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Pathophysiology of Leptospirosis
Pathophysiology of Leptospirosis
17Y23, 2013
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF LEPTOSPIROSIS
ABSTRACT—Leptospirosis is an acute septicemic illness that affects humans in all parts of the world. Approximately
10% of patients with leptospirosis develop severe disease, the Weil syndrome, with jaundice, acute kidney injury (AKI), and
pulmonary hemorrhage. Leptospirosis-induced AKI is typically nonoliguric with a high frequency of hypokalemia. Experi-
mental and clinical studies demonstrated that tubular function alterations precede a drop in the glomerular filtration rate and
are mainly in the proximal tubule. Studies in humans and animals have demonstrated a decrease in the expression of
proximal sodium (NHE3) and water tubular transporter, aquaporin 1 (AQP1) together with higher renal expression of the
Na-K-2Cl cotransporter NKCC2. In an experimental model, at the initial phase of the disease, the expression of AQP2,
the water transport of the collecting duct, is decreased, which explains the higher incidence of nonoliguric AKI. During the
recovery phase of AKI, AQP2 expression increased in human and animals as a compensatory mechanism. Alveolar
hemorrhage, pulmonary edema, acute respiratory distress syndrome, or a combination of these features may accompany
AKI and is associated with high mortality. Studies with hamsters demonstrated that in leptospirosis a noncardiogenic
pulmonary edema occurs consequently to a decrease in the clearance of alveolar fluid, due to a decrease in sodium
transporter in the luminal membrane (ENaC) and an increase in the NKCC1 basolateral membrane transporter. Antibiotic
treatment is efficient in the early and late/severe phases and revert all kidney transporters. Early and daily hemodialysis,
low daily net fluid intake, and lung-protective strategies are recommended for critically ill patients with leptospirosis.
KEYWORDS—Leptospirosis, acute kidney injury, acute lung injury, kidney transporters, lung transporters
Copyright © 2013 by the Shock Society. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
18 SHOCK VOL. 39, NO. 7 SEGURO AND ANDRADE
leptospirosis. Urinary protein excretion, when present, is typ- of isolated nephron segments. All animals with leptospirosis
ically less than 1 g/d. Bile pigments and granular casts can also presented jaundice; inulin clearances were normal. Animals
be seen. Under dark-field illumination, leptospires can be seen with leptospirosis presented higher FEK than did normal ani-
in urine between weeks 1 and 4 of infection (4). mals. High doses of furosemide were used to block NaCl
Interstitial nephritis is the mainly pathological alteration in reabsorption in the thick ascending limb of Henle loop of the
patients with leptospirosis even in those without AKI or tu- leptospirosis-infected animals, which subsequently presented
bular necrosis. The infiltration is mainly due to mononuclear FENa and FEK that were higher than those seen in normal
cells. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated intact leptospires animals treated with the same diuretic dose. In the infected,
throughout the tubular basement membrane, among tubular cells, furosemide-treated animals, mean FEK increased from 26%
within the tubular lumens, within the interstitium, and, in some to 136%, confirming that the distal tubular segments were in-
cases and in limited numbers, within glomeruli. Fragments of tact and that distal K secretion had increased.
spirochetes have been found within histiocytes, in the inter- The microperfusion studies performed in this study showed
stitium, and in tubules. Glomeruli maintain a normal aspect (6). that the modularly thick ascending limb of normal animals
Leptospirosis-induced AKI is typically nonoliguric and presented transepithelial potential difference and relative NaCl
often includes hypokalemia. Seguro et al. (7) studied 56 pa- permeability identical to those seen in leptospirosis-infected
tients with leptospirosis-AKI and found a higher frequency of animals, indicating that this nephron segment was functioning
nonoliguric renal failure. The authors also found that morbid- normally. In the inner medullary collecting duct of animals
ity and mortality were lower in those with nonoliguric AKI with leptospirosis, osmotic water permeability, diffusional water
than in those with oliguric AKI. The time to reach a serum permeability, and urea permeability did not increase in the pres-
creatinine level of 1.5 mg/dL, a parameter of recovery from ence of vasopressin, indicating vasopressin resistance in the inner
AKI was shorter in nonoliguric patients. Nonoliguric patients medullary collecting duct (8).
