)
 is based on available human and financial resources,
 Ensures sustainable results.
The simplest way to choose your strategy is deleting the 'branches' of your
Objective Tree that do not comply with the criteria presented above. It means
that to make a choice on the project strategy, you should take another look at
each branch of the Objective Tree and answer the following questions:
 Is the project field within our competences? (E.g. local authorities
have no influence over border infrastructure, although it is
located in their territory);
 Is the concrete sector/theme (e.g. energy, transport, water supply
etc.) within the usual thematic scope of your organization work?
E.g. an institution usually dealing only with water management
issues probably has a little experience in health care, does your
institution have appropriate experience and expertise in chosen
field?
 Does your institution have enough capacity to implement this
specific project: personnel, material and technical resources
available?
 Is there a real possibility to achieve the objectives of the project
within time frames set for this Call for Proposals (minimum of 18
and maximum of 30 months)?
 Are your project objectives relevant to those set out in the
SURDP Program and this Call for Proposals? Does your project
correspond to the donor policies such as environmental issues
and interests of vulnerable social groups?
It is important at this stage, that you have arrived at a ‘yes’ answer to all of
these questions.
When analyzing alternative strategies in order to answer the questions, you
have to think who else may get involved in the project implementation and
check the list of stakeholders prepared in order to invite the organizations
74 | P a g e
having strong interest in your project realization and a strong possible

influence on its success
Objective Tree Strategy Analysis
If they can provide the resources, competences or experience necessary to

support you in realizing a separate 'branch').
If the answer to at least one question regarding a branch is 'not' delete it, as
shown in a figure below.
This way, your Objective Tree will consist only of branches that you are able
to realize within your project and that meet the donor’s criteria. Deletion of
the branches (elimination of the alternative strategies) is a way to choose your
project strategy. The branches left become the strategy of your project - the
strategy to solve the problem you identified.
The figure below shows choosing the strategy for the Problem Tree shown
before
Figure for Strategy selection. Source: based on Aid Delivery Methods, Volume 1: Project Cycle
Management , EC; 2004
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At the end of this stage you should have the main elements of the project
defined: Problem, Overall objective(s), Specific objective(s) and results.
Strategy analysis allows project developers to avoid some typical mistakes:

Negative practice Good practice
Unclear and inconsistent strategy Clear and consistent strategy
No clear relevance to the program Relevance to the program is
obvious and easily justified
Multiple and poorly structured Logically subordinated & well-
objectives structured objectives
No correspondence between Correspondence between objectives
objectives and results and results
Finally, the strategy analysis will give you answers to the following
questions:
 What problems / objectives will be addressed?
 What combination of expected results has higher probability of
achievement and leads to sustainable benefits?
 What variant is more efficient and economically effective?
 How does the project build over other past and current actions in this
area?
 Are added value and/or synergy possible?
Once you choose the strategy, you should finalize stakeholder analysis: you
should insert information on each stakeholder into the table and carefully
analyze their attitudes towards the action. Think whether any activities to
address stakeholders' interests should be taken into account to ensure
smooth implementation of your project and keep accurate records of the
stakeholders’ analysis for further project planning. All alternative strategies
identified but not chosen should be kept for further development of the
project, during the planning stage.
8. What is needed to achieve the project objectives?

Creation of Problem Tree and Objective Tree, and following analysis of
alternative strategies enable you to choose your project strategy. Taking a
look at your final Objective Tree you can see that you have identified the
scope of your project and defined the scope of your project and drafted its
aims and results.
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Overall objective
Objective Tree
Specific objective
Results
Now you can finally define these elements of your project.

