INTRODUCTION

The LED TV is a more advanced version of the LCD TV. While both types of TV on LCD
technology and have flat-panel designs.  "LED TVs are slimmer, brighter, and more
detailed than your traditional LCD TV." LED TVs function by illuminating LCD panels with
LED backlighting. However, not all LED TVs utilize the same type of LED backlighting.

Need for LED TV‘s

CCFL-style LCD televisions and Plasma televisions use more energy than LED lights.For
this reason, LEDs are offered as the ―Eco-conscious‖ alternative to Plasma and traditional
LCD.
LEDs are almost free of harmful chemicals like mercury.
Slimmer, more power efficient and having a greater optical range than the fluorescents.LED
TVs produce deeper blacks and more saturated color.
LCDs used fluorescent tubes to light the screen. As a result, LCDs have trouble creating
deep blacks. That‘s because fluorescent tubes are always on, and some light leaks through to
the front of the display even when a part of the image is supposed to be black. A lack of deep
blacks reduces the perceived sharpness of the set‘s image. Also, fluorescents lack a wide
range of colors; hence, color saturation is limited.

LCD v/s LED Monitors / Why LED displays are better than the LCD displays:
Both types of monitors work on the same technology. LED monitors are LCD monitors with
replaced cold cathode backlight to LED backlight. Here are the differences that make the
LED displays better than the LCDs:
 Color accuracy for direct and edge LED displays and LCD displays are almost same
but the RGB LEDs display has quite better color accuracy.
 When comparing the LED and LCD monitors with respect to viewing angle, they are
same as backlight has nothing to do with viewing angles.
 LED displays consume less power. It is reported that they consume up to 40% less
power than the LCD displays.
 LED displays do not use mercury (used in cathode lamps in LCD backlight) so they
are environment friendly.
 The size of Edge and RGB monitors is slight thinner than the LCD monitors while
prices are slight higher.
The block diagram of LED TV is shown above and it consists of following parts
 Power module
 Input module
 Output module
 Processing module
 Interfacing module
Power Module: This module gives power to the entire system, the input to this section is the
single phase supply ie) 230V, 50Hz,AC supply. The input is rectified using a rectifier (AC –
DC converter) , filtered and then regulated using a voltage regulator circuit as required (12V,
5V, 15V etc..). All the modules are supplied required power from this module accordingly
Input module: This module consists of various sub components like conditional access
system interface, signal section, HDMI inputs slots Conditional access system (CAS) is a key
technical component in digital TV broadcasting through which TV operators manage the
appropriate rights of different subscribers in order to protect their commercial benefits. The
signal section receives various types of signal listed below
 RF Input: RF (Radio Frequency) input is the technical term for a coaxial/antenna
input on the back of a television.
 S-Video Input: Separate Video (2 channel), more commonly known as S-Video and
Y/C. It is an analog video transmission (no audio) that carries standard definition video
typically at 480i or 576i resolution.
 Component Input: Component video is a video signal that has been split into two or
more component channels. In popular use, it refers to a type of component analog video
(CAV) information that is transmitted or stored as three separate signals. Component video
can be contrasted with composite video (NTSC, PAL or SECAM) in which all the video
information is combined into a single line-level signal that is used in analog television.
 VGA Input: A Video Graphics Array (VGA) connector is a three-row 15-pin DE-
15 connector.
 Signal from satellite DTH
HDMI Input: HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) is a compact audio/video
interface for transferring uncompressed digital audio/video data from a HDMI-compliant
device ("the source") to a compatible digital audio device and digital television.
Processing module : In advanced TV the processing section consists of a separates OS with
GUI that can perform several tasks .A TV operating system (TV OS) is the bootable software
in smart TVs and set top boxes that makes it possible for a user to access and control
advanced features and connected devices.
As in a personal computer, there is a graphical user interface (GUI) for interaction in a TV
OS. Essentially, smart TVs are Internet-connected entertainment-specialized computers that
can connect to many devices wirelessly.
TV operating systems allow a user to browse not just channels on satellite or cable TV but
also on demand video services. The systems also access pictures, music or video content on
connected storage devices or streamed.
TV OSes use apps to connect to websites like Youtube, Netflix, Hulu or Vimeo. Web
browsers, which are generally included, can access social sites like Facebook and Twitter, as
well as other types of web 2.0 sites. Users can pair a wireless keyboard, smartphone or tablet
PC for input, making the TV almost as user-friendly as a PC for web browsing.
Interfacing module: In modern TV touch screen, remote control using mobile app, sensor
based control, various communication facilities are available
Mobile Phone
Wireless phones which receive their signals from towers. A cell is typically the area (several
miles) around a tower in which a signal can be received.
Cell phones provide an incredible array of functions. Depending on the cell-phone model,
you can:
• Store contact information
• Make task or to-do lists
• Keep track of appointments and set reminders
• Use the built-in calculator for simple math
• Send or receive e-mail
• Get information (news, entertainment, stock quotes) from the internet
• Play games
• Watch TV
• Send text messages
• Integrate other devices such as PDAs, MP3 players and GPS receivers
A cell phone is a full-duplex device. That means that you use one frequency for talking and a
second, separate frequency for listening. Both people on the call can talk at once.

