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 Selection of materials for various components is a

highly specialized and involved activity.
 The general factors to be considered in material
selection are as under:
◦ Corrosive effect of environment
◦ Stress levels including cyclic stresses
◦ Start-up and shut-down conditions
◦ Cost considerations
◦ Life cycle assessment

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 Cost of materials plays a very significant role in their
selection.
 Weight cost against properties play a significant role:
◦ Reduction in weight of a car by 1 Kg on an average reduces
the cost by USD 5.
◦ Reduction in weight of an aircraft by 1 Kg on an average
reduces the cost by USD 450.
◦ Reduction in weight of a spacecraft by 1 Kg on an average
reduces the cost by USD 20,000.
Cost is the prime consideration in selection of corrosion
resistance materials.

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Cost per Kg is not the only factor in material selection.

 Material selection is a part of the design process to

get acceptable performance.
 Corrosion is the single largest cause of plant and
equipment breakdown in the process industry.
 Available corrosion data to be examined.

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 The designer shall demonstrate that corrosion has
been taken into consideration during material
selection.
 The owner/ operator of the facility shall demonstrate
to have an appropriate inspection and maintenance
program in place.
 Process fluid corrosion and corrosion allowance
 Localized corrosion
 External corrosion

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 Corrosion rates in mills per year (mpy).
 Historical data or corrosion charts to be used.
 Carbon steel and stainless steel are commonly used
materials in construction.
 Non-metallic materials are also used for certain
applications.

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 Variety of tests for testing the material properties:
◦ Tensile strength
◦ Compression strength
◦ Bending
◦ Hardness
◦ Impact
◦ Corrosion resistance

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 Austenitic stainless steel:
◦ 18-8 stainless steel(300 series): Prone to chloride stress corrosion cracking.
It is having approximately 18% chromium and 8% nickel. fittings made of 300, 302, 302HQ, 303,
304, 305, 384, XM7 grade)
◦ Typical Analysis of Stainless Type 304 Carbon0.08% max.Silicon1.00% max.Manganese2.00%
max.Chromium18.00-20.00%Phosphorus0.045% max.Nickel8.00-10.50%Sulfur0.030% max.

 25-20 stainless steel(310 series) (Heat Resistant Stainless Steel- Increased

strength for more highly stressed applications. It gives high useful oxidation resistance up to peak
temperatures of about 1200C for heat shields, furnace parts and ducting)

 25-12 stainless steel (Heat Resistant Stainless Steel- Suitable for a

wide range of very high temperature applications). Very sensitive to
composition balance. (Metal : Cr-24-28%, Ni-11-14%, Si-<2%, C- 0.2-0.5%,
Mn-<2%)

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 Principle factors to be considered are:
 Service life;
 Environment;
 Corrosion expected in operating condition
 Allowable deformation; and
 Cost

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 Properties to be considered:
◦ Strength
◦ Ductility
◦ Notch sensitivity
◦ Oxidation or corrosion resistance
◦ Thermal expansion and conductivity
◦ Shock resistance
◦ Stability
◦ Behaviour under cyclic conditions

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 Characteristics of Plastics
◦ Low density
◦ Highly complex parts can be manufactured easily
◦ Aesthetic colouring is possible
◦ Good thermal and electrical insulators
◦ Available in wide range of strengths, flexibilities and toughness
 Chemical nature of plastics:
◦ Plastics are polymers which may be defined as a large molecule built-
up by repetition of small, simple chemical units.
◦ Polymer molecules consist of a long chain of methylene (CH2 groups).
◦ Polyethylene is a polymer of ethylene produced by additional
polymerization.

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 Fiber reinforced polymer (plastic) composite is a
combination of plastic and a reinforcing agent (glass,
carbon etc.).
 Benefits of FRP:
◦ High strength and stiffness
◦ Light weight
◦ Creep resistance (It can be defined as a material's ability to resist
any kind of distortion when under a load over an extended period of
time).

◦ Resistance to environmental factors

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 The purpose of heat treatment is to change
mechanical properties (Ductility, Hardness, Yield
Strength, Impact Resistance).
 Electrical & Thermal conductor are only slightly
altered.