Analyze the Overall Objective, taking into account the definition of the overall
objective:
Overall objective:
The broad development impact to which the project contributes – at a national
or sectorial level (provides the link to the policy and/or sector program
context).
Overall objective is a broader objective to which the project will contribute. It

will normally be achieved some time AFTER the end of the project. It shows
why the project is important for the society, from the point of view of long-
term benefits. It indicates how your project corresponds with the program
and priorities of the regional development. Usually the overall objective
cannot be achieved as the result of only one project and may require the
implementation of many other projects/programs.
After you have elaborated your Overall Objective, you will now need to
define your specific objective(s).
Specific objective(s):
The development outcome at the end of the project – more specifically the
expected benefits to the target group(s).
The specific objective(s) need to be achieved by the end of the project. They
reflect the main project problem, consisting of long-terms benefits and
advantages for beneficiaries and target groups. It is directly related to the
problems or needs of the target group and final beneficiaries
Achieving the specific objectives should promote the achievement of a
projects overall objectives
Specific objectives do not correspond to the rendered services (results), but to
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the usage of these services by beneficiaries and show how the target
groups/final beneficiaries are using the products of your project, usually
showing changes in behavior or understanding(e.g. raised awareness,
obtaining new habits, practical skills etc.)
Results:
The direct/tangible results (good and services) that the project delivers, and
which are largely under project management’s control.
The results of the project must be well though. All project results you declare
must be achieved by the last day of the project implementation.
Achievement of the project specific objective(s) and provision of reasonable

input to the achievement of the overall objectives require implementing a
series of activities resulting in outputs, outcomes and impacts. Outputs and
outcomes are the needs satisfied and barriers on the way of regional
development process eliminated within the scope of the project specific
objective, by means of implemented project activities, using resources
available (money, personnel, equipment and etc.).
Outcomes What changes or benefits result from e.g. increase
the project skills/knowledge/confidence,
leading in long term to
promotion, new job, etc
Outputs What is produced through these e.g. number of booklet
activities? produced, workshops held,
people trained
Activities What activities the project e.g. development of materials,
undertakes? training programs
Means What resources go into the project? e.g. money, staff, equipment
Table – project components; project results consists of project outputs and outcomes
Outputs:
Outputs are direct/tangible results (good and services) that the project
delivers, and which are largely under project management’s control
Outputs are usually defined as products or services produced by the project.

Some examples of project deliverables: trainings delivered assessments,
feasibility studies, agreements, reports, events (e.g. workshops), manuals,
guidelines, technical designs, infrastructure built / renovated and etc.
Outputs are usually the immediate and concrete consequences of the
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implemented activities and resources used.
Think about the less tangible results you will develop in your project, and
how this can be expressed in a tangible form.
Outcomes:
Outcomes are the effects that follows from products or services delivered
during the project implementation; the consequence of project outputs
Outcomes are quite distinct from the deliverables you will create. Think of
what people will be able to do better, faster, or more efficiently, or what they
could never do before. Project outcomes are achievements at the level of final
the Target Group.
Outcomes show the changes made thanks to products and services (outputs)
provided by your project. Some examples of outcomes related to concrete
outputs are:
 delivery of training’ (project output) cause 'raised professional
skills' or 'implementation of positive habits'(outcomes),
 construction of 20 km road between village X and town Y'
(output) causes 'shortening of travel time to a health center by 1
hour' (outcome)
Activities:
The tasks (in the work program) that need to be carried out to deliver the
planned results.
To obtain the results of your project you need to realize a number of

activities. It is up to you to decide what kind / type of activities will ensure
the way to obtain the project result. It can be an activity focused directly on
the target group(s) and realized with their participation (delivery of
trainings, consultations etc.) or without their active participation but focused
on them (e.g. new tourists routes development, publications, infrastructural
activities (construction of new bridge and etc.).
9. How to build and check intervention logic?

Intervention logic
Intervention logic shows a logical relationship between the project objectives

and planned activities, and is used to check whether planned activities will
ensure the achievement of planned objectives.
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Once all the listed (in previous sections), main components of the project
(overall and specific objectives, results (outputs and outcomes) and activities)
are defined, it is the right time to summarize and check if your project is
logical - if its intervention logic is strong. It is necessary to check whether all
project components are really consistent and necessary for your project or
maybe something is missed. Organize all these components in the following
order
 overall objective(s)
 specific objective(s)
 results necessary to achieve specific objective(s)
 activities necessary to deliver each result
Check if the elements of your project are properly defined. Try to use
standard expressions. Remember that:
 Overall Objective to be expressed as 'To contribute to...'
 Specific objectives to be expressed in terms of benefits to the target
group being 'To increase/improve/etc.'
 Results to be expressed in terms of a tangible result
'delivered/produced/conducted/etc.'
 Activities to be expressed in the present tense starting with an
active verb, such as 'Prepare/design/construct/research/etc.'
Objective Example of how to write statements