Evolution to cellular networks

• radio communication was invented by Nokola Tesla and Guglielmo Marconi: in 1893,
Nikola Tesla made the first public demonstration of wireless (radio) telegraphy;
Guglielmo Marconi conducted long distance (over see) telegraphy 1897
• in 1940 the first walkie-talkie was used by the US military
• in 1947, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain from AT&T‘s Bell Labs invented the
transistor (semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals)
• AT&T introduced commercial radio comm.: car phone – two way radio link to the
local phone network
• in 1979 the first commercial cellular phone service was launched by the Nordic
Mobile Telephone (in Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark).
Cellular systems generations

Network Cells
• the entire network coverage area is divided into cells based on the principle of
frequency reuse
 • a cell = basic geographical unit of a cellular network; is the area around an antenna
where a specific frequency range is used; is represented graphically as a hexagonal
shape, but in reality it is irregular in shape
• when a subscriber moves to another cell, the antenna of the new cell takes over the
signal transmission
• a cluster is a group of adiacent cells, usually 7 cells; no frequency reuse is done within
a cluster
• the frequency spectrum is divided into subbands and each subband is used within one
cell of the cluster
• in heavy traffic zones cells are smaller, while in isolated zones cells are larger

Components of a cellular phone (MS)

• radio transceiver – low power radio transmitter and receiver
• antenna, usually located inside the phone
• control circuitry – formats the data sent to and from the BTS; controls signal
transmission and reception
• man-machine interface – consists from a keypad and a display; is managed by the
control circuitry
• Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) – integrated circuit card that stores the identity
information of subscriber
• battery, usually Li-ion, the power unit of the phone
Inside the Mobile phone
Mobile phone is a sophisticated device using SMD components, Microprocessor, Flash
memory etc. In addition to the Circuit board, Mobile phone also has Antenna, Liquid Crystal
Display(LCD) , Keyboard, Microphone, Speaker and Battery. Below is the Block diagram of
Mobile phone

The circuit board is the heart of the Mobile phone. It has chips like Analog-to-Digital and
Digital-to-Analog conversion chips that translate the outgoing audio signal from analog to
digital and the incoming signal from digital back to analog. Following are the Chips present
in Mobile phone.

1. Digital signal processor

It is generally rated as having 40 MIPS (millions of instructions per second) to conduct
calculations of signal manipulation at high speed. This chip deals with both compression and
decompression of the signals.

2. Microprocessor
It handles all the housekeeping tasks for the keyboard and display. It also deals with
command and control signaling with the base station, and coordinates the rest of the functions
on the board.
3. Mobile Microprocessor and Flash Memory
The Flash memory and ROM Chips of the Mobile phone act as a storage location for the
phone. These chips store the customizable options of the cell phone, as well as the entire
operating system. The power and radio frequency sections of the phone, phone recharging
and power management etc are controlled by this chip. It also controls several hundred FM
channels. The RF amplifiers focus on signals that go in and out of the phone‘s antennae.

Cellular Telephone System

As shown in Figure 5.1, a cellular system comprises the following basic components:
 Mobile Stations (MS):Mobile handsets, which is used by an user to communicate with
another user
 Cell: Each cellular service area is divided into small regions called cell (5 to 20 Km)
 Base Stations (BS): Each cell contains an antenna, which is controlled by a small
office.
 Mobile Switching Center (MSC): Each base station is controlled by a switching
office, called mobile switching center

Figure : 5.1 Schematic diagram of a cellular telephone system

Medium Access Control Techniques
Channelization is a multiple access method in which the available bandwidth of a link is
shared in time, frequency or using code by a number of stations. Basic idea of these
approaches can be explained in simple terms using the cocktail party theory. In a cocktail
party people talk to each other using one of the following modes:
FDMA: When all the people group in widely separated areas and talk within each group.
TDMA: When all the people are in the middle of the room, but they take turn in speaking.
CDMA: When all the people are in the middle ofthe room, but different pairs speak in
different languages.
Basic principles of these approaches are briefly explained below:
FDMA: The bandwidth is divided into separate frequency bands. In case of bursty traffic, the
efficiency can be improved in FDMA by using a dynamic sharing technique to access a
particular frequency band; channels are assigned on demand as shown in Figure. 5.4

Figure 5.4 FDMA medium access control technique

TDMA: The bandwidth is timeshared as shown in Fig. 5.5. Channel allocation is done
dynamically.
 Figure 5.5 TDMA medium access control technique

CDMA: Data from all stations are transmitted simultaneously and are separated based on
coding theory as shown in Fig. 5.6. In TDMA and FDMA the transmissions from different
stations are clearly separated in either time or frequency. In case of CDMA, the transmissions
from different stations occupy the entire frequency band at the same time. Multiple
simultaneous transmissions are separated by using coding theory. Each bit is assigned a
unique m-bit code or chip sequence.

Figure 5.6 CDMA medium access control technique

Codes in the Mobile Phone

Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card
• SIM – a memory card (integrated circuit) holding identity information, phone book
etc.
• GSM system support SIM cards
• other systems, like CDMA do not support SIM cards, but have something similar
called Re-Usable Identification Module (RUIM)

International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) key

• IMEI – a unique 15 digit number identifying each phone, is incorporated in the
cellular phone by the manufacturer
• IMEI ex.: 994456245689001
 • when a phone tries to access a network, the service provider verifies its IMEI with a
database of stolen phone numbers; if it is found in the database, the service provider
denies the connection
• the IMEI is located on a white sticker/label under the battery, but it can also be
displayed by typing *#06# on the phone

International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) key

• IMSI – a 15-digit unique number provided by the service provider and incorporated in
the SIM card which identifies the subscriber
• IMSI enables a service provider to link a phone number with a subscriber
• first 3 digits of the IMSI are the country code
 Electronic Serial Number (ESN) -Unique 32-bit number programmed in the phone
 Mobile Identification Number (MIN) – 10 digit number derived from the phone‘s
number.
 System Identification Code (SID) – unique 5 digit number that is assigned to each
carrier by the FCC.
ESN is a permanent part of the phone while MIN and SID codes are programmed in the
phone when a service plan is selected and activated.
Mobile phone is a Duplex device. When we use one frequency for talking, a second separate
frequency is used for listening. So that both the people on the call can talk at once. The
Mobile phone can communicate on 1,664 channels or more. The Mobile phones operate
within the cells, so that it is easy to switch on to different cells as they move around. A
person using a cell phone can drive hundreds of kilometers and can maintain a conversation
during the entire time because of the cellular approach.

