High-Speed Small Craft-Peter Du Cane

HIGH-SPEED
SMALL CRAFT
PETER DU CANE
C.B.E., R.N., M.R.I.N.A., M . I . M ~ c ~ . E . ,
A.F.R.Ae.S.
eed
all Craft
TEMPLE PRESS BOOKS

LONDON . 1964
First published 1951
Second edition 1956
Third edition 1964
Printed in Great Britain

for the publishers
T E M P L E PRESS B O O K S L I M I T E D
42 Russell Square London WCr
by Purnell and Sons, Limited
Paulton (Somerset) and London
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author expresses his thanks to the following for the supply of photo-
graphs and illustrations:
PLATES
Frontispiece : Sport and General 21: Westland Aircraft Ltd.,
I , 2 and 3: Vosper Ltd., Portsmouth Saunders-Roe Division,
4: Fr. Lurssen Werft, Bremen- Cowes
Vegesack; and Der 22 : Grumman Aircraft Co.,
Bundesminister fur U.S.A.
Verteidigung, Bonn 23 : Supramar A.G., Luzern
Vosper Ltd., Portsmouth 24 and 25: Vosper Ltd., Portsmouth
Beken and Son, Cowes 26 : Rolls-Royce Ltd., Derby
Hickman Sea Sled Co. 27: Costruzione Revisione Motori,
Christopher Hook Milano
Vosper Ltd., Portsmouth 28 : D. Napier and Son Ltd.
Beken and Son, Cowes rg : Mercedes-Benz (Gt. Britain)
Boat Services Ltd., Oslo Ltd.
Laivateollisuus, Abo, 30 : Bristol Siddeley Engines
Finland (Builders) Ltd., Coventry
Dowty Marine Ltd., 31: Rover Gas Turbine Go.
Gloucester 32 and 33: Vosper Ltd., Portsmouth
Beken and Son, Cowes 34 35: Ak. Mekaniska Werkstad,
Vosper Ltd., Portsmouth Karlstad, Sweden
Temple Press Ltd. 36 and 37: Bassin d'Essais des Cardnes,
Beken and Son, Cowes Paris
Fairey Marine Ltd., 38 : AdmiraltyExperiment Works,
Humble Haslar
J. I. Thornycroft and Co. 39: Vosper Ltd., Portsmouth
T h e Daily Express
FIGURES
Vosper Ltd., Portsmouth Silentbloc Ltd.