hierarchy
Overall objective To contribute to improved family health, particularly
of under 5s, and the of the general health river eco-
system
Specific To improve river water quality
objective
Results Reduced volume of waste-water directly discharged
into the river system by households and factories
Waste-water treatment standards established and
effectively enforced
Activities Conduct baseline survey of households and
businesses
Complete engineering specifications for expanded
sewerage network
Prepare tender documents, tender and select
contractor
Identify appropriate incentives for factories to use
clean technologies etc
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You can organize all project components in the form of box diagram where
boxes of activities are placed at the bottom and objectives corresponding to
them at the top (see figure below). Clear numbering ensures avoidance of any
confusion and helps in checking the logic of your project.
Imagine the project implementation process. Using the diagram will answer
the following questions:
 Will sets of activities of this specific type lead to the
corresponding outcomes and outputs/impacts?
 Are all activities of each specific type sufficient and necessary to
achieve each result?
 Will all outcomes and outputs ensure achievement of the project
specific objective(s)?
 Will all outcomes and outputs answer expectations and needs of
the project target groups and final beneficiaries?
 Will all outcomes and outputs be sustainable and will project
target groups and final beneficiaries use them after the project
completion in the reasonable time perspective?
 Are all these results sufficient and necessary to achieve the
project specific objective(s)?
 Will the achievement of the project objective solve /mitigate
/eliminate existing regional development problem(s)?
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 Will the achieved project specific objective(s) provide reasonable

input in achievement of the project overall objective(s) and
respectively objectives of the Grants Program?
If the answer to all these questions is “yes” this means that logic of your
project is sufficiently strong and understandable.
10. How to assess the project budget?
In the Concept Note you are asked to present the amount of funding you are
applying for and the percentage of the whole project budget that this funding
you are applying for represents in the overall budget. The funding you set in
the Concept Note might change in the final project budget (which will be
completed in the project application), but only up to 20%.
It means you will have to provide only two figures in the table “Summary of
the action”, namely:
 financing requested (amount) and
 Financing requested as a percentage of total budget of the Action
(indicative in %).
It means you must estimate your project budget, then set amount of financing
of the funding agent and calculate what percentage of the overall budget
amount the financing amounts to the funding agency.
Defining these figures you should take into consideration the following
requirements:
 Amount of financing of funding agent cannot be lower than the
minimum and higher than the maximum amounts set in the Guidelines
for Applicants.
 total project budget must include only eligible costs;
The fact that the deviation of the funding organization contribution in the
final application is possible but not more than by 20% require you to be
precise in defining the project budget at the Concept Note stage. You may
have to mobilize all experience and the best expertise you have in your and
your partners15 organizations to make a reliable enough broad estimation.
Your previous experience can give you a clue on what financial input will be
required.
For those not so experienced in broad estimation of financial resources

necessary for achievement of the project results on the basis of planned
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activities it is recommended to consider opportunity for more detailed

activity-planning and budgeting at this stage.
While estimating project budget you have to keep in mind that it should be
realistic, cost-effective and include costs:
 incurred by only during implementation of the project (only invoices
issued after the contract is signed and invoices issued and paid by
the project completion may be included in the budget; all costs of
project development (e.g. support of external experts in project
development, additional analysis or technical documentation)
cannot be included into the project budget of international and
national funding system)
 necessary for project implementation;
 they comply with the requirements of applicable tax imported items;
 Are reasonable, justified and comply with the requirements of sound
financial management, in particular regarding economy and
efficiency.
For international funding guidelines for Applicants enumerates so-called