Steps followed when we make a call

1. When we switch on the mobile phone, it tries for an SID on the Control channel. The
Control channel is a special frequency that the phone and base station use to talk to one
another. If the Mobile phone finds difficulty to get link with the control channel, it displays a
―no service‖ message.
2. If the Mobile phone gets the SID, it compares the SID with the SID programmed in
the phone. If both SID match, the phone identifies that the cell it is communicating is the part
of its home system.
3. The phone also transmits a registration request along with the SID and the MTSO
keeps track of your phone‘s location in a database. MTSO knows in which cell you are when
it wants to ring the phone.
4. The MTSO then gets the signal, it tries to find the phone. The MTSO looks in its
database to find the cell in which the phone is present. The MTSO then picks a frequency pair
to take the call.
5. The MTSO communicates with the Mobile phone over the control channel to tell it
what frequencies to use. Once the Mobile phone and the tower switch on those frequencies,
the call is connected.
6. When the Mobile phone move toward the edge of the cell, the cell‘s base station will
note that the signal strength is diminishing. At the same time, the base station in the cell in
which the phone is moving will be able to see the phone‘s signal strength increasing.
7. The two base stations coordinate themselves through the MTSO. At some point, the
Mobile phone gets a signal on a control channel and directs it to change frequencies. This
will switch the phone to the new cell.

Mobile Network

Figure 5.7 Mobile Network

Refrigerators
A refrigerator works by passing a cool refrigerant gas around food items (kept inside the
fridge), which absorbs heat from them and then loses that heat to the relatively cooler
surroundings on the outside.

Refrigerator working principle

The working principle of a refrigerator (and refrigeration, in general) is very simple: it
involves the removal of heat from one region and its deposition to another. When you pass a
low-temperature liquid close to objects that you want to cool, heat from those objects is
transferred to the liquid, which evaporates and takes away the heat in the process.
You may already know that gases heat up when you compress them and cool down when
they are allowed to expand. That‘s why a bicycle pump feels warm when you use it to pump
air inside a tire, while sprayed perfume feels cold.

The tendency of gases to become hot when compressed and cold when expanded, along with
the help of a few nifty devices, helps a refrigerator cool the stuff being kept inside it.

Parts of a refrigerator
A refrigerator consists of a few key components that play a vital role in the refrigeration
process:

Expansion valve
Also referred to as the flow control device, an expansion valve controls the flow of the liquid
refrigerant (also known as ‗coolant‘) into the evaporator. It‘s actually a very small device that
is sensitive to temperature changes of the refrigerant.

Compressor
The compressor consists of a motor that ‗sucks in‘ the refrigerant from the evaporator and
compresses it in a cylinder to make a hot, high-pressure gas.
Evaporator
This is the part that actually cools the stuff kept inside a refrigerator. It consists of finned
tubes (made of metals with high thermal conductivity to maximize heat transfer) that absorb
heat blown through a coil by a fan. The evaporator absorbs heat from the stuff kept inside,
and as a result of this heat, the liquid refrigerant turns into vapor.
Condenser
The condenser consists of a coiled set of tubes with external fins and is located at the rear of
the refrigerator. It helps in the liquefaction of the gaseous refrigerant by absorbing its heat
and subsequently expelling it to the surroundings.

Condenser coils
As the heat of the refrigerant is removed, its temperature drops to condensation temperature,
and it changes its state from vapor to liquid.

Refrigerant
Also commonly referred to as the coolant, it‘s the liquid that keeps the refrigeration cycle
going. It‘s actually a specially designed chemical that is capable of alternating between being
a hot gas and a cool liquid.
In the 20th century, fluorocarbons, especially CFCs, were a common choice as a refrigerant.
However, they‘re being replaced by more environment-friendly refrigerants, such as
ammonia, R-290, R-600A etc.
Refrigerator function: How does a refrigerator work?
The refrigerant, which is now in a liquid state, passes through the expansion valve and turns
into a cool gas due to the sudden drop in pressure.
As the cool refrigerant gas flows through the chiller cabinet, it absorbs the heat from the food
items inside the fridge and vaporizes. The refrigerant, which is now a gas, flows into the
compressor, which sucks it inside and compresses the molecules together to make it into a
hot, high-pressure gas.
Now, this gas transports to the condenser coils (thin radiator pipes) located at the back of the
fridge, where the coils help dissipate its heat so that it becomes cool enough to condense and
convert back into its liquid phase. Because the heat collected from the food items is given off
to the surroundings via the condenser, it feels hot to the touch.
After the condenser, the liquid refrigerant travels back to the expansion valve, where it
experiences a pressure drop and once again becomes a cool gas. It then absorbs heat from the
contents of the fridge and the whole cycle repeats itself.
Washing Machine
A washing machine is a machine used to wash laundry, such as clothing and sheets. The term
... formed into a roll and twisted by hand to extract water. The entire process often occupied
an entire day of hard work, plus drying and ironing.
washing machine work on the principle of centrifugation. A centrifuge is a device,
generally driven by an electric motor, that puts an object, e.g., a rotor, in a rotational
movement around a fixed axis.
A centrifuge works by using the principle of sedimentation: Under the influence of
gravitational force (g-force), substances separate according to their density. Different
types of separation are known, including isopycnic, ultrafiltration, density gradien t,
phase separation, and pelleting.