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 Alloys are invariably given suitable heat treatment to improve the mechanical
properties. The common heat treatment procedures:
◦ Annealing is a process which alters the microstructure of a material to change its
mechanical or electrical properties. Typically, in steels, annealing is used to reduce
hardness, increase ductility and help eliminate internal stresses.
◦ Normalizing is a annealing process ie heating a steel 20-50 C above the critical
temperature, holding for a period of time long enough for transformation to occur, and air
cooling to obtain a fine grained uniformly distributed ferrite-pearlite structure.
◦ Quenching is a rapid way of bringing a metal back to room temperature after heat
treatment . Hardening of steel is obtained by a suitable quench from within or above the
critical range.
◦ Tempering is a low temperature (150ºC to 650ºC) heat treatment intended to remove the
stresses and brittleness caused by quenching and to develop the required mechanical
properties.
◦ Quenching & tempering improves ductility & toughness.
◦ Stress relieving is at 550-600 C & Soaking it for one to two hours. Is applied to both
ferrous and non-ferrous alloys and is intended to remove internal residual stresses
generated by prior manufacturing processes such as machining, cold rolling and welding.

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 Annealing is defined as the relatively slow controlled cooling.
 The purpose of annealing are:
◦ To remove stress;
◦ To induce softness;
◦ To reduce hardness;
◦ To alter ductility;
◦ To increase toughness;
◦ To improve machinability;
◦ To facilitate cold working;
◦ To produce a desired micro-structure;
◦ To induce change in magnetic properties.

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 The objective is to reduce internal residual stresses.
 The object is heated to a suitable temperature and
held long enough at that temperature followed by
slow cooling.
 The process is essential for weld fabricated
objectives where thickness is more than 20mm.

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Pure metals are rarely used for industrial applications. The following elements singly or
in combination are used to produce variety of alloys for different applicators.
 Aluminum

 Chromium & Nickel

 Niobium

 Cobalt

 Molybdenum

 Phosphorus

 Sulphur

 Copper

 Boron

 Tungsten

 Titanium

 Vanadium

 Silicon

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…
 Aluminum:
◦ It is used to deoxidize steel
◦ Produces fine grain size.
◦ It is used to obtain non-aging characteristics alone or
in the presence of oher elements
◦ Prevents recurrence of strains in sheets and strip.

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 Chromium:
◦ It provides corrosion resistance.
◦ Increase hardenability or the depth to which steel can
be hardened
◦ Adds hardness, toughness and resistance to wear.
Gears and axles are often made of chrome-nickel steel
because of its strength. Chromium less than 0.2% can
be effective in increasing hardenability.

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 Niobium
◦ Greatly increases tensile strength of steel. Only 40 lb
of niobium per ton of steel will increase the tensile
strength by 10,000 to 15000 lb/in2.

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 Manganese is used in steel to produce a clean metal. If
manganese exceeds 1.65 -2.10%, the product is classed
as alloy steel.
◦ It increase hardenability and strength.
◦ It also adds to the strength of the metal and helps in heat treating.
◦ Counteracts brittleness from sulphur
◦ Lower both ductility and weldability if present in high percentage
with high carbon content in steel.
 Some times an excess of manganese is used for hard
steel as manganese is a carbide forming element.

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 Molybdenum:
◦ Adds toughness and higher strengths to steel.
◦ Promotes hardenability of steel
◦ Makes steel fine grained
◦ Makes steel usually tough at various hardness levels
◦ Counteracts tendency towards temper brittleness.

◦ Raises tensile and creep strength at high temperatures

◦ Enhances corrosion resistance in stainless steels.
◦ Forms abrasion resisting particles.
◦ It increases dynamic and high temperature characteristics.
◦ It is resistant to tempering and maintain their strength at elevated temperature.
◦ They have good creep resistance.

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 Nickel:
◦ Increases strength and toughness.
◦ Helps to resist corrosion.
◦ Improves shock resistance
◦ It counteracts brittleness which develops in most pearlitic steels at
subnormal temperature.

◦ It lowers the critical temperature of steel and widen the temperature

range for successful heat treatment.
◦ Strengthens steels
◦ Renders high chromium iron alloys austenitic
◦ Lessens distortion in quenching.
◦ Mostly 2-5% of nickel combined with other alloying elements produce
toughness.

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 Phosphorus is considered detrimental in steel but small quantities
up to 0.2% in low carbon steels increases hardness, strength and
corrosion resistance.
 Phosphorus increases strength and hardness to approximately to
the same extent as carbon in steels which are normally used in hot-
rolled conditions.
 In some steels, high phosphorus content is undesirable because it
decreases ductility and impact toughness.
 It is undesirable in high carbon steels on account of excessive loss
of ductility. It improves machinability in lower carbon steels and
improves resistance to atmospheric corrosion.