'ineligible costs' what means costs you cannot include in the budget, e.g.:
 debts and debt service charges (interest);
 provisions for losses or potential future liabilities;
 costs declared by the Beneficiary(ies) and financed by another action or
work program receiving an external funding grant;
 purchases of land or buildings, except where necessary for the direct
implementation of the action, in which case ownership must be
transferred to the final beneficiaries and/or local Beneficiary(ies), at the
latest at the end of the action16;
 currency exchange losses;
 credit to third parties;
 in-kind contribution (the market value of goods or services provided to
the project free of charge by a third party is not an eligible cost
While developing project budget:

1. Estimate the project costs based on the planned activities;
2. All costs incurred by project partners should be estimated by them;
3.Get an overview of total project costs, including the expected from funding
organizations contribution as well as your co-financing (e.g. staff from your
organization working on the project and not paid by the grant) or other
sources of funding (e.g. national/regional co-financing).
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11. Is your project sustainable?
Sustainability:
Sustainability is the likelihood of a continuation in the stream of benefits
produced by the project after the period of external support has ended.
Therefore, a sustainable project will continue to benefit the project’s Target

Groups and Final Beneficiaries also after its completion, a project likely to
have a tangible impact on its target groups and to have so-called multiplier
effects (it means it can be easily replicated, extended, etc.. The issue of
sustainability is very important from the donor’s point of view, hence you
should analyze it thoroughly and present in your Concept Note.
When analyzing sustainability, you should take four basic elements into
consideration:
 financial (showing how will the activities be financed after the funding
ends);
 institutional (presenting how the structures allowing the activities will
continue to exist at the end of the action and whether the results of the
action will be considered local, owned by the beneficiaries);
 at policy level (where applicable);
 Environmental (where applicable).
Financial sustainability concerns future financing of activities and results of

the project. You should think of (and present in the Concept Note) how the
products or services provided by the projects will be affordable for the
intended beneficiaries during the project implementation and remain so after
the funding ends, whether project activities will be financed after the project
funding ends (e.g. who will provide funding for future trainings, for
maintenance of structures established by the project (e.g. information centre),
etc.).
Institutional sustainability concerns the way in which you will provide future
ownership of the project results by beneficiaries (e.g. will beneficiaries be able
to use health services provided by a hospital renovated and equipped within
the project), if the technology, knowledge, process or service provided fits in
with existing needs, culture, traditions, skills or knowledge and whether the
beneficiaries will be able to adapt to and maintain the technology acquired
without further assistance (e.g. whether enough people were trained to use
the machinery or further maintenance will be provided without the project’s
monitoring).
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Sustainability at policy level (where applicable) concerns the structural impact

of the action — e.g. will it lead to improved legislation, codes of conduct,
methods, etc (e.g. whether recommendations elaborated thanks to
assessments and studies realized within the project will be implemented, who
will benefit from them, etc.).
Environmental sustainability concerns the project’s influence on the natural

environment (e.g. if you realize infrastructural activities, you should show
how it will impact the natural environment and prove it will not harm the
environment in any way, but will be beneficial. High quality projects should
provide sustainability of their results and impact for the final beneficiaries of
the project
12. Final tips on writing the Concept Note

When your project is well thought, you can start to work on a Concept Note.
Although there is no exact template provided, the particular requirements
have been defined, and you need to give full, detailed information requested.
To prepare a good draft, keep in mind the following suggestions:
 For external funding precisely follow the instruction given in ‘Grant