required dialysis less frequently than did oliguric patients. This study demonstrated that tubular function alterations
Interesting observation was that of the 30 oliguric patients in leptospirosis precede the fall of glomerular filtration rate,
on the first day of hospitalization, 16 became nonoliguric on which could explain the high frequency of hypokalemia in
the second day after volume expansion (if not with pulmonary leptospirosis-induced AKI even in oliguric patients.
edema) and furosemide administration, none of these non- The hypokalemia is a marker of less kidney dysfunction in
oliguric patients died, whereas 50% of the remaining oliguric patients with leptospirosis and AKI. In a prospective study of
died, mainly from pulmonary involvement. 42 patients with acute lung injury (ALI) in leptospirosis, most
An interesting finding was that 45% of the patients were of them with AKI, a serum K level greater than 4 mEq/L was
hypokalemic (potassium [K] G3.5 mEq/L) on the first day of independently associated with mortality. Lower K levels were
hospitalization, and none were hyperkalemic. observed in survivors, suggesting that there is less renal dys-
To explain a possible mechanism to the high frequency of function in this group. The higher K levels observed in non-
hypokalemia, 11 of these 56 patients were studied prospec- survivors might have been provoked by more severe renal
tively by measuring fractional excretion of sodium (FENa) and dysfunction or rhabdomyolysis. The association between cre-
K (FEK) on the first and eighth days of hospitalization. The atinine phosphokinase levels and maximum serum creatinine
urinary K/Na ratio was also calculated. Because practically all levels in these patients suggests that rhabdomyolysis contrib-
K filtered by the kidneys is reabsorbed in proximal tubule and utes to AKI and higher K levels in nonsurvivors (9).
in the thick ascending limb of Henle, the urinary K is due to In hamsters infected with Leptospira pomona, Andrade et al.
secretion of this ion in distal and cortical collecting tubules, (10) studied Na transporters in the kidney and lung. The in-
consequently to lumen negative potential generated by Na reab- fected hamsters presented elevated levels of creatine phos-
sorption, the urinary K/Na ratio is considered an indirect evalu- phokinase and total bilirubin and a lower creatinine clearance
ation of distal segments function. than control animals, indicating that they developed AKI. Urine
The data showed that mean serum creatinine decreased from output and FENa and FEK were increased in animals with
6.0 mg/dL to 1.6 mg/dL, and serum K increased from 3.5 to leptospirosis when compared with controls, similar to the hu-
4.3 mEq/L. The mean FENa (normal value 1%) was elevated man disease. Immunoblotting was used to determine the ex-
on the first day (6.0%) and decreased to 1.2%, whereas FEK pression and abundance of water and Na transporters. A
(normal value, 8%Y12%) decreased from 102.5% to 12%, and significant decrease in the protein expression of the Na/
the mean urinary K/Na ratio decreased from 0.62 to 0.34. The hydrogen exchanger isoform 3 (NHE3), which is expressed in
elevated FEK, which fell concomitantly with the FENa and the apical membrane of the proximal tubule, was observed in
urinary K/Na ratio, suggests that the initially increased distal infected animals and can partially explain the polyuria and
K secretion is secondary to an increase in the delivery of Na to might completely explain the high FENa. A marked increase in
distal segments consequently to a decrease in NaCl reabsorp- Na-K-2Cl cotransporter of the thick ascending limb of Henle
tion in the proximal tubule, and the elevated urinary K/Na (NKCC2) observed in the infected animals represents a com-
ratio on the first day suggests that the distal segments are pensatory response to the greater NaCl and water delivery
preserved in leptospirosis. to this tubular segment. The protein expressions of the NaCl
In an experimental study with guinea pigs inoculated with transporter of the distal tubule (NCC) and of the collecting
Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae, Magaldi et al. (8) evaluated duct (!-ENaC) were unchanged in leptospirosis-infected ham-
the renal tubular function, using clearance and microperfusion ster and indicate an integrity of these two distal segments. The
Copyright © 2013 by the Shock Society. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
SHOCK MAY 2013 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF LEPTOSPIROSIS 19
downregulation of the expression of aquaporin 2 (AQP2) may It has been well documented that leptospires can persist
also contribute the polyuria observed in leptospirosis animals. for prolonged periods in the renal tubules of a wide variety of
Araujo et al. (11) performed immunohistochemistry in kid- mammals. Therefore, the fact that the authors found signifi-
neys removed during autopsies of human leptospirosis cases cantly higher numbers of leptospires in TLR4-deficient mice,
and of human nonleptospirosis cases with and without evi- particularly in the target organs mediating leptospiral disease
dence of acute tubular necrosis. A decrease in the expression (liver, lung, and kidney) and transmission (kidney), is novel
of NHE3, AQP1 (the water channel), and !-Na-K-ATPase was and important.