The important parts of the washing machine; this will also help us understand the working of
the washing machine.
1) Water inlet control valve: Near the water inlet point of the washing there is water inlet
control valve. When you load the clothes in washing machine, this valve gets opened
automatically and it closes automatically depending on the total quantity of the water
required. The water control valve is actually the solenoid valve.
2) Water pump: The water pump circulates water through the washing machine. It works in
two directions, re-circulating the water during wash cycle and draining the water during the
spin cycle.
3) Tub: There are two types of tubs in the washing washing machine: inner and outer. The
clothes are loaded in the inner tub, where the clothes are washed, rinsed and dried. The inner
tub has small holes for draining the water. The external tub covers the inner tub and supports
it during various cycles of clothes washing.
4) Agitator or rotating disc: The agitator is located inside the tubof the washing machine. It
is the important part of the washing machine that actually performs the cleaning operation of
the clothes. During the wash cycle the agitator rotates continuously and produces strong
rotating currents within the water due to which the clothes also rotate inside the tub. The
rotation of the clothes within water containing the detergent enables the removal of the dirt
particles from the fabric of the clothes. Thus the agitator produces most important function of
rubbing the clothes with each other as well as with water. In some washing machines, instead
of the long agitator, there is a disc that contains blades on its upper side. The rotation of the
disc and the blades produce strong currents within the water and the rubbing of clothes that
helps in removing the dirt from clothes.
5) Motor of the washing machine: The motor is coupled to the agitator or the disc and
produces it rotator motion. These are multispeed motors, whose speed can be changed as per
the requirement. In the fully automatic washing machine the speed of the motor i.e. the
agitator changes automatically as per the load on the washing machine.
6) Timer: The timer helps setting the wash time for the clothes manually. In the automatic
mode the time is set automatically depending upon the number of clothes inside the washing
machine.
7) Printed circuit board (PCB): The PCB comprises of the various electronic components
and circuits, which are programmed to perform in unique ways depending on the load
conditions (the condition and the amount of clothes loaded in the washing machine). They are
sort of artificial intelligence devices that sense the various external conditions and take the
decisions accordingly. These are also called as fuzzy logic systems. Thus the PCB will
calculate the total weight of the clothes, and find out the quantity of water and detergent
required, and the total time required for washing the clothes. Then they will decide the time
required for washing and rinsing.
8) Drain pipe: The drain pipe enables removing the dirty water from the washing that has
been used for the washing purpose.
washing machine operation
All the important parts of the clothes washer are electrically controlled, including the inner
drum, the valves, the pump, and the heating element. The programmer is like the conductor
of an orchestra, switching these things on and off in a sensible sequence that goes something
like this:
 You put your clothes in the machine and detergent either in the machine itself or in a
tray up above.
 You set the program you want and switch on the power.
 The programmer opens the water valves so hot and cold water enter the machine and
fill up the outer and inner drums. The water usually enters at the top and trickles down
through the detergent tray, washing any soap there into the machine.
 The programmer switches off the water valves.
 The thermostat measures the temperature of the incoming water. If it's too cold, the
programmer switches on the heating element. This works just like an electric kettle or
water boiler.
 When the water is hot enough, the programmer makes the inner drum rotate back and
forth, sloshing the clothes through the soapy water.
 The detergent pulls the dirt from your clothes and traps it in the water.
 The programmer opens a valve so the water drains from both drums. Then it switches
on the pump to help empty the water away.
 The programmer opens the water valves again so clean water enters the drums.
 The programmer makes the inner drum rotate back and forth so the clean water rinses
the clothes. It empties both drums and repeats this process several times to get rid of
all the soap.
 When the clothes are rinsed, the programmer makes the inner drum rotate at really
high speed—around 80 mph (130 km/h). The clothes are flung against the outside
edge of the inner drum, but the water they contain is small enough to pass through the
drum's tiny holes into the outer drum. Spinning gets your clothes dry using the same
idea as a centrifuge.
 The pump removes any remaining water from the outer drum and the wash cycle
comes to an end.
 You take your clothes out
Air Conditioner (AC)
An air conditioner (AC) in a room or a car works by collecting hot air from a given space,
processing it within itself with the help of a refrigerant and a bunch of coils and then
releasing cool air into the same space where the hot air had originally been collected. This is
essentially how air conditioners work. There are several types of A.C.s like split, window,
centralized etc. based on the design and capacity.

The Basic Principle

For understanding the process of Air Conditioner, you can think it as a machine that takes
heat from your house and dumps outside by using different interrelated parts.

The basic concept is that a chemical called a refrigerant loops from inside the home to
outside and back again, absorbing and casting out heat in the process. The refrigerant cools
and then re-enters the home, starting the cycle again. the two refrigerants commonly used
in residential air conditioners are R-22 and the newer R-410A, both of which are chemically
known as hydro-chlorofluorocarbons, or HCFCs.

These chemicals go back and forth from a liquid to a gaseous state very easily, and it is these
so-called phase transitions that make HCFCs so useful as refrigerants.

The part inside the home where the refrigerant evaporates is the evaporator, naturally. Fans in
the home blow air across the evaporator's coils. "As air from the house moves across the
evaporator, refrigerant within the coil picks up the temperature of the air, "The refrigerant is
absorbing heat from the air and turns from a liquid to a vapour. It went from being a cold
liquid to a hotter vapour, and at the same time, the air had heat removed from it, so the air
went from being warmer to colder."

The vaporized refrigerant then passes into the compressor, which is located outside in the air
conditioning unit adjacent to a home (or often on the roof of a business), along with the
condenser. As the name implies, the compressor compresses the gas to a state of higher
pressure and higher temperature.

From there, the hot, pressurized gas flows over the third component, the condenser. Here, the
gas is condensed back into its liquid state as heat is radiated away. Outdoor units often have
metal fins on them to help dissipate the heat more quickly.
 The cooled-off liquid is now returned into the home. The expansion device regulates the flow
of liquid refrigerant into the evaporator, where just as before it will absorb heat and change
phase from a liquid into a low-pressure gas.