Metropolitan Vickers Vosper Ltd., Portsmouth
Bristol Siddeley Engines Bolinders Ltd.
Ltd., Coventry Dowty Marine Ltd.
Rolls-Royce Ltd., Derby W. H . Allen Sons and Co.,
Royal Aeronautical Society Pershore
D. Napier and Son Ltd. Vosper Ltd., Portsmouth
Vosper Ltd., Portsmouth Self Change Gear Co.
Saunders Valve Co. Modern Wheel Drive Co.
Simms Motor Units Vosper Ltd., Portsmouth
K.D.G. Instruments Ltd. Vosper Ltd., Portsmouth
Walker Crosweller and Co. Laivateollisuus, Abo,
Ltd. Finland
Serck Radiators Ltd. K.M. W. Karlstad, Sweden
Vosper Ltd., Portsmouth M. Brard, Bassin dYEssais
Hardy Spicer and Co. Ltd. des Cardnes, Paris
CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE xi
1. DEFINITION . 1
11. TYPES OF HIGH-SPEED CRAFT . 4
111. HYDROFOILS . I9
IV AIR CUSHION VEHICLES . 41
v. SEAWORTHINESS AND MANaEUVRABILITY 7'
VI. DESIGN . 82
VII. T H E PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE PERFORMANCE OF
PLANING CRAFT IN THEORY AND PRACTICE
VIII. RUDDER DESIGN IN PLAN FORM AND SECTION
IX. MATERIALS .
X. STRUCTURE .
XI. REINFORCED PLASTICS FOR BOATBUILDING .
XII. LIGHT ALLOYS IN HIGH-SPEED CRAFT
XIII. APPLICATION OF PLYWOOD AND LAMINATED WOOD
CONSTRUCTION IN MARINE CRAFT .
XIV. PROPELLING MACHINERY .
xv. INSTALLATION OF MAIN MACHINERY .
XVI. TRANSMISSION .
XVII. REVERSE GEAR
XVIII. CRUISING ENGINES .
XIX. STEERING GEAR
XX. T H E DESIGN OF SCREW PROPELLERS .
XXI. SPEED TRIALS .
XXII. CONTROLLABLE PITCH PROPELLERS .
XXIII. INFLUENCE OF MACHINERY TYPES ON PROPELLER
DESIGN
XXIV. POWER REQUIREMENTS, SPEED ESTIMATES AND PRO-
PULSIVE COEFFICIENTS .
xxv. DYNAMIC STABILITY
XXVI. MODEL EXPERIMENT^ FOR RESISTANCE AND POWERING
XXVII. USE OF MODELS FOR PREDICTION OF BEHAVIOUR IN
ROUGH WATER .
XXVIII. ELECTRIC ARRANGEMENTS IN HIGH-SPEED CRAFT ,
XXIX. CONCLUDING REMARKS ON FUTURE TENDENCIES .
INDEX
vii
LIST OF PLATES
\ facing page
Frontispiece Tramontana I
Plate I M.T.B. I 02-Early Experimental M.T.B. of hard-
chine type
Plate 2 M.T.B. firing torpedoes
Plate 3 Brave Borderer Fast Patrol Boat
Plate 4 Jaguar type M.T.B.
Plate 5 40-ft. Royal Barge of hard-chine type, 24 knots
Plate 6 M.Y. Mercury
Plate 7 23-ft. Hickman Sea Sled
Plate 8 Hook Hydrofin
Plate g 73-ft. Air/Sea rescue vessel of cornpromise hard-chine
form
Plate IO 68-ft. High-speed Launch
Plate 11 N.A.S.T.Y.-type Fast Patrol Boat
Plate 12 fluoli class High-speed Patrol Craft for Finnish Naval
Force
Plate 13 Dowty Turbocraft
Plate 14 Carnper and Nicholsons-type M.G.B. of round form,
I 15-ft. long
Plate 15 H.M.S. Bold Pathfnder (round form)
Plate 16 H.M.S. Bold Pioneer (hard chine)
Plate 17 Show Boat
Plate 18 Huntsman "28"
Plate 19 Fast Day Boat Tahaf
Plate 20 Blue Mo@ie
Plate 21 Hovercraft
Plate 22 Grumrnan Hydrofoil Benison
Plate 23 Supramar Hydrofoil Type P.T. 50
Plate 24 68-ft. High-speed Launch of aluminium construction
in frame
Plate 25 68-ft. High-speed Launch of welded aluminium con-
struction complete
Plate 26 Rolls-Royce Grzyon marine engine
Plate 27 C.R.M. ASM 185, 1500 b.h.p.
Plate 28 Napier Deltic engine
Plate 29 Mercedes-Benz diesel engine \
Plate 30 Maybach MD.6551I 8 engine