observed in proximal convoluted tubule cells of patients with To elucidate the role of Leptospira outer membrane proteins
leptospirosis, whereas the expression of NKCC2 cotransporter in tubular nephritis, an outer protein membrane from a patho-
was preserved in leptospirotic kidneys. This study confirmed genic Leptospira, Leptospira shemani (32-kd lipoprotein, LilL32),
the findings observed in experimental models indicating that was administered to culture of mouse proximal tubule cells,
the primary injury in leptospirosis is in the proximal convo- resulting in a dose-dependent stimulatory increase in mono-
luted tubules. cyte chemoattractant protein 1, nitric oxide synthase (NOS),
Other tubular dysfunctions have been reported. Khositseth RANTES, and tumor necrosis factor !, resulting in an increase
et al. (12) studied 20 patients with leptospirosis and found that in nuclear binding of NF-.B in proximal tubule cells. These
50% had hypomagnesemia during hospitalization, and 75% had data demonstrated that LipL32 is involved in the pathogenesis
elevated magnesium (Mg) urinary excretion. Phosphate wasting of tubulointerstitial nephritis of leptospirosis (16).
occurred in 10 patients (50%) due probably to a dysregula-
tion in the tubular reabsorption of phosphate. Both disturbs AKI IN CHILDREN WITH LEPTOSPIROSIS
improved in 2 weeks after admission. Urinary excretion of
Leptospirosis is diagnosed less frequently in children than
N-acetylglutamate and "2-microglobulin was increased in all
might be expected based on the level of exposure to hazards.
20 patients indicating a proximal tubular dysfunction (12).
This might be attributable to a failure to consider the diagnosis
Another study showed that hypomagnesemia occurs mainly
or differences in the manifestations of leptospirosis in children.
in the recovery phase due to a decrease in tubular reabsorp-
Marotto et al. (17) studied 43 leptospirosis-infected children
tion of Mg (13). Sanches et al. (13) studied 54 patients with
from 4 to 14 years of age. The authors observed AKI in 79%,
leptospirosis with AKI during the recovery phase when mean
and, as in adults, the AKI was primarily nonoliguric. Eleven of
value of serum creatinine was 1.9 mg/dL; 24-h urinary vol-
the children had hypokalemia at admission. Only two children
ume, 5,437 mL; FENa, 4.5%; FEK, 23.5%; FE Mg, 33%
required dialysis during hospitalization. When compared with
(normal, 2%Y4%).
adult populations, children with leptospirosis-induced AKI pre-
In the same study, the NKCC2 and AQP2 urinary exosome
sented better outcomes. There was only one death among the
excretion analyzed by Western blot in six of these patients
children studied.
with leptospirosis was significantly higher than those of four
An interesting case of anicteric leptospirosis-induced AKI
healthy control patients, indicating that in the recovery phase
and meningitis was described in a 19-month-old child whose
the marked increase in NKCC2 expression as well AQP2 ex-
family lived in an area that had been flooded 1 week before the
pression might represent a compensatory effect and that the
onset of symptoms. Reversal of the AKI was obtained after an-
increase in Mg excretion may be due to a decrease in Mg
tibiotic treatment and intravenous fluid therapy. This case re-
reabsorption in the proximal tubule and distal tubule, not in
port should alert pediatricians to the potential of leptospirosis
the thick ascending limb of Henle (13).
in children with AKI and meningitis, particularly in endemic
Increased knowledge of leptospirosis-induced electrolyte
areas (18).