These parts are:

 Evaporator coil
 Expansion Valve
 Refrigerant
 Condenser
 Compressor

Compressor and condenser are usually kept outside the house where as an evaporator is kept
inside the house. Compressor is the most important part of all the three as it pumps the
vapour refrigerant through the system. In the evaporator the fluid leaves as low pressure cool
gas to reach compressor. The compressor will compress the gas to liquid. As the gas becomes
liquid, the molecules are together and their energy is high resulting in high temperature. The
working fluid leaves compressor and flows into condenser as hot air which will convert this
hot air to low pressurized liquid. One can observe the temperature around outside unit, which
is high due to heat dissipated from compressor.

The temperature in condenser is very low and this converts the high temperature gas into low
pressurized liquid. Through a small hole this pressurized liquid will flow to into evaporator.
In this process, the pressure drops and the liquid is converted into low pressure cool air to
start the cycle once again. In the process of changing liquid to gas it extracts heat from the air
around it. Evaporator has fins and it will blow that cool air into the room. The hot air is
lighter than cool air, so it is in the upper part of the room whose heat is used to convert high
pressurized liquid into low pressurized gas.

This process continues till the room attains the temperature you set. The thermostat present in
the A.C. will temporarily stop A.C. for some time; if the room temperature raises again, the
thermostat will automatically on the A.C. to set the temperature of your room to your desired
level.
A.C.s use CFC‘s and they are harmful to ozone layer. So, use A.C.s when needed and prefer
natural ventilation and natural cooling methods which are more environment friendly. Use
energy efficient and low capacity A.C.‘s whenever compulsorily needed.

There are many other types of air conditioning systems that can be used by the residents
which includes window units, ductless air conditioners, central Air conditioning systems and
portable air conditioners. All of these are different air conditioning systems, however the
physics principle used behind these systems are the same. They all use the same following
components and direct expansion refrigeration. All the components which are used in an air
conditioning system is explained below:
Compressor
The compressor is the heart of the Air conditioning system. You can think of the compressor
as the heart for understanding it better. The compressor pumps the refrigerant through all the
refrigeration components in a large copper loops. The refrigerant then enters the compressor
as a low pressure warm vapor. The warm vapor is then released as a high pressure hot vapor.
Refrigerant
The refrigerant can be thought of as the blood that is pumped from the heart (Compressor).
The refrigerant is pumped with the help of cooling tubes in the AC system. The refrigerant
changes the state from gas vapor to liquid as it collects heat from your house. Refrigerant is a
unique substance and has a very low boiling point. This feature helps it to change liquid into
a vapor form at a low temperature.
Condenser
Hot refrigerant vapor from the compressor then moves to the condenser. In the condenser the
high pressure hot refrigerator is cooled as the condenser fan blows the air over the
condensing coils. As the refrigerant cools down, it changes the hot vapor to a hot liquid a t a
higher pressure onto the expansion valve.
Expansion Valve
The expansion valve is an important part of an air conditioning system. As the hot liquid
from the condenser passes through the tiny opening at high pressure in the valve. It then
emerges as a cool mist. The Air conditioner is nothing more than a device designed to force
the refrigerant gas to expand.
Evaporator Coil
The low pressure cold liquid which leaves the expansion valve runs through the evaporator
coil. In the evaporator coil, the hot air your home blows across the coil and heats it up. While
the same time the coil which carries the cold expanded gas cools off and the air blows across
your home.
Satellite Communication

Introduction
In general terms, a satellite is a smaller object that revolves around a larger object in space.
For example, moon is a natural satellite of earth.

We know that Communication refers to the exchange (sharing) of information between two
or more entities, through any medium or channel. In other words, it is nothing but sending,
receiving and processing of information.

If the communication takes place between any two earth stations through a satellite, then it
is called as satellite communication. In this communication, electromagnetic waves are
used as carrier signals. These signals carry the information such as voice, audio, video or
any other data between ground and space and vice-versa.

Need of Satellite Communication

The following two kinds of propagation are used earlier for communication up to some
distance.

 Ground wave propagation − Ground wave propagation is suitable for frequencies

up to 30MHz. This method of communication makes use of the troposphere
conditions of the earth.

 Sky wave propagation − The suitable bandwidth for this type of communication is
broadly between 30–40 MHz and it makes use of the ionosphere properties of the
earth.

The maximum hop or the station distance is limited to 1500KM only in both ground wave
propagation and sky wave propagation. Satellite communication overcomes this limitation.
In this method, satellites provide communication for long distances, which is well beyond
the line of sight.

Since the satellites locate at certain height above earth, the communication takes place
between any two earth stations easily via satellite. So, it overcomes the limitation of
communication between two earth stations due to earth‘s curvature.

How a Satellite Works

A satellite is a body that moves around another body in a particular path. A communication
satellite is nothing but a microwave repeater station in space. It is helpful in
telecommunications, radio and television along with internet applications.

A repeater is a circuit, which increases the strength of the received signal and then
transmits it. But, this repeater works as a transponder. That means, it changes the
frequency band of the transmitted signal from the received one.
The following figure illustrates this concept clearly.

The transmission of signal from first earth station to satellite through a channel is called
as uplink. Similarly, the transmission of signal from satellite to second earth station through
a channel is called as downlink.

Uplink frequency is the frequency at which, the first earth station is communicating with
satellite. The satellite transponder converts this signal into another frequency and sends it
down to the second earth station. This frequency is called as Downlink frequency. In
similar way, second earth station can also communicate with the first one.

The process of satellite communication begins at an earth station. Here, an installation is

designed to transmit and receive signals from a satellite in an orbit around the earth. Earth
stations send the information to satellites in the form of high powered, high frequency (GHz
range) signals.
The satellites receive and retransmit the signals back to earth where they are received by
other earth stations in the coverage area of the satellite. Satellite's footprint is the area
which receives a signal of useful strength from the satellite.

