What is Biotechnology?

Biotechnology is technology based on biology - biotechnology harnesses cellular and biomolecular processes
to develop technologies and products that help improve our lives and the health of our planet. We have used
the biological processes of microorganisms for more than 6,000 years to make useful food products, such as
bread and cheese, and to preserve dairy products.

Genetic linkage
Genetic linkage is the tendency of DNA sequences that are close together on a chromosome to be inherited
together during the meiosis phase of sexual reproduction. Two genetic markers that are physically near to
each other are unlikely to be separated onto different chromatids during chromosomal crossover, and are
therefore said to be more linked than markers that are far apart. In other words, the nearer two genes are on
a chromosome, the lower the chance of recombination between them, and the more likely they are to be
inherited together. Markers on different chromosomes are perfectly unlinked.

Sex-determination system
A sex-determination system is a biological system that determines the development of sexual
characteristics in an organism. Most organisms that create their offspring using sexual reproduction have two
sexes. Occasionally, there are hermaphrodites in place of one or both sexes. There are also some species that
are only one sex due to parthenogenesis, the act of a female reproducing without fertilization.

X-linked recessive inheritance

X-linked inheritance means that the gene causing the trait or the disorder is located on the X chromosome.
Females have two X chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y chromosome. Carrier females who have
only one copy of the mutation do not usually express the phenotype, although differences in X chromosome
inactivation can lead to varying degrees of clinical expression in carrier females since some cells will express
one X allele and some will express the other.

Karyotyping
Karyotyping is a test to examine chromosomes in a sample of cells. This test can help identify genetic
problems as the cause of a disorder or disease.

How the Test is Performed

The test can be performed on almost any tissue, including:

 Amniotic fluid

 Blood

 Bone marrow

 Tissue from the organ that develops during pregnancy to feed a growing baby (placenta)
Chromosome abnormality
A chromosome abnormality, disorder, anomaly, aberration, or mutation is a missing, extra, or irregular portion
of chromosomal DNA. It can be from an atypical number of chromosomes or a structural abnormality in one
or more chromosomes.

Human Chromosomal Disorders

1. Down syndrome (trisomy 21) - The result of an extra copy of chromosome 21. Characteristic facial
features, short stature; heart defects susceptibility to respiratory disease, shorter lifespan prone to
developing early Alzheimer's and leukemia often sexually underdeveloped and sterile, usually some
degree of mental retardation. Down syndrome is correlated with age of mother but can also be the result
of nondisjunction of the father's chromosome 21.

2. Turner syndrome (TS) - occurs when one of the two X chromosomes in females is either missing or
incomplete. The most common symptoms are short stature and gonadal dysgenesis, which can cause
incomplete sexual development and ovarian failure and infertility.

3. Williams Syndrome - is caused by a deletion of genetic material from portions of the long arm of
chromosome 7, a region that consists of more than 25 genes. Researchers have identified a few of the
specific genes related to Williams syndrome, but the relationship between most of the genes in the
deleted region and the symptoms of Williams syndrome is still unknown.

Cloning
Cloning is the process of producing similar populations of genetically identical individuals that occurs in nature
when organisms such as bacteria, insects or plants reproduce asexually. Cloning in biotechnology refers to
processes used to create copies of DNA fragments (molecular cloning), cells (cell cloning), or organisms. The
term also refers to the production of multiple copies of a product such as digital media or software.

Dolly (sheep)
Dolly (5 July 1996 – 14 February 2003) was a female domestic sheep, and the first mammal cloned from an
adult somatic cell, using the process of nuclear transfer.
Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct manipulation of an
organism's genome using biotechnology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells,
including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms.
New DNA is obtained by either isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using molecular
cloning methods or by artificially synthesizing the DNA. A construct is usually created and used to insert this
DNA into the host organism. As well as inserting genes, the process can be used to remove, or "knock out",
genes. The new DNA can be inserted randomly, or targeted to a specific part of the genome.

Genetically Modified Organism

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are living organisms whose genetic material has been artificially
manipulated in a laboratory through genetic engineering. This creates combinations of plant, animal, bacteria,
and virus genes that do not occur in nature or through traditional crossbreeding methods.

Are GMOs safe?

A growing body of evidence connects GMOs with health problems, environmental damage, and violation of
farmers’ and consumers’ rights. More than 60 countries around the world – including Australia, Japan, and all
of the countries in the European Union – require GMOs to be labeled. Globally, there are also 300 regions with
outright bans on growing GMOs. In the absence of credible independent long-term feeding studies, the safety
of GMOs is unknown. Increasingly, citizens are taking matters into their own hands and choosing to opt out of
the GMO experiment.

Tissue engineering
Tissue engineering is the use of a combination of cells, engineering and materials methods, and
suitable biochemical and physicochemical factors to improve or replace biological tissues. Tissue engineering
involves the use of a scaffold for the formation of new viable tissue for a medical purpose. While it was once
categorized as a sub-field of biomaterials, having grown in scope and importance it can be considered as a
field in its own.

DNA replication
DNA replication is the biological process of producing two identical replicas of DNA from one
original DNA molecule. This process occurs in all living organisms and is the basis for biological inheritance.
The cell possesses the distinctive property of division, which makes replication of DNA essential.