Plate 31 Rover Gas Turbine 40-kw. Generating Set
ix
LIST OF PLATES
facing page
Plate 32 Engine Room of Ferocity F.P.B. 355
Plate 33 Manned model evaluating Ferocity behaviour under
dynamically similar conditions 355
Plates 34 Effects of Appendages at Low Cavitation Numbers
and 35 (High-speed) 418
Plate 36 Model of M.T.B. under test in waves (with the wind)
I metre in height, 40 metres between crests 419
Plate 37 Model of M.T.B. under test in waves. Modified form
at 19.85 knots. Wave height I metre, distance
between crests 40.5 metres 434
Plate 38 Crusader model running at 979 m.p.h. 435
\ Plate 39 24-ft. scale model of M.T.B. form running through
wash of larger boat 435
PREFACE
SINCETHE LAST edition of this book was prepared in 1956 there
have been a number of important and exciting developments in
high-speed craft. Firstly, with the availability of higher-powered
diesel and gas turbine engines it has been necessary to develop the
means of transmitting the quite sensational increases in power and
converting them into useful thrust. Then, with the advent of the
nuclear submarine comparatively high speeds submerged are
obtainable for long periods. (Exact speeds have not been revealed,
but they must be in the region of 30 knots continuous, or soon
will be.) Now no known anti-submarine frigate or patrol craft of
the conventional type can exceed such a speed by a sufficient
margin to make any sense out of the work of submarine detection
and attack. Therefore a big research effort has been directed to-
wards the development of some sort of suitable vehicle, capable of
carrying a sufficient load to include search and attack weapons,
with a maximum speed of, say, 60 knots, combined with the ability
to maintain 50 knots in an Atlantic seaway. The large hydrofoil
represents one such approach. The so-called "Hovercraft" or "Air
Cushion Vessel ",is another.
In the light of such developments as these, entirely new chapters
have been added to this edition dealing with the following subjects:
Hydrofoil Craft This chapter is based on a lecture by Doctor John

P. Breslin and Daniel Savitsky of the Davidson Laboratory, Stevens
Institute of Technology, Hoboken, U.S.A. I n their capacity as
Director and Manager, Applied Mechanics Group, these authors
have considerable experience of the research connected with model
testing of the newest projects in this field.
Air Cushion Vehicles The latest developments in this field of re-

search (now being substantially financed by the Government) are
discussed by W. A. Crago, Superintendent of the Westland Aero-
dynamic and Hydrodynamic Research facilities at Cowes. This
plant includes the model tank in which much of the basic
experimental work has been carried out.
Propellers. As applied to high-speed craft in the true sense of the

word, considering speeds from, say, 35-40 knots upwards, there is
no doubt that special techniques have to be adopted in both theory
and practice.
xi
PREFACE
The supercavitating propeller is frequently mentioned these

days, though in the author's opinion there is still little enough
really known. Also, it is still far from clear in what circumstances
this type of propeller should replace the more conventional pro-
peller designs envisaged in, for example, the Brave class, a derivative
of which, the Strahl, achieved a mean speed of 55.5 knots on
the measured mile. These propellers, making use of a N.A.C.A.
fully wetted section, do not qualify as supercavitating according
to most of the definitions so far offered, though they obviously
cavitate to a considerable extent and must be running with effectively
dry blade back. This is, perhaps, no more than a question of
definition, but the author does find it difficult to accept without
reservation pronouncements on the subject, no matter how con-
fidently these may be given.
However, whilst it is certain that much remains to be done, a
good deal of work has been carried out since the publication of
the last edition in the Cavitation Tunnel at Vosper Ltd., Portsmouth,
and also by the Research Division of K.M.W. (Karlstads Mekaniska
Werkstad), the Swedish hydraulic engineers and propeller experts
who have a cavitation tunnel at Kristinehamn. Much has also
been done, at least theoretically, by the David Taylor Model
Basin in the U.S.A. under the sponsorship of the U.S. Bureau
of Ships, and by Grumman in association with Tulin. Then,
to some extent, results are available from the operation of practical
craft.
Of the new material included on this subject, Doctor Claus
Kruppa, hydrodynamicist in charge of the Vosper Cavitation Tun-
nel, has written a chapter on high-speed propellers with a short
introduction to the Vortex theory on which the concept of circula-
tion is based. He discusses the theory and practice of the use of
the fully cavitating propeller so far as it can be authoritatively dealt
with at this time.
Mr. Lennart Pehrsson, head of the propeller division at K.M.W.,
Sweden, has contributed another chapter on the controllable pitch
propeller in which his company specialises. He is also in a good
position to report on the use of supercavitating sections in con-
nection with this development, as well as with fixed pitch propellers,
having carried out a considerable research programme in the
K.M.W. cavitation tunnel. His firm have achieved some notable
increases in performance and efficiency by making use of such
sections on Fast Patrol Boat types.
I n addition to the new chapters just described, the chapter on
Reinforced Plastics has been brought up to date by Mr. T. Lloyd,
and that dealing with Plywood and Laminated Wood Construction
has been similarly revised by Mr. R. E. L. Lovell. Professor T. R. F.
xii
PREFACE
Nonweiler has given me advice both on the chapter devoted to