Following are the advantages of using satellite communication:

 Area of coverage is more than that of terrestrial systems

 Each and every corner of the earth can be covered

 Transmission cost is independent of coverage area

 More bandwidth and broadcasting possibilites

Following are the disadvantages of using satellite communication −

 Launching of satellites into orbits is a costly process.

 Propagation delay of satellite systems is more than that of conventional terrestrial

systems.

 Difficult to provide repairing activities if any problem occurs in a satellite system.

 Free space loss is more

 There can be congestion of frequencies.

Applications of Satellite Communication

Satellite communication plays a vital role in our daily life. Following are the applications of
satellite communication −

 Radio broadcasting and voice communications

 TV broadcasting such as Direct To Home (DTH)

 Internet applications such as providing Internet connection for data transfer, GPS
applications, Internet surfing, etc.

 Military applications and navigations

 Remote sensing applications

 Weather condition monitoring & Forecasting

Earth Orbit Satellites
The path of satellite revolving around the earth is known as orbit. Satellite should be
properly placed in the corresponding orbit after leaving it in the space. It revolves in a
particular way and serves its purpose for scientific, military or commercial. The orbits,
which are assigned to satellites with respect to earth are called as Earth Orbits. The
satellites present in those orbits are called as Earth Orbit Satellites.

We should choose an orbit properly for a satellite based on the requirement. For example, if
the satellite is placed in lower orbit, then it takes less time to travel around the earth and
there will be better resolution in an on board camera. Similarly, if the satellite is placed
in higher orbit, then it takes more time to travel around the earth and it covers more earth‘s
surface at one time.

Following are the three important types of Earth Orbit satellites −

 Geosynchronous Earth Orbit Satellites

 Medium Earth Orbit Satellites
 Low Earth Orbit Satellites

Geosynchronous Earth Orbit Satellites

A Geo-synchronous Earth Orbit (GEO) Satellite is one, which is placed at an altitude
of 22,300 miles above the Earth. This orbit is synchronized with a side real day (i.e., 23
hours 56 minutes). This orbit can have inclination and eccentricity.
It may not be circular. This orbit can be tilted at the poles of the earth. But, it appears
stationary when observed from the Earth. These satellites are used for satellite Television.

The same geo-synchronous orbit, if it is circular and in the plane of equator, then it is called
as Geostationary orbit. These Satellites are placed at 35,900kms (same as
Geosynchronous) above the Earth‘s Equator and they keep on rotating with respect to
earth‘s direction (west to east).

The satellites present in these orbits have the angular velocity same as that of earth. Hence,

The following figure depicts the paths of LEO, MEO and GEO

Satellite Communication - Subsystems

In satellite communication system, various operations take place. Among which, the main
operations are orbit controlling, altitude of satellite, monitoring and controlling of other
subsystems.

A satellite communication consists of mainly two segments. Those are space segment and
earth segment. So, accordingly there will be two types of subsystems namely, space segment
subsystems and earth segment subsystems. The following figure illustrates this concept.

As shown in the figure, the communication takes place between space segment subsystems
and earth segment subsystems through communication links.

Space Segment Subsystems

The subsystems present in space segment are called as space segment subsystems.
Following are the space segment subsystems.

 AOC Subsystem
 TTCM Subsystem
  Power and Antenna Subsystems
 Transponders

Satellite Communication - AOC Subsystem

We know that satellite may deviates from its orbit due to the gravitational forces from sun,
moon and other planets. These forces change cyclically over a 24-hour period, since the
satellite moves around the earth.

Altitude and Orbit Control (AOC) subsystem consists of rocket motors, which are capable
of placing the satellite into the right orbit, whenever it is deviated from the respective orbit.
AOC subsystem is helpful in order to make the antennas, which are of narrow beam type
points towards earth.

Satellite Communication - TTCM Subsystem

Telemetry, Tracking, Commanding and Monitoring (TTCM) subsystem is present in both
satellite and earth station. In general, satellite gets data through sensors. So, Telemetry
subsystem present in the satellite sends this data to earth station(s). Therefore, TTCM
subsystem is very much necessary for any communication satellite in order to operate it
successfully.

We can make this TTCM subsystem into the following three parts.

 Telemetry and Monitoring Subsystem

 Tracking Subsystem
 Commanding Subsystem
Power Systems
We know that the satellite present in an orbit should be operated continuously during its life
span. So, the satellite requires internal power in order to operate various electronic systems
and communications payload that are present in it.

Power system is a vital subsystem, which provides the power required for working of a
satellite. Mainly, the solar cells (or panels) and rechargeable batteries are used in these
systems.

Antenna Subsystems
Antennas are present in both satellite and earth station. Satellite antennas perform two
types of functions. Those are receiving of signals, which are coming from earth station and
transmitting signals to one or more earth stations based on the requirement. In other words,
the satellite antennas receive uplink signals and transmit downlink signals.

We know that the length of satellite antennas is inversely proportional to the operating
frequency. The operating frequency has to be increased in order to reduce the length of
satellite antennas. Therefore, satellite antennas operate in the order of GHz frequencies.

Satellite Antennas
The antennas, which are used in satellite are known as satellite antennas. There are mainly
four types of Antennas. They are:

 Wire Antennas
 Horn Antennas
 Array Antennas
 Reflector Antennas

Transponders
The subsystem, which provides the connecting link between transmitting and receiving
antennas of a satellite is known as Transponder. It is one of the most important subsystem
of space segment subsystems.

Transponder performs the functions of both transmitter and receiver (Responder) in a

satellite. Hence, the word ‗Transponder‘ is obtained by the combining few letters of two
words, Transmitter (Trans) and Responder (ponder).

Block diagram of Transponder

Transponder performs mainly two functions. Those are amplifying the received input signal
and translates the frequency of it. In general, different frequency values are chosen for both
uplink and down link in order to avoid the interference between the transmitted and received
signals.

The block diagram of transponder is shown in below figure.