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 Sulphur:
◦ Sulphur is not desirable in steel since it forms iron
sulphide which cause brittleness and a tendency to
crack during hot working

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 Copper:
◦ It is used in percentage of 0.1 - 0.4 to produce resistance to atmospheric
corrosion.
◦ Acts as a strengthening agent.

 Although copper is corrosion-resistant, it is not used in steel for this

purpose.
 Copper is nowadays, used extensively in low-carbon sheets especially thin
gauges and other structural steels.
 It has minor effect on mechanical properties. It is beneficial to corrosion
resistance if amount present exceeds 0.20%.
 When present in appreciable amounts, it is detrimental to hot working
operations. It effects forge welding and is detrimental to surface quality. It
does not effect arc or acetylene welding.

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 Cobalt:
◦ Improves mechanical properties such as tensile strengths,
fatigue strength and hardness.
◦ Refines the graphite and pearlite
◦ It is a mild stabilizer of carbides
◦ Improves heat resistance
◦ Retards the transformation of austenite and thus increases
hardenability and freedom from cracking and distortion.
◦ Cobalt contributes to red hardness by considerably
hardening ferrite through solid solution. It is a common
alloying element in high grade high speed steels.

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 Boron:
◦ It is a very powerful hardenability agent and increases
hardenability or depth to which steel will harden when
quenched.
◦ It is being 250-750 times as effective as nickel, 75- 125
times more effective than molybdenum and about 100
times as powerful as chromium. It is expensive but
used in minute quantities.

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 Tungsten in the form of tungsten carbide
◦ Gives steel high hardness even at red heats.
◦ Promotes fine grains
◦ Resists heat
◦ Promote strength at elevated temperatures

 It is used with chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, or

manganese to produce high speed steel used in cutting
tools. Tungsten steel is said to be "red-hard" or hard
enough to cut after it becomes red-hot.

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 Titanium is a very strong, very lightweight metal that
can be used alone or alloyed with steels. It is added to
steel to give them high strength at high temperatures.
Modern jet engines used titanium steels.
◦ It prevents localized depletion of chromium in stainless
steels during long heating
◦ Prevents formation of austenite in high chromium steels
◦ Reduces martensitic hardness and hardenability in medium
chromium steels.

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 Vanadium:
◦ It gives steel a fine-grained structure and increase its toughness.
◦ It is often used in tool steels because of its increased resistance
to impact.
◦ Increases hardenability
◦ Imparts strength and toughness to heat-treated steel
◦ Causes marked secondary hardening
◦ It is used with chromium to make chrome-vanadium steel from
which transmission parts and gears are manufactured. This type
of steel is very strong and has excellent shock resistance. Less
than 0.2% is used normally with 0.5 to 1.5% of chromium.

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 Silicon is often used to increase the resiliency of steel for making
springs. It increases the strength properties especially elastic limit
without loss of ductility. Silicon is an important alloying element (0.2
- 0.7%) in certain high-yield point structural steels. If silicon exceeds
0.60-2.2%, product is classed as alloy steel. Increasing silicon
increases resiliency of steel for spring applications.
 85% of the metallic material used in the industry are carbon steel.
 Carbon steel is the steel where the main alloying element is carbon
and no minimum content is specified for other alloying elements
including Cr, Ni, Mo, Ti, Tungsten etc.

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 Carbon steel is generally four classes based on carbon
content:
◦ Mild and low carbon steel — Low carbon steel contains approx.
0.05-0.15% carbon and mild steel contains 0.16-0.29% carbon,
therefore it is neither brittle nor ductile.
◦ Higher carbon steels — carbon content in the range of 0.30 –
1.70% by weight can be successfully heat-treatment.
 High carbon steel — Approx. 0.6-0.99% carbon content. Very strong,
used for springs and high-strength wires.
 Ultra-high carbon steel — Approx. 1.0-2.0% carbon content. Steels
that can be tempered to great hardness used for knives, axles or
punches.