rudder sections, and on the effect of laminar flow on resistance.
The author does not attempt to compete in this book with the
many excellent standard works of Naval Architecture available.
Where, for example, orthodox propeller theory, structural calcula-
tions, etc., are concerned, it is felt that the available literature
already adequately covers the field. In particular can be mentioned
Barnaby, Chapman and Rossell, Saunders, and Robb.
A chapter on the practical handling of these craft from the point
of view of the designer and test pilot might have been appropriate,
but on balance it was felt that as others spend much longer at sea
than the author such a contribution could appear presumptuous.
Maybe such a chapter can be included at some future date with
the collaboration of experienced helmsmen.
The object here, then, has been to deal with the more specialised
problems presented by high-speed craft, setting out the theory where
available and adapting it to the practical problems arising. Where
appropriate, the author has included the results of his own experi-
ence, even if his conclusions may not always be very popular.
Many of the most valuable conclusions discussed have been reached
as a result of initial mistakes or failures rather than from successes,
this being the way with much engineering development. If injustice
seems to have been done to others working in this field, either by
commission or omission, apology is tendered in advance. Those
who have attempted to do so will know how difficult it is, within
the limited compass of a book of this nature, to be fair to all points
of view.
Finally, it is regretted that the many specific types of outboard
engines and craft are not discussed here, though it will be appre-
ciated that the principles and techniques involved overlap to a
considerable extent. This is especially the case now that the so-
called inboard-outboard drive is becoming increasingly popular.
For example, the type of boat and details of hull form capable of
succeeding on the fantastically disturbed waters of the Seine ("Six
Heures" international event) can probably help us in our work for
the Daily Express Offshore Race. Again, Record Breaking craft
are hardly touched on in this work.
I have been assisted throughout by many friends in Vosper Ltd.
as well as those mentioned above, and am much in debt to Miss
Jean Carpenter, my secretary, whose help in typing, correcting
and co-ordinating generally has been invaluable.
xiii
CHAPTER I
DEFINITION
THETITLE to this book, High-speed Small Craft, involves definition

of the words "high speed" and also "small craft" as they will be
used hereafter.
A small craft as envisaged herein consists of a craft up to approxim-
ately 130 ft. in length.
High speed is anything above 15 knots.
These must evidently be somewhat arbitrary definitions, but on
the whole it will probably be agreed that speeds beyond 15 knots
can never be considered really slow or a length above 130 ft. really
small.
What is meant by a high-speed craft here is one in which the
element of "planing" exists to a noticeable extent.
When a hull is pushed through the water while speeds are low the
forward motion of the hull through the water causes in the first
instance water to be pushed aside by the bow, resulting in a system
of waves being formed along the length of the boat. The length
between one crest and another of these waves is directly proportional
to the speed a t which the boat is being propelled through the water.
A further series of waves is set up emanating from the region of the
stern of the vessel. If the speed is such that the forward wave is at its
highest point when the wave formed at the stern is at its lowest it
will have the effect of neutralising the drag caused by the wave set up
from the stern so that this is the most efficientcondition for propelling
a boat through the water (see Fig. I).
Fig. I:-Displacement or wave-making Izuld:
These optimum conditions are as a rule achieved when -

