Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 23 (2010) 373e378

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Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jlp

Turbulent jet modelling for hazardous area classification

Renato Benintendi*
Megaris Ltd, 57 Send Barns Lane, Woking, Surrey GU23 7BS, United Kingdom

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Hazardous area classification, as per EN 60079-10, is based on the explosive gas volume of the clouds in
Received 5 March 2009 which the average gas concentration is related to the Low Explosion Limit (LEL). The higher Reynolds
Received in revised form number, the less this approach is valid, because of the development of a concentration gradient due to
20 November 2009
the momentum driven flow. The resulting areas and volumes may be overestimated by two or three
Accepted 20 November 2009
orders of magnitude, which is often critical in equipment design and selection. This paper proposes and
technically justifies an overview of turbulent jet flow modelling, with the aim at developing a more
Keywords:
realistic calculation method of the hazardous areas, within the ATEX approach.
ATEX
Hazardous areas classification Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Turbulent jet
Gasdynamics
Explosion
EN 60079-10

1. Introduction
Hazardous Area Classification is a primary concern of process
safety and design. Within ATEX approach, the sizing of gaseous
explosive clouds is generally carried out in accordance with EN
60079-10 (2002). This is based on the hypothetical volume Vz,
which is the volume over which the mean concentration of flam-
mable gas or vapour is either 0.25 or 0.5 times the Low Explosion
Limit (LEL). The result generally overestimates the real size of
volumes, that is often an unacceptable outcome. This has been
underlined and proven also by Gant and Ivings (2005), through
a CFD modelling of gas jets. The present work aims at developing,
relatively to turbulent jets, a simple and rigorous hazardous area
calculation method, which gives more realistic results, than the so
called Vz volume approach.
2. Vz volume approach: estimation of explosive clouds
Section B.4.2 of EN 60079-10 presents the following formula for
estimating the hypothetical volume Vz of explosive gas atmosphere
due to an emission:

  . 
dV
VZ ¼ f $ C (1)
dt min
and:
* Tel.: þ44 (0) 1483225062; fax: þ44 (0) 1483559265.
E-mail address: benintendi@libero.it
     
dV dG T
¼ $ (2)
dt min dt max k$LEL$293
where (dV/dt) min is the minimum volumetric flow rate of fresh air
(m3/s), (dG/dt) max the maximum release rate at source (kg/s), LEL is
the lower explosive limit (kg/m3), k is a safety factor, T is the
ambient temperature (K), C the number of fresh air changes per
unit time (s1).
The estimated volume has an average concentration related to
the LEL. A similar procedure is recommended by the Italian code CEI
31-35 (2007) also for calculating the so called hazardous distance
dz, that is the distance from the emission source at which the gas
concentration is lower than the LEL. This method refers again to the
LEL. No importance is given to the gas concentration and velocity
distribution in the cloud, which is, at the contrary, well charac-
terised and strongly marked, particularly for the high Reynolds
number flow jets, such as pressure relief valve discharges or
releases from high pressure pipelines. The related influence on the
resulting cloud size is so expectedly high.
3. Turbulent jets
Jets may be generally regarded as turbulent or laminar also
dependently on their mixing efficiency as well as on the ambient air
entrainment. This is very high when the Reynolds number, referred
to the exit zone, equals or is higher than 104, which may be
assumed as a lower border line in applying the theory of the fully
developed jet, according to many research and practice suggestions
(f.i. Yujiro Suzuki and Takehiro Koyaguchi, 2007, API RP 521, 2008).

0950-4230/$ e see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jlp.2009.11.004
Moreover, no further change in the jet behaviour is expected
increasing Reynolds number beyond this value.

3.1. Gas conditions at the exit plane

To calculate the fluid properties downstream, further to a high

pressure jet release, gas characteristics at the exit plane must be
known. Isentropic expansion hypothesis may be assumed and,
accordingly, the gas characteristics obtained. Indicating with
subscript v the calm gas state and with subscript e the exit sonic
flow condition, it will be:
  g
Pe 2 g1
¼ (3)
Pv gþ1
 