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 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
• The equivalent carbon content concept is used on ferrous materials, typically
steel and cast iron, to determine various properties of the alloy or metals. The
idea is to convert the percentage of alloying elements other than carbon to the
equivalent carbon percentage, because the iron-carbon phases are better
understood than other iron-alloy phases. Most commonly this concept is used in
welding, but it is also used when heat treating and casting cast iron.
 Steel
 In welding, equivalent carbon content (CE) is used to understand how the
different alloying elements affect hardness of the steel being welded. This is then
directly related to hydrogen-induced cold cracking, which is the most common
weld defect for steel, thus it is most commonly used to determine weldability ,.
Higher concentrations of carbon and other alloying elements such as
manganese, chromium, silicon, molybdenum, vanadium, copper, and nickel tend
to increase hardness and decrease weldability.

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 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
 Each of these elements tends to influence the hardness and weldability of
the steel to different magnitudes, however, making a method of comparison
necessary to judge the difference in hardness between two alloys made of
different alloying elements. There are two commonly used formulas for
calculating the equivalent carbon content. One is from the American
Welding Society (AWS) and recommended for structural steels and the
other is the formula based on the International Institute of Welding (IIW).
 The AWS states that for an equivalent carbon content above 0.40% there is
a potential for cracking in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) on flame cut edges
and welds. However, structural engineering standards rarely use CE, but
rather limit the maximum percentage of certain alloying elements. This
practice started before the CE concept existed, so just continues to be
used. This has led to issues because certain high strength steels are now
being used that have a CE higher than 0.50% that have brittle failures.

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 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
• The weldability based on a range of CE values can be defined as follows:

Carbon Equivalent (CE) Weldability

Up to 0.35 Excellent

0.36–0.40 Very Good

0.41–0.45 Good
0.46–0.50 Fair

Over 0.50 Poor

Carbon Equivalent can be defined as :( All metals in % )

Mn+Si Cr +Mo+V Ni + Cu
C.E. = C + ---------- + -------------- + --------------
6 5 15

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 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
 The carbon equivalent is a measure of the tendency of the weld to form martensite on
cooling and to suffer brittle fracture. When the carbon equivalent is between 0.40 and
0.60 weld preheat may be necessary. When the carbon equivalent is above 0.60,
preheat is necessary, post heat may be necessary.
 The following carbon equivalent formula is used to determine if a spot weld will fail in
high-strength low-alloy steel due to excessive hardenability:
Mn Cr +Mo+Zr Ti Cb V UTS h
C.E. = C + ----- + -------------- + ---- + ----- + ----- +------- +-----
6 10 15 3 7 900 2
Where UTS is the ultimate tensile strength in ksi and h is the strip
thickness in inches. A CE value of 0.3 or less is considered safe

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 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
• The Japanese Welding Engineering Society adopted the critical
metal parameter (Pcm) for weld cracking, which is:

Ni Si Mn+Cu+Cr Mo V
Pcm = C + ----- + -------- + --------------- + ------- + ------- + 5B
60 30 20 15 10
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS FOR BATCH PRODUCTION;

• Chemical Analysis is to be specified as per ASTM A 751 - “Standard

Methods, practices and definitions for chemical analysis of steel
products”
• This is to be carried out once for each heat.

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 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
PRODUCT ANALYSIS:
It is to be specified for two pipes produced from the same heat.
Where more than 50 pipes are produced from same heat, additional product
analysis of two pipes is to be specified.
The C.E. calculated using the above formula shall not exceed 0.38. In
addition the Pcm value based on the product analysis and calculated from the
formula shall not exceed 0.20.
Re-check Analysis :
If the product analysis shows failure to meet the required composition, either
the whole heat is rejected or each pipe to be fully analysed so as to confirm
that it meets the chemical composition specified in the P.O.

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The two specs under API 5L are PSL-1 and PSL-2. These specs cover
seamless and welded steel line pipe from grades X42 through X80. API 5L
is suitable for transporting gas, water, and oil, and is usually found in the
hydrocarbon petroleum and natural gas industry.
PSL-1 is a loose standard quality for line pipe, whereas PSL-2 contains
additional testing requirement, stricter chemical physicals, along with
different ceiling limits of mechanical properties, and require Charpy impact
testing conditions.
Additional testing requirements under PSL-2 include CVN(Charpy V Notch)
testing, non-destructive inspection of seamless products, certification to
SR15, and mandatory traceability throughout the entire production process.
Most FERC, DOT, or FEMSA lines require PSL-2, meaning these types of
requirements are a must when supplying pipe for pipelines that are
regulated by any of these governing bodies.

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PIPE SPECIFICATIONS

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PIPE SPECIFICATIONS

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