v = I,
2 / ~
where V = speed in knots, and L = length in feet.
This is assuming the hull to be of a normal displacement form,
with reasonable beam-to-length ratio.
I t should be explained here that the above explanations are of a
very elementary order and should be taken as a generalisation only.
Whole volumes of a scientific nature have been written to explain
these phenomena in more detail.
I
HIGH-SPEED SMALL CRAFT
In a hull of IOO ft. length the speed at which one can expect to
drive it easiest is 10 knots. Beyond this point an appreciable fraction
of the power driving the boat will be employed in generating waves
of such a form that the whole weight of the hull is lifted relative to
its static trim line. Normally this will consist in a rise of the forefoot
and a sinkage or "squat" of the stern.
This lifting effect will be small at first, but will become more
noticeable as the power is applied and speed increases.
cL-
In the case of a normally designed hull matters will get con-
T 7
siderably out of hand by the time a speed equivalent to - - 1.6 - 2

is achieved.
To make best use of the power available when conditions well in
excess of - v = 1.3 are in contemplation, the bottom shape under
df,
water must be arranged so that the whole hull and its contents are
lifted out of the water towards the surface, thereby reducing the
wave-making tendencies.
The shape of the hull in this case is tending as far as practical
consideration will allow to assume some of the properties of the
lower half of an aerofoil as exemplified by the wing of an aircraft, the
obvious difference being that in this case instead of air the medium
in which the aerofoil or plane is working is water.
I t will be gathered that after a certain speed a boat or hull ceases

to conform to laws applicable to conditions when its whole under-
water body displaces an amount of water equal to its whole all-up
weight.
I t is when the speed becomes sufficient to drive the boat towards
the surface that the bottom form of the hull acts as a plane in some
measure. I t is when these conditions prevail that a boat is said to
be "planing ".
There are, of course, many degrees of planing, ranging from the
stage where the water ceases to close in behind the stern until some
feet astern to the stage where almost nothing of the boat is in the
water as it streaks over the surface.
Planing can perhaps be defined as that stage at which dynamic
forces due to the motion of the hull through the water begin to make
their influence felt,
2
DEFINITION
I t is sometimes convenient to express

- planing
- - in terms of the ratio
v For instance, where = 2.5-3
- it is generally conceded that a
zrLI dzl T I
v formula clearly relates

true planing form will be necessary. The -
la
to wave-making characteristics and is therefore used as an indication
of the conditions governing the situation more by virtue of the con-
ditions being left behind rather than those actually being experienced
at the moment.
To take the explanation a little further, observation of a con-
ventional speed boat will reveal the fact that wave-making resistance
exerts its influence till a point has been reached where it is no
longer the major factor, so that other qualities have to be incorporated
into a hull intended for this speed which will induce satisfactory
planing qualities possibly at the expense of those features most
desirable from the point of view of wave-making resistance.
A further desirable feature in a planing hull besides the reduction
of wave-making resistance is the reduction of wetted surface of the
bottom in contact with the water. If this wetted surface can be
reduced without detriment to other qualities the total skin friction,
which depends upon the amount of the bottom surface in contact
with the water, will be reduced. Ways in which this can be accom-
plished will be discussed in a later chapter. The above definition
applies only to surface craft as opposed to submarines, hydrofoils
and hovercraft, these latter two types being dealt with in later
chapters. The submarine, of course, is outside the province of this
book, though the speeds of the latest models undoubtedly bring
them under the general heading of high-speed craft.
CHAPTER I1
TYPES OF HIGH-SPEED C R A F T
As EXPLAINED in the previous chapter, the term "high speed" as

used here involves an element of planing so that the forms of hull
which are best for low resistance when in the lower speed ranges by
virtue of their lines which suit them, particularly from wave-making
considerations, are not necessarily the best when planing commences.
The first really noticeable tendency after a very transitory trim by
the head is for the stern to squat as the speed increases, so that it is
necessary to arrange for a relatively broad flat run to the after-body
to help it avoid sinking or squatting.
When high speeds are required it is also necessary in this class of
boat to arrange for a fine entry forward. This leads to very narrow
sections in the fore-body of the boat, which has its disadvantages
from the point of view of seaworthiness.
This amounts to the fact that the more normal round-bilge forms
of hull are not really best suited to high speeds as we have defined
them.
Fig. 3:-Round form
Once sufficient power is available to force a hull into the planing