Te 2
¼ (4)
Tv gþ1

r
 Along the axis, within the third zone, the momentum conser- 3.5. Approximation of Thring and Newby
vation equation may be applied. So, being:
The jet entrains air downstream the Mach disk, so that the gas
density at the boundary approaches the air density ra not far
D2e
Me ¼ re $p$ $v2e (13) from the nozzle exit. Thring and Newby (1953) introduced the
4 concept of equivalent nozzle, which has the same momentum
and and velocity as the operating nozzle, Me and ve, but the density of
the entrained fluid, i.e air in the present paper. More recently,
further alternative equivalent diameter (nozzle) theories have
Z RðxÞ
been developed, (f.i. Birch et al. (1987) and Schefer et al. (2007)).
Mx ¼ 2$p$ r$vðr; xÞ2 $r$dr (14)
0 Application of the equivalence criterion will give:
rffiffiffiffiffi
re
the jet momentum at the exit plane and at the distance x of the Deq ¼ De $ (21)
ra
axis respectively, it will result:
being the subscript a referred to ambient air.
The equivalence allows to consider constant the density in the
Me ¼ Mx (15)
model development, provided that the equivalent nozzle is
where R(x) is the maximum radial width at the axis point x. adopted.
Concerning the centreline velocity v(0,x), the following hyper-
bolic decay law may be assumed in the similarity zone, as: 4. The flammable gas cone

vð0; xÞ De The characterisation of the fully developed jet zone and its
¼ B$ (16)
ve xþa stability along the axis allow to identify the hypothetical volume Vz
of explosive gas atmosphere, differently from the EN 60079-10
The momentum conservation assumption has been stressed
method. With reference to Fig. 2, this volume will be completely
by several researchers. It is generally agreed that the fully devel-
known, once the following will have been defined:
oped zone terminates to a fourth zone, where the jet momentum
loss is expected due to dissipation. Nottage (1951) drew the
ethe cross sections corresponding to the UEL and LEL,
behaviour of the Mx/Me ratio vs x/De ratio, at constant values of
respectively
Reynolds number. Specifically, the higher this is, the more the
ethe cross section diameter variation law along the axis
mentioned ratio keeps equal to 1. In correspondence to different
Reynolds number values, Mx/Me decreases linearly with the x/De
ratio approximately with the same slope.
4.1. Concentration gradient along the axis
3.4.1. The entrainment
As mentioned, ambient fluid entrainment begins downstream Independently of the transversal concentration profile, an
the Mach disk and fully develops in the similarity zone. The general (assumed) cross sectional isoconcentration may be easily deter-
entrainment equation is the following: mined along the axis, so that any given molar fraction of flammable

dmðxÞ me
¼ Ce $ (17)
dx De
where me and m(x) are the initial and the overall entrained gas
mass flow rates at x respectively.
By integration, it will give:

mðxÞ x
¼ Ce $ (18)
me De
Equation (18) might be considered valid from the Mach disk
distance up to approximately x z 120De, even if the entrainment
coefficient in the transition zone should be assumed equal to 1/3
the coefficient valid for the similarity zone, as reported by Hill
(1972). Here, it is broadly accepted that, until the fourth zone is
reached, Ricou and Spalding (1961) entrainment coefficient
applies:

mðxÞ x
¼ 0:32$ (19)
me De
Similarly, the API RP 521 (2008) standard recommends:

mðxÞ x
¼ 0:264$ (20)
me De
In the present work, coefficients reported in eqs. (19) and (20)
have been assumed as the upper and lower limit respectively of the
practicable range.
376 R. Benintendi / Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 23 (2010) 373e378

localised. Indicating with Xf the mean molar fraction of the flam-

Z RðxÞ
1  r 2  x
mable gas and with MWf and MWa the molecular weight of the gas
p$ra $vð0;xÞ$ exp  $ dr2 ¼ me $Ce $ (32)
and of the air respectively, it will be: 0 2 0:082$x Deq

me =MWf Integrating:
Xf ¼ (22)
½mðxÞ  me =MWa þ me =MWf
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
" #ffi
u
pffiffiffi u me $Ce
and, through the (18): t
Rx ¼ 2$0:082$x ln 1  (33)
2$p$ra $vð0;xÞ$Deq $x$0:0822
1=MWf
Xf ¼ h i. (23) Concerning centreline (maximum) velocity, the constant B in
Ce $Dxe  1 MWa þ 1=MWf
eq. (16) has been plotted slightly bigger than 6 by Pope (2000),
equals 6.06 according to Panchapakesan and Lumley (1993), and
Being the explosive cloud a truncated conical volume limited 5.8 according to Hussein et al. (1994). A value ¼ 6 has been
downward by the LEL section and upward by the UEL section, these selected.
will be identified writing:
Deq $ve
1=MWf vð0; xÞ ¼ 6$ (34)
XUEL ¼ h i. (24) x
Ce $xDUEL  1 MWa þ 1=MWf
e Substituting in eq. (33):