disorders and polyuria is of immediate clinical significance,
More recently, Spichler et al. (19) in a prospective study
because early diagnosis and correction of these electrolyte
compared the evolution of severe leptospirosis in pediatric
disorders can improve clinical outcomes for these critically ill
and adult populations. Children had lower rates of jaundice,
patients.
oliguria, and creatinine levels, besides that they had also less
The role of innate immune responses in protection against
pulmonary involvement and thrombocytopenia. The mortality
and pathogenesis of severe leptospirosis remains unclear. Toll-
rate was 5% in children and 27% in adults.
like receptors (TLRs) are now recognized as the major re-
ceptors for microbial pathogens on cells of the innate immune
PULMONARY MANIFESTATIONS IN LEPTOSPIROSIS
system. In sepsis, organ-induced dysfunction, especially in the
kidneys, is due to alterations in the innate immune receptors, Pulmonary edema/hemorrhage leading to acute respiratory
inflammasome components, and proinflammatory cytokines distress syndrome (ARDS) constitutes the most severe mani-
(14). Viriyakosol et al. (15) demonstrated that intact TLR4 festation of lung injury in leptospirosis.
signaling contributes to the control of the tissue burden of The ability of the lungs to resolve edema is crucial for re-
Leptospira in nonlethal leptospiral infection. Natural mam- storing lung function and is known to be impaired in patients
malian reservoir hosts of leptospires generally do not develop with ARDS (20). A strong association between AKI and ARDS
severe pathology in leptospiral infection. Toll-like receptor has been consistently demonstrated. It has also been shown
4Ydeficient mice, when infected with L. interrogans serovar that respiratory and renal failures are independently associated
icterohaemorrhagiae, died of jaundice and pulmonary hemor- with mortality. Weil disease manifests as severe lung injury
rhage similar to patients. (diffusive alveolar hemorrhage, pulmonary edema, ARDS, or
Copyright © 2013 by the Shock Society. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
20 SHOCK VOL. 39, NO. 7 SEGURO AND ANDRADE
a combination of these features) accompanied by AKI and can septum might reflect the clearance of intact spirochetes by
be therefore highly lethal (9). inflammatory cells; endothelial damage evidenced by the
Worldwide reports of pulmonary manifestations in lepto- blebbing formation of endothelial cells seen under electron
spirosis have been increasing in recent years. Pulmonary in- microscopy might have drawn an inflammatory response; or
volvement in leptospirosis ranges from 20% to 70% (1, 2). In finally, complement activation evidenced by the detection of
2006, in the Metropolitan area of São Paulo, Brazil, the frequency C3 might have caused the inflammation (25).
of Weil disease with pulmonary hemorrhage was 69% (21). As we can see in Figure 1, in alveolar cells (pneumocytes),
Leptospirosis-associated hemorrhagic pneumonitis can mani- the active transport of Na to the interstitium by the !-Na-K-
fest as cough, dyspnea, and hemoptysis, accompanied by radio- ATPase pump generates an osmotic driving force favorable
logical abnormalities that range from focal interstitial infiltrate to the entrance of Na from the alveolar lumen to pneumocyte
to diffuse alveolar infiltrate. More severe respiratory symp- via !-ENaC. The osmotic gradient between the lumen and the
toms, such as respiratory failure due to pulmonary hemorrhage, interstitial space promotes the movement of water via the
can be seen, resulting in high mortality rates (1, 2). paracellular pathway. Water also crosses the cell via a water
Early identification of leptospirosis-associated hemorrhage channel (AQP5). Cellular volume is regulated primarily by
syndrome is very important for earlier management and re- electroneutral cotransporter NKCC1, which is found in virtually
duction of mortality. Recently, Marotto et al. (22) developed all cells and mediates coupled influx of Na, K, and chloride.
a multivariate model for predicting leptospirosis-associated Andrade et al. (10) showed that leptospirosis infection de-
pulmonary hemorrhage syndrome in a prospective study of creases !-ENaC protein expression in lung membranes of
203 patients admitted with severe leptospirosis at the intensive hamsters infected with leptospirosis. The authors also found
care unit (ICU) of the Emilio Ribas Institute of Infectology that basolateral protein expression of the Na-K-2Cl cotranspor-
(São Paulo, Brazil) (22). ter NKCC1 was upregulated, as well as that AQP5 and !-Na-K-
Leptospirosis is now recognized as a major cause of severe ATPase protein expressions were unchanged, in the lung tissue
pulmonary hemorrhage syndrome. Acute respiratory distress of hamsters infected with leptospirosis.