attitude it is best so to shape the under-water sections that when
planing is reached the boat will run at a good running trim while
TYPES OF HIGH-SPEED CRAFT
reducing wetted surface to a minimum; in other words, with the

virtual displacement reduced to a minimum.
To achieve this a form of bottom has been developed which
approximates to the optimum planing surface, which in turn
involves sections approaching a flat plane. For practical reasons
an absolutely flat plane would not be tolerable, but in theoretically
perfect conditions a plankor aquaplane form could achieve very
favourable results provided it was trimmed to reduce the wetted
surface in cofitact with the water to a minimum, An angle of attack
of about 5+" represents the optimum, other practical factors being
disregarded.
Fig. 4:-Hard-chine form
Once, however, it is accepted that a practical boat has to$meet

the oncoming waves in its passage across the surface of the water,
then it will be found expedient to sharpen the plank into a point at
the forward end and at the same time to so shape the under side of the
"plank " that in the event of the roughened surface of the water causing
"pitching " or an angular displacement of the boat about a horizontal
axis at right angles to the longitudinal axis, the water of which the
wave is formed, passing along the bottom of the "plank7' or boat, will
first be cleaved aside with as little resistance to forward motion as
possible and with minimum disturbance in the vertical axis.
To achieve this the plank is altered in shape from flat forward to
a pronounced "vee", which becomes flatter as the stern of the boat
is approached. By the time the water has reached the aft end of the
boat the shape of the bottom will be practically flat.
T o obtain best planing results it is necessary to retain the char-

acteristics of the plank as far as the sides are concerned. In other
words, considering a transverse section where the planing bottom
ends and the sides begin a hard angle is formed. This is known as the
hard-chine type of hull, owing to this hard angle formed where
bottom meets sides as opposed to the round-bilge form.
The line on the side of the boat formed by the series of points at
which sides and bottom meet is known as the chine.
There are many detailed variations in shape to which the hard-
chine form can be fashioned, but the general characteristics are as
above described. The influence on performance of the variations
possible in the form will be discussed later.
The importance from the point of view of low resistance of
reducing the wetted surface has been mentioned before. While
there are certain measures which can be taken to advantage in order
to reduce the wetted surface of a hard-chine boat, there is no doubt
that the introduction of a break or step in the bottom somewhere in
the neighbourhood of half-way along concentrates the weight of the
boat, once a fairly high speed has been reached, on a small area of
bottom. In very favourable conditions of loading and trim it is
possible and even desirable for a boat to run on one step only, the
stem and stern being clear of the water or unloaded. This is, how-
ever, clearly a condition which can only be maintained in the ab-
sence of external disturbing influences such as waves or unbalanced
thrust moments. For this reason what is usually called the "stepped"
form or hydroplane is advantageous where speed is a primary con-
sideration. Owing to the nature of the principles operating in this
case where the weight of the boat is concentrated on a small portion
of the hull bottom, the stresses in this area are relatively high,
+
causing structural complications, and at the same time this con-
centration involves violent reactions to the passage of the waves.
This is liable to be a further disadvantage to the employment of
this type of form unless speed is almost the one and only con-
sideration.
I t should, perhaps, be explained that the single-step hull has
superior possibilities where reduction in wetted surface and there-
fore all-out speed is concerned. In this case the step will occur about
amidships, but it involves the virtual centre of gravity being located
accurately in this region, otherwise some load will be liable to be
thrown onto stern or forward sections, resulting in instability. For
this reason most practical boats share the load between two steps,
which allows somewhat greater latitude as far as centre of gravity is
concerned.
As this particular point is somewhat controversial in some quarters,
a little more explanation is perhaps not out of place.
6
'TYPES OF HIGH-SPEED CRAFT
I t is assumed that in the step form of hull the weight of the boat
when planing will be concentrated on to the region in the immediate
vicinity of the step, and a case is considered where the boat is
running at high velocity over a series of waves. As the point at which
the weight of the boat is concentrated and supported by the water isin
the region of the forward step, it follows that the step will attempt to
,-, PROFILE OF WAVE SYSTEM I ,
- - -- LOCUS OF A FIXED POINT