Application Form’ and in ‘Instruction for filling Concept Note’; for
national funding formal research proposal format
 Use the required paper size and recommended fonts;
 Keep the exact number of pages as required;
 Keep the required order;
 Give exhaustive information for each question posed, keeping the
same order;
 Present all information in a clear way;
 Use the appropriate project management terminology and do not
hesitate to use the same terminology, expressions or even phrases
as in Guidelines;
 Use simple, easily understandable language;
 Try to raise the interest of the assessor;
 Be precise and concrete, and avoid jargon and technical speech;
 Use simple terminology, understandable for everyone, not only for
specialists of the specific branch or scientists;
 Your Concept Note needs to be prepared in English – ensure high
quality of translation.
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References:
Aid Delivery methods, Volume 1: Project Cycle Management, European
Commission, EuropeAid Office, Brussels 2004
'Guidance note on how to do stakeholder analysis of aid projects and
programmes', UK Department for International Development,
London 1993
Guidelines for grant applicants, Budget line: 19.080103, Reference:
EuropeAid/134171/L/ACT/UA, Deadline for submission of
Concept note: 1 July 2013
Artto K., Kujala J., Dietrich P., Martinsuo M. (2007). What is project strategy?,
European Academy of Management (EURAM) 2007, 7th Annual
Conference, May 16-19, Paris, France
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Annex 1. Methodology of Problem Tree building
The development of an effective problem tree is a critical aspect of developing

a winning project idea or concept. While many different methodologies for
developing an effective problem tree exist, one of the most effective
methodologies is through using a group of stakeholders or interested people
who will be critical in the development and implementation of your project.
Please note that effective group work requires a limited number of

participants. We would like to suggest a group of not less than 6 and not more
than 12 participants. If you have a large number of stakeholders, it may be
useful to conduct several group sessions.
For the purpose of the Project Tree development you must prepare for each
session a set of blank cards (each problem should be written down on a
separate card) and a space (preferably wall) to display the cards.
Choose the group Leader (usually the most experienced person) who will
moderate and direct team work. If you feel that you need external support
you can invite an external expert to be the Leader.
The role of the leader is to facilitate constructive discussion. That means the
Leader should not allow anybody to dominate the discussion, should ensure
that all participants have an equal opportunity to share their opinions, and try
to stimulating participation of those who are less active and limiting the
participation (if participation becomes too one sided) of those who are very
active.
If the problem has already been defined, the Leader explains why this
problem has been chosen as the focal one and why it is important for the
regional development.
If the focal problem has not been chosen yet, your group should discuss major
regional/local problems and choose one. A key starting problem can be
identified on the basis of regional development needs assessments that had
already been done (e.g. for regional planning) and can be found in the
relevant strategies, programs or development plans. When considering the
choice of problems, it is important to take into consideration the requirements
set by the donor. Check whether the chosen focal problem complies with the
grant program aims and priorities described in Guidelines for Applicants.
Remember that an identified problem does not exist on its own. It always
87 | P a g e
affects specific sectors, entities, organizations, local population or social

groups. Identify who is affected by each problem.
When the focal problem is chosen and formulated, write it down on a

separate card, together with the affected people/sectors etc. and display for
everyone to see.
Then each member of the group writes down as many problems associated
with the focal problem as possible.
Each problem must be written down on a separate card. As this is an

individual task, participants should not discuss their ideas with each other at
this stage. Each definition must be as short / clear / specific as possible. In
defining the problem it is necessary to remember that, (as it was already
described in relation to the focal problem) the definition of each problem is
always a negative statement. It defines negative situation, process or
tendency, shortage, limitation or unsatisfied need.
When the group finishes the generation of the problems, the Leader collects
all cards and puts them together. This is a necessary operation allowing
separation a person from their opinion. Its role is to minimize the influence of
personal relations and attitudes or official subordination on the discussion.
Then the group discusses each problem identified by them. The Leader shows
each card and helps the participants find the mutual understanding and
opinion on the statement:
− Whether this statement is a problem
− If the group decides the problem does not exist they put the card
aside
− If it does, the Leader asks next question
− Whether this problem is directly associated with the key problem
(initially identified as subject focus of the problem analysis)
− If the group decides that it is not – they put the card aside
− If it is Leader asks next question
− Whether this problem is a cause or effect of the focal problem and any
problem already put in the tree
Problem-cause is to be placed below corresponding problem-effect. Problem-

effect is to be placed above corresponding problem-cause. Remember each
problem may have several causes and several effects.
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If a problem discussed cannot be classified as a cause or effect of any other

problem already placed on the wall, try to compare it with others, identifying
appropriate level in the problems’ hierarchy and place it beside.
If the formulation of the problem is similar to those already placed in the