syndrome, which is a prominent feature of this manifestation, The decrease in ENaC and the increase in NKCC1 dissipate
can also occur in the absence of documented bleeding. Pul- the osmotic gradient of Na between alveolar lumen and inter-
monary hemorrhage is one of the major causes of death in stitium, leading to a decrease in water reabsorption in the inter-
leptospirosis. cellular space, leading to pulmonary edema (Fig. 2).
In animal studies, Spichler et al. (23) showed that lepto- In human patients, leptospirosis has many presentations,
spires appear to prefer organs such as the kidney or liver, over including the severe pulmonary form (ARDS), which is charac-
the lungs. A morphologic study, under light microscopy, of terized by impairment of the alveolar-capillary barrier. Impaired
the lungs of patients with leptospirosis revealed edema of the pulmonary fluid clearance resulting from downregulated
intra-alveolar septa (24). Mild to moderate inflammatory in- !-ENaC expression, as well as the potential derangements related
filtrate was found, with a predominance of macrophages, amid
lymphocytes and plasmocytes. In addition, endothelial tu-
mefaction was seen, and some patients presented alveolar
hemorrhage. Leptospiral antigen was also detected as positive
granular material on the luminal surface of the endothelium
and in the cytoplasm of the endothelial cells of septal capil-
laries, as well as, in the filamentous form, attached to the en-
dothelium of the septal capillaries.
In another animal study, Nally et al. (25) used immunoflu-
orescence staining to show that deposition of immunoglobulin
can be granular (classic immune deposits as seen in certain
renal diseases) or linear (as occurs in other renal diseases and
Goodpasture syndrome). Granular deposits are visible using
immunofluorescence, electron microscopy, and sometimes even
light microscopy. Linear deposits are seen through immuno-
fluorescence, although not typically under electron microscopy.
The pathogenesis of the lung disease in this experimental sys-
tem best fits with a model of linear deposition of immuno-
globulin and complement as occurs in Goodpasture syndrome
or antiYglomerular basement membrane disease. The inflam-
matory infiltrate of monocytes and polymorphonuclear cells
observed in thickened alveolar septa included some cells in FIG. 1. Active transport by the Na-K-ATPase pump generates an
which leptospiral antigen was demonstrated using immuno- osmotic driving force that favors the entrance of Na via !-ENaC. There
histochemistry. There are several possibilities to explain the is therefore continuous transport of Na from the lumen into the interstitium.
The osmotic gradient between the lumen and the interstitium promotes the
presence of inflammatory cells observed in the alveolar sep- movement of water via the paracellular pathway. The cotransporter in the
tum: antigenic leptospiral debris found within the alveolar basolateral membrane, NKCC1, regulates cellular volume (10).
Copyright © 2013 by the Shock Society. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
SHOCK MAY 2013 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF LEPTOSPIROSIS 21
CARDIOVASCULAR MANIFESTATIONS
Cardiac arrhythmias occur in leptospirosis; atrial fibrillation
is the most common; atrioventricular blockage may also be
observed. Myocarditis, pericardium rub, and effusion can also
occur. De Brito et al. (29), in autopsies of 20 patients who died
of leptospirosis, observed interstitial edema, myocardial infil-
tration, acute coronary arteritis and aortitis, and leptospiral
antigens were detected in the aorta and coronary arteries in
these cases.