We can easily understand the operation of Transponder from the block diagram itself. The
function of each block is mentioned below.

 Duplexer is a two-way microwave gate. It receives uplink signal from the satellite
antenna and transmits downlink signal to the satellite antenna.

 Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) amplifies the weak received signal.

 Carrier Processor performs the frequency down conversion of received signal

(uplink). This block determines the type of transponder.

 Power Amplifier amplifies the power of frequency down converted signal (down
link) to the required level.

Earth Segment Subsystems

The subsystems present in the ground segment have the ability to access the satellite
repeater in order to provide the communication between the users. Earth segment is also
called as ground segment.

Earth segment performs mainly two functions. Those are transmission of a signal to the
satellite and reception of signal from the satellite. Earth stations are the major subsystems
that are present in earth segment.

The earth segment of satellite communication system mainly consists of two earth stations.
Those are transmitting earth station and receiving earth station.

The transmitting earth station transmits the information signals to satellite. Whereas, the
receiving earth station receives the information signals from satellite. Sometimes, the same
earth station can be used for both transmitting and receiving purposes.
In general, earth stations receive the baseband signals in one of the following forms. Voice
signals and video signals either in analog form or digital form.

Initially, the analog modulation technique, named FM modulation is used for transmitting
both voice and video signals, which are in analog form. Later, digital modulation techniques,
namely Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) and Phase Shift Keying (PSK) are used for
transmitting those signals.

The block diagram of digital earth station is shown in below figure.

We can easily understand the working of earth station from above figure. There are four
major subsystems that are present in any earth station. Those are transmitter, receiver,
antenna and tracking subsystem.

Transmitter
The binary (digital) information enters at base band equipment of earth station from
terrestrial network. Encoder includes error correction bits in order to minimize the bit error
rate.

In satellite communication, the Intermediate Frequency (IF) can be chosen as 70 MHz by

using a transponder having bandwidth of 36 MHz. Similarly, the IF can also be chosen as
140 MHz by using a transponder having bandwidth of either 54 MHz or 72 MHz.

Up converter performs the frequency conversion of modulated signal to higher frequency.

This signal will be amplified by using High power amplifier. The earth station antenna
transmits this signal.
 EARTHSTATION FREQUENCIES

BAND FREQUENCY

IF 70 - 150 Mhz Application

L 800 - 2150 MHz

SATELLITE FREQUENCIES (Ghz)

BAND DOWNLINK UPLINK

S 2 4 Weather radar, surface ship radar, and

some communications satellites
(NASA)

C 3.700 - 4.200 5.925 - 6.425 satellite communications, for full-time

satellite TV networks

X 7.250 - 7.745 7.900 - 8.395 Military applications

(Military)

Ku FSS: FSS & Telecom: satellite communications

(Europe) 10.700 - 11.700 14.000 - 14.800
DBS: DBS:
11.700 - 12.500 17.300 - 18.100
Telecom: 12.500 -
12.750

Ku FSS: FSS: satellite communications

(America) 11.700 - 12.200 14.000 - 14.500
DBS: DBS:
12.200 - 12.700 17.300 - 17.800

Ka ~18 - ~31 GHz Communications satellites, close-range

targeting radars on military aircraft

DBS = Direct Broadcast Satellite (Consumer direct-to-

home Satellite TV)
FSS = Fixed Satellite Service (Geostationary Comms
Satellites for TV/Radio stations and networks)

(Hz = Hertz, Mhz = Megahertz, Gh z= Gigahertz)

Receiver
During reception, the earth station antenna receives downlink signal. This is a low-level
modulated RF signal. In general, the received signal will be having less signal strength. So,
in order to amplify this signal, Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) is used. Due to this, there is an
improvement in Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) value.

RF signal can be down converted to the Intermediate Frequency (IF) value, which is either
70 or 140 MHz. Because, it is easy to demodulate at these intermediate frequencies.
The function of the decoder is just opposite to that of encoder. So, the decoder produces an
error free binary information by removing error correction bits and correcting the bit
positions if any.

This binary information is given to base band equipment for further processing and then
delivers to terrestrial network.

Earth Station Antenna

The major parts of Earth station Antenna are feed system and Antenna reflector. These
two parts combined together radiates or receives electromagnetic waves. Since the feed
system obeys reciprocity theorem, the earth station antennas are suitable for both
transmitting and receiving electromagnetic waves.

Parabolic reflectors are used as the main antenna in earth stations. The gain of these
reflectors is high. They have the ability of focusing a parallel beam into a point at the focus,
where the feed system is located.

Tracking Subsystem
The Tracking subsystem keeps track with the satellite and make sure that the beam comes
towards it in order to establish the communication. The Tracking system present in the earth
station performs mainly two functions. Those are satellite acquisition and tracking of
satellite. This tracking can be done in one of the following ways. Those are automatic
tracking, manual tracking & program tracking.

Examples of Earth Stations

Receive Only Home TV System
If broadcasting takes place directly to home TV receivers, then that type of service is called
as Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service.

A mesh type reflector can be used for focusing the signals into a dual feed-horn. It is
having two separate outputs. From one output will get C-band signals and from other output
will get Ku-band signals.

Television programming mostly originates as first generation signals. These signals are
transmitted through satellite to network main end stations in C band. These signals are
compressed and transmitted in digital form to cable and DBS providers.

C-band users can subscribe to pay TV channels. These subscription services

are cheaper when compared to cable because of the availability of multiple-source
programming.
The block diagram of DBS TV receiver is shown in below figure.

Outdoor Unit
Outdoor unit mainly consists of receiving antenna and Low Noise Converter (LNC). Low
Noise Converter (LNC) is nothing but the combination of Low Noise Amplifier (LNA)
followed by a converter. The receiving antenna is directly fed into LNC.

In general, the parabolic reflector is also used with the receiving horn antenna for more
focusing of the beam.