‘Tree” the Team should decide:
− Which definition is better: shorter, more comprehensive, clearer
and more specific? Is it possible to combine these statements and
make a new, better one?
If, during discussion and looking at the growing problem tree the participants
come to additional ideas they can write them on cards and pass to the Leader.
After all the cards are discussed, your ‘Problem Tree’ is ready. Check if the
problems have been properly defined and the relations between them
marked.
Connect the problems with cause-effect arrows clearly showing key links.
Check definitions for correctness, comprehensiveness, clarity and specificity.
Review the diagram and verify its validity and completeness. Ask
yourself/the group – ‘are there any important problems that have not been
mentioned yet?’ If so, specify the problems and include them in an
appropriate place in the diagram.
In summarizing problem analysis please note the following rules:

 each card or box in the problem tree shall include only one
problem, not more than this;
 the problems must be real, not hypothetical;
 avoid, as much as possible, defining the problem in the form of
negation of the solution (e.g. there is no info centre);
 make sure of the sequence of causes and effects, i.e. problems-
effects stems from problems-causes;
 the problem tree is not designed in one session; you must get back
to the experts, co-applicants and/or affiliated entities and key
stakeholders to obtain the information that will help you complete
the tree;
 problem analysis is very important as it justifies the entire project
plan, including the objectives and results; therefore, the outcome
shall be clear and accurate
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

AND PROJECT CONCEPT NOTE

Eylachew Zewdie (PhD)

CHAPTER – II. RESEARCH PROJECT PROPOSAL

CHAPTER – III. TECHNIQUES IN PROJECT PLANNING &

CHAPTER – IV. RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT

CHAPTER – V. RESEARCH PROJECT DEFENCE AND DISSEMINATION

1.0 What is Research

1.1 Project Identification

Research project identification or selection is the most important and crucial

Example: As a fact we know maximum landslides occur during or

Another example – It is generally observed that there is an increase in

1.1.2 Theory and Scientific Concepts

In different scientific fields there exist several theories and analytical

Example: Geomechanics classification or Rock Mass Rating System (RMR)

1.1.3 Previous Research

Example: A researcher proposed to work on a research problem entitled

1.1.4 Practical Concerns

Example: A hydro geologist may frame a research problem related to

Another problem related to practical concern may be “Landslide studies and

1.1.5 Personal Interest

1.1.6 Resource and Financial Support Interest

Often it happens that if a researcher is employed with some organization

Example: A researcher working with Roads Authority may identify his

1.2 Research Project Selection Technique

For a researcher it is always good to generate several possible research

 Other specific criteria that relate to particular discipline, field of study

1.2.1 Using Attribute Grids for Selection of Research project

Thus, by using attribute grid system the selection of a proposed research

1.3 Setting the Limits on the Research Study

It is a known fact that in the initial stages of planning of research project

1.3.1 Setting Financial Limits to Research

Fixed Financial Support: In such financial support the amount to conduct a

Financial support as per requirement: - This type of financial support is

1.3.2 Setting Limits for Time

Activity Schedule Chart

Table 1.1: Demonstrate a sample Activity Schedule Chart for a proposed

1.3.3 Setting Limits for Resources

 Available Laboratory Facilities – Testing equipments, technical support

There may be limitation on these resources therefore; a researcher must plan

1.4 Priority Setting For Research Project

The research study has to be performed in a systematic and well organized

 Draft report preparation.

2.0 What is a Research Project Proposal

A research project proposal is a systematic compilation of idea that how one is

2.1 Purpose of a Research Proposal

A good research proposal is one which fulfills the following purpose;

2.1.1 Convince Other People

The main function of any research proposal is to convince other researchers,

2.1.2 Demonstrate Expertise

Research proposal helps to demonstrate expertise in a particular area of

2.1.3 Demonstrates Competency

Research proposal also helps to demonstrate competency in a particular area

2.1.4 To serve as a contract

Research often involves contracts between different individuals or groups or

2.1.5 To Serve as a Planning Tool

2.2 Content of a Research Proposal

2.2.1 Description of a Research Problem