IN WAY OF STEP DURING PASSAGE
THROUGH WAVE SYSTEM
) >
Fig. 5:-Stepped hull in wave system
climb the oncoming surface of the wave, taking the rest of the boat
with it.
An attempt will be made to follow the form of the wave in detail,
which will result in a violent movement of the boat as a whole.
I n the case of the more normal types of boat where the hull is
supported more or less throughout the length, the profile of the
wave will not be followed anything like so closely, but a sort of
average profile will be followed made up of the general movement
of the system of waves as a whole, which may not be very great if
they are of an even height and spacing.
PROFILE OF WAVE SYSTEM

,,,,LOCUS OF A FIXED POINT
IN HULL
DURING PASSAGE THROUGH WAVE SYSTEM
Fig. 6:-Hard-chine hull in wave system
There are a fair number of variations to which the stepped form

may be applied, but in most cases these hulls are used for racing or
record-breaking where comfort and sea-keeping are secondary con-
siderations.
The coastal motor boat of the 1914-18 war had a stepped hull
and was very successful within the limits imposed by range and
armament.
It is significant that in the 1939-45 war the stepped hull was not
employed to any great extent.
7
It is, however, always used in the case of a flying boat, where

minimum resistance to forward motion is a necessity in order to
reach sufficient speed with a given power to enable the boat to
become airborne.
I n this particular case conditions can become rather critical where
a heavy load and absence of wind makes take-off a matter of reaching
a certain speed in the minimum time. Here obviously the minimum
resistance to forward motion is a necessity.
There are a number of variations to the stepped form. The best-
known consists in what is termed the single step, which is in reality
a boat running on two steps, one formed by the step built on amid-
ships and the other formed by the aft part of the bottom near the
transom.
Fig. 7:-Stepped hydroplane
There is also the multi-stepped type, which usually consists in a

number of rather shallower steps throughout the length of the boat.
This type has never seemed to possess much advantage over the
normal hard-chine form, while it incorporates most of the undesir-
able features of the single-stepped hull. This must, however, be
qualified by the fact that the steps are usually rather shallow and
therefore react less violently in a seaway.
I t will, of course, be readily appreciated that at fairly slow speeds,
before true planing conditions have started, the aft side of the step
will cause additional drag; in other words, the stepped form is more
inefficient than any other type at low speeds. This is a great dis-
advantage in a boat required for military purposes, where the
maximum range at low speeds is a definitely desirable quality.
For this reason the incorporation of a controllable or movable
step has frequently been experimented with, so that a hard-chine
boat can be converted into a stepped form when high speeds are
in contemplation and vice versa.
This controllable or retractable step has also been considered for
use in the case of a flying-boat hull, but here the object is different
in that the aim is to retract the step once the craft is airborne, thereby
reducing the air drag.
8
A very su~cessfulmeans of reducing resistance at high speed was
developed by the American designer Apel, who produced a form
supported on three points. Here two "sponsons ",one each side of a
hull, are arranged and shaped, so that at speed the boat will run on
the two aft extremities of the sponsons and on the aft portion of the
bottom near the transom which can be shaped so that the portion
of the hull actually in touch with the water is reduced to an almost
negligible quantity,
Fig. 8:-Ape1 3-point hydro
By virtue of the fact that at speed the whole of the centre portion
of the hull betweell the sponsons is clear of the water, a not incon- ,
siderable aerodynamic lift is induced by the passage of the air over
and under the hull, which will have the effect of reducing the virtual
displacement. As this aerodynamic lift increases proportionately
to the square of the speed, it can be appreciated that a speed can
be reached in the case of a really fast boat where there is a distinct
danger of the fore part being lifted clear of the water, with the result
that the whole boat turns over.
This type of hull incorporates a structural problem of no mean
order owing, principally, to the localised support of the whole boat
on the sponsoix and the mechanical difficulty involved in absorbing
the shocks transmitted from the sponsons to the inevitably light
structure of the hull. I t is a fact that in a gruelling race such as the
Gold Cup it is frequent for boats ofthis type to break up before the end
of the race. The principle of three-point support, suitably adapted,
was incorporated into the design of the English world record-breaking
Bluebird. I n this case exceptional measures were taken to maintain
the strength of the hull as a whole, special members of high-duty alloy
being worked into the structural scheme to transmit and absorb the
shocks experienced by the sponsons and to relieve the skin and wood
structure of the hull of any localised stresses as far as possible.
Tricycle three -point