1=MWf vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
!ffi
XLEL ¼ h i. (25) u
pffiffiffi u C
Rx ¼ 2$0:082$xtln 1 
e
Ce $xDLEL  1 MWa þ 1=MWf (35)
e
8$6$ð0:082Þ2
where XUEL and XLEL are the molar fractions corresponding to
the UEL and LEL respectively, and xUEL and xLEL the related
and, relatively to the angle of spread:
coordinates.
Equations (24) and (25) may be solved for x, obtaining:
" vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
!ffi
3
" # u
 pffiffiffi u C 7
a ¼ tg1 2$0:082tln 1 
1 1 e
 $MWa þ 1 $De 5 (36)
XUEL $MWf 1=MWf 8$6$ð0:082Þ2
xUEL ¼ (26)
Ce
Rx calculated through eq. (35) will correspond to an angle
"  #
1 1 of 14.2 , according to Ricou and Spalding entrainment coefficient,
 $MWa þ 1 $De and 8.3 , according to API RP 521 coefficient. Conservatively, an
XLEL $MWf 1=MWf
xLEL ¼ (27) angle of 15 shall be assumed.
Ce Introducing the value of xUEL and xLEL obtained from eq. (26) and
(27) in the eq. (35), the diameters of the UEL and LEL sections will
4.2. Diameter of the cone cross sections be calculated. In doing that, it must be considered that, the lower is
the entrainment coefficient, the larger is the truncated cone
To complete the full characterisation of the spatial distribution volume. It is so recommended to use the Ricou and Spalding
of the flammable gas concentration, the size of the mixture circular entrainment coefficient for the spread angle and the API RP 521
area at any distance x must be calculated. To do that, the equation entrainment coefficient for the volume sizing.
of the entrainment:
Z RðxÞ
x 5. Comparative results
2$p$ rðr; xÞ$vðr; xÞ$r$dr ¼ me $Ce $ (28)
0 Deq
In order to test the method, two different comparative estima-
has been simplified assuming a constant value of the density, tions have been analysed, relatively to natural gas. Specifically, they
according to Thring and Newby (1953): refer respectively to:
Z RðxÞ
x eAn example proposed by the Italian Code CEI 31-35/A, which
2$p$ra vðr; xÞ$r$dr ¼ me $Ce $ (29)
0 Deq carries out the calculation of the volume Vz in accordance with
the EN 60079-10
Again:
eA CFD simulation carried out by the Gant and Ivings (2005),
Z RðxÞ which quantifies the size of the cloud to which a mean
x
p$ra vðr; xÞdr2 ¼ me $Ce $ (30) concentration of 50% LEL corresponds.
0 Deq
Expressing v(r,x) according to Shepelev: The summary of the input data and the results are given in

Tables 1 and 2 respectively. As expected, the volume Vzobtained
vðr; xÞ 1  r 2  through the jet method is largely smaller than the one sized
¼ exp  $ (31)
vð0; xÞ 2 0:082$x according to the EN 60079-10. Differently, the agreement with CFD
 Pre-emission condition

Pv, ρv

Emission condition
Eq. 3, 5, 6, 7
Pe , ρe, v e , m e

Equivalent Nozzle
Diameter

Dv, ρv

simulation seems really good. In the application of the present

method, for simplicity's sake, the Thring and Newby approximation
has not been applied.

6. The method

The analysis carried out in the previous paragraph can be used

for developing a more realistic method for sizing volumes resulting
from turbulent jets, to be used in hazardous areas classification. The
7. Concluding remarks
relevant steps of the method have been represented in the block
diagram (Fig. 3).
The necessity to develop an alternative method for estimating
The adoption of both Ricou and Spalding and API RP 521
the volume Vz provided by EN 60079-10 has been originated by the
coefficients of entrainment is effective, with the aim at fitting the
evidence that it overpredicts the resulting explosive volumes, with
most conservative pathway. The method is valid for turbulent jets
respect to verification performed with alternative techniques. For
with Reynolds number higher than 104. In general, the LEL
high Reynolds numbers, the overestimation is expected to be larger,
section is reached before the initial momentum is lost according
since the high entrainment coefficient makes the gas rapidly
to Nottingham, i.e. the so-called fourth zone begins. This is
approach the LEL condition. The analysis of the existing data has
underlined also by API RP 521, which reports that, with reference
allowed to identify a relatively simple and reliable sizing method,
with hydrocarbons, the LEL section is reached within a distance
essentially based on the entrainment equation. In using it, a lower
from the exit approximately equal to twelve times the nozzle
and upper limit of the applicable entrainment coefficient range
diameter.
have been assumed, in accordance with API RP 521 and Ricou and
Table 2 Spalding data, respectively.
Summary of Gant and Ivings CFD results. The method could be adopted for hazardous area classification
e Lupton natural gas within the ATEX frame, both with the aim at improving the reli-
Molecular weighta kg/kmol 18.7 ability of the results and at avoiding the oversizing of the classified
LELa % vol 4.3 zones, which is often unacceptable.
UEL % vol 17
Specific heat ratioa e 1.265
Mass flow rate kg/s 0.416
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