Indoor Unit
In general, the signal fed to the indoor unit is a wideband signal. The frequency of this signal
lies between 950 MHz and 1450 MHz. In indoor unit, this signal gets amplified by using
an amplifier.

The amplified signal is applied to a tracking filter and down converter. It selects the desired
channel and converts its frequency to an Intermediate Frequency (IF) of 70 MHz.

IF amplifier amplifies the signal strength in order to demodulate it properly. The baseband
(demodulated) signal is used to generate a Vestigial Single Side Band (VSSB) signal. This
signal is fed into one of VHF/UHF channels of a standard TV set.

Frequency Modulation (FM) is used in DBS TV. Whereas, Amplitude Modulation (AM) in
the form of VSSB is used in conventional TV. This is the major difference between DBS
TV and conventional TV.

Community Antenna TV System

The Community Antenna TV (CATV) system uses a single outdoor unit and multiple feeds.
These feeds are available separately for each sense of polarization. Due to this, all channels
will be available at the indoor receiver, simultaneously.
The block diagram of indoor unit of CATV system is shown in below figure.

In this case, there is no need of separate receiver to each user. Because, all the carriers are
demodulated in a common receiver-filter system. After that, the channels are combined into
a multiplexed signal. This signal is then transmitted through a cable to the subscribers
(users).
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Global Positioning System (GPS) is a navigation system based on satellite. It has created the
revolution in navigation and position location. It is mainly used in positioning, navigation,
monitoring and surveying applications.
The major advantages of satellite navigation are real time positioning and timing
synchronization. That‘s why satellite navigation systems have become an integral part in
most of the applications, where mobility is the key parameter.
A complete operational GPS space segment contains twenty-four satellites in MEO. These
satellites are made into six groups so that each group contains four satellites. The group of
four satellites is called as one constellation. Any two adjacent constellations are separated by
60 degrees in longitude.
The orbital period of each satellite is approximately equal to twelve hours. Hence, all
satellites revolve around the earth two times on every day. At any time, the GPS receivers
will get the signals from at least four satellites.
GPS Codes and Services
Each GPS satellite transmits two signals, L1 and L2 are of different
frequencies. Trilateration is a simple method for finding the position (Latitude, Longitude,
Elevation) of GPS receiver. By using this method, the position of an unknown point can be
measured from three known points
GPS Codes
Following are the two types of GPS codes.
 Coarse Acquisition code or C/A code
 Precise code or P code
GPS Services
Following are the two types of services provided by GPS.
 Precise Positioning Service (PPS)
 Standard Positioning Service (SPS)
GPS Receiver
There exists only one-way transmission from satellite to users in GPS system. Hence, the
individual user does not need the transmitter, but only a GPS receiver. It is mainly used to
find the accurate location of an object. It performs this task by using the signals received
from satellites.
The block diagram of GPS receiver is shown in below figure.
The function of each block present in GPS receiver is mentioned below.
 Receiving Antenna receives the satellite signals. It is mainly, a circularly polarized
antenna.
 Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) amplifies the weak received signal
 Down converter converts the frequency of received signal to an Intermediate
Frequency (IF) signal.
 IF Amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal.
 ADC performs the conversion of analog signal, which is obtained from IF amplifier to
digital. Assume, the sampling & quantization blocks are also present in ADC (Analog
to Digital Converter).
 DSP (Digital Signal Processor) generates the C/A code.
 Microprocessor performs the calculation of position and provides the timing signals
in order to control the operation of other digital blocks. It sends the useful information
to Display unit in order to display it on the screen.
GSM architecture
The GSM System
GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) is an open, digital cellular technology
used for transmitting mobile voice and data services. In GSM, the signaling and speech
channels are digital, therefore GSM is considered a 2G (Second Generation) system. This
helps wide-spread implementation of data communication applications. There are five
different cell sizes in a GSM network These are macro, micro, pico, femto and umbrella cells.
Macro cells are cells where the base station antenna is installed on a mast above average roof
top level. Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average roof top level. Pico
cells are small cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen metres. These are mainly used
in indoors applications. Femto cells are cells designed for use in residential or small business
environments and connect to the service provider‘s network via a broadband internet
connection.
Umbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in
coverage between those cells.Horizontal radius of the cell varies depending on the antenna
height, antenna gain and propagation conditions. Maximum distance the GSM supports is 35
kilometers. Most 2G GSM networks operate in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands while 3G
GSM in the 2100 MHz frequency band.

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

Figure 5.8 Base Station Subsystem

HLR, VLR and EIR registers
• Home Location Register (HLR) - is a database maintained by the service provider
containing permanent data about each subscriber (i.e. location, activity status, account
status, call forwarding preference, caller identification preference)
• Visitor Location Register (VLR) – database that stores temporary data about a
subscriber; it is kept in the MSC of the of the area the subscriber is located in; when
the subscriber moves to a new area the new MSC requests this VLR from the HLR of
the old MSC
• Equipment Identity Register (EIR) – database located near the MSC and containing
information identifying cell phones

Authentication Center (AuC)

• 1st level security mechanism for a GSM cellular network
• is a database that stores the list of authorized subscribers of a GSM network
• it is linked to the MSC and checks the identity of each user trying to connect
• also provides encryption parameters to secure a call made in the network

GSM Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

It is a switching center of the GSM network; coordinates BSCs linked to it

Figure 5.9 Switching centre of GSM

 GSM Uplink frequency Downlink frequency RF Channels

GSM-900 890 - 915 MHz 935 - 960 MHz 124

GSM-1800 1710 - 1785 MHz 1805 - 1880 MHz 374
GSM-850 824 - 849 MHz 869 - 894 MHz -
Most of the GSM operators in India use the 900 MHz band. Operators like Hutch, Airtel,
Idea, and some others, use 900MHz in rural areas and 1800MHz in urban areas.