FIG. 2. In leptospirosis, the !-ENaC protein is downregulated, leading
to a decreased influx of Na from the lumen into the cells. The upregulation
Marotto et al. (9) measured the initial hemodynamic profile
of NKCC1 increases the influx of Na from the interstitium into the cells. Both in 12 patients with severe leptospirosis and observed a high
mechanisms decrease the net flux of Na from alveolar lumen to interstitium, cardiac index (4.71 T 1.41 L I minj1 I mj2), normal pulmonary
decrease the osmotic gradient, and decrease water flow through paracellular
pathway, causing accumulation of water in the lumen (10).
capillary wedge pressure (10 T 5 mmHg), and low mean sys-
temic vascular resistance (1,393 T 882 dyn I sj1 I cmj5). This
hemodynamic profile is similar to that observed in patients
to increased NKCC1 expression, might have significant del- with sepsis.
eterious effects in the context of increased pulmonary per- The mortality rates of patients with leptospirosis and ARDS
meability such as that observed in ARDS. (on mechanical ventilation) and AKI (on dialysis) in the ICU
Similar findings are observed in sepsis, a common cause of of the Emı́lio Ribas Institute of Infectology were 55% from
AKI and ALI. Rats submitted to cecal ligation and puncture 1994 to 1997 and 43% from 1998 to 2001 (30).
(CLP), a model of sepsis, developed AKI and ALI, with pul- Recent evidence suggests that dialysis dosage affects outcomes
monary edema, downregulation of !-ENaC expression, and in critically ill patients with sepsis-induced AKI. Andrade et al.
upregulation of NKCC1 (26). These findings explain that al- (30) evaluated the effects of dialysis dosage in the severe form
though a positive water balance is considered, a major pre- of the Weil disease: patients with leptospirosis and ARDS (on
dictor of outcome in patients with sepsis, pulmonary edema, mechanical ventilation) and AKI (on dialysis). They found that
can occur even when the water balance is normal or negative. the prompt initiation of dialysis, together with daily dialysis
Rabb et al. (27) showed that, in rats without lung injury and sessions, reduced the mortality to 16.7%, compared with 66.7%
submitted to bilateral nephrectomy, there is a decrease in Na among the patients who performed hemodialysis on alternate
cotransporter expression, followed by increases in vascular days. Based on these results, they concluded that early and
permeability and interstitial edema, providing evidence of the daily dialysis is more appropriate for critically ill patients with
crosstalk between the lungs and kidneys. Weil disease.
Oxidative stress plays an important role in AKI and ALI re- The ARDS Clinical Trials Network study showed that a
lated to sepsis. Campos et al. (26) demonstrated that the ad- conservative fluid management protocol aimed at achieving
ministration of the antioxidant, N-acetylcysteine, 2 days before lower central venous pressure or lower pulmonary artery oc-
CLP ameliorates AKI, decreases pulmonary edema by !-ENaC clusion pressure resulted in a greater reduction in the net in-
upregulation and NKCC1 downregulation associated with a take without an increase in adverse events, as compared with a
decrease in oxidative stress markers (plasma thiobarbituric acidY liberal fluid management protocol aimed at achieving higher
reactive substances and 8-isoprostane in lung and kidney tissue). intravascular volume and cardiac filling pressures (31). The
Future studies are needed to verify the beneficial effect of conservative strategy improved lung function, shortening the
N-acetylcysteine in an animal model of severe leptospirosis. duration of mechanical ventilation and ICU stay without in-
Experimental studies demonstrated that glucocorticoids also creasing nonpulmonary organ failure. These results lend credence
increase !-ENaC expression in the lung and may be an addi- to the idea that a conservative strategy of fluid management
tional therapy to leptospirosis ALI (28). Clinical studies are should be used in patients with ALI.
controversial, and until this moment, there is no consensus During mechanical ventilation, it is also recommended that
about the use of glucocorticoids in patients with leptospirosis lung-protective strategies based on low tidal volumes (6 mL/kg)
with pulmonary involvement. be used to guarantee lower plateau pressures. High positive end-
Furosemide inhibits NKCC1 and may contribute to control expiratory pressures after recruitment maneuvers, used to en-
ALI in leptospirosis. It is possible that the findings observed sure alveolar stabilization and recovery of gas exchange, have
by Seguro et al. that treatment of initially oliguric patients with been associated with decreased mortality in this critical condition.
Copyright © 2013 by the Shock Society. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
22 SHOCK VOL. 39, NO. 7 SEGURO AND ANDRADE
Copyright © 2013 by the Shock Society. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
SHOCK MAY 2013 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF LEPTOSPIROSIS 23
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