An alternative to this three-point system was made use of in the
case of the Crusader built for the purpose of taking the World's Water
Speed Record. Here the three-point system was adhered to as
being fundamentally sound, but instead of the two points being
forward as in the Ape1 layout, the positions were reversed so that

one step was located forward with the main weights aft spread
mainly between two planing surfaces or sponsons carried on arms
or outriggers from the main hull or fuselage. I n this case the problem
of dangerous aerodynamic lift is practically eliminated, or at least
vastly simplified. I n addition, the tricycle arrangement is far more
directionally stable as is well known from the analogy with aircraft
configuration, where it is invariably used for undercarriages. Much
seems to be gained by incorporating some element of shock ab-
sorbing or hydraulic suspension such as is used in the modern
automobile chassis.
Sea Sled
The Hickman Sea Sled is described here as representing a variant
of the planing form. There has recently arisen a school of thought
on both sides of the Atlantic which considers the Catamaran type
of twin hull to possess advantageous features, The accompanying
description of the Sea Sled will show that this type can probably
claim to incorporate some of the characteristics of both Hovercraft
and Catamaran.
The form consists essentially in an inverted "vee" or tunnel some-
what as shown in Fig. 9.
Fig.9:-Hickman Sea Sled '
Great relative stability is claimed by virtue of the widely spaced

principal planing surface.
Associated with this is the ability to ride over disturbed water
without violent shock in the forward sections, This feature will be
achieved by virtue of the cushioning qualities inherent in concave
forward sections.
The structure probably presents an engineering problem of some
magnitude, but is facilitated by the use of metal girder members
throughout.
I0
Plate I. M.T.B. I 02-Early experimental M . T.B. of hard-chine type
Plate 2. M. T.B. Jiring torpedoes

TYPES OF' HIGH-SPEED CRAFT
I t is claimed that this hull is more efficient than is a comparable

hard-chine type. This, if proven, is presumably on the strength of
some lift and spray reduction involved in the "tunnel " formed in the
inverted "vee".
Associated with the stable riding qualities of this form can be
anticipated reduced liability to yaw in a following or quartering sea.
I n support of these claims the boat shown in Plate (7) running in
a strong wind and sea would seem to be running remarkably well
i n adverse conditions.
An interesting feature of these craft is the use of what are usually
termed "surface " propellers,
Here the propellers are located immediately abaft the transom,
with the shaft axis just about level with the lower edge.
This results in elimination of appendage drag normally resulting
from an immersed inclined shaft as well as that from the propeller
bracket.
For high-speed craft the effect of these appendages on resistance
and propulsion generally is very important, especially in the higher
speed ranges where cavitation may be present.
Although only the lower half of the propeller disc can be expected
to do usefill work, the blade area ratio can be increased.
I t could be that the improved overall efficiency claimed for these
craft is linked up with the propulsive efficiency more than that of the
hull.
Further investigation would seem interesting..
Catamaran
Here the claim seems to rest on the fact that in the case of the total
load being divided between two hulls of approximately the same
length it can be anticipated that the two Catamaran hulls may
operate satisfactorily at a total value for beam considerably less
than would have the single hull. It is possible to reduce beam to
this extent mainly because the transverse stability is not a problem
for a Catamaran configuration.
While obviously the aspect ratio will be superior for the single-hull
planing boat, for the two-hull boat a much more favourable trim
angle can be achieved. On balance this is more beneficial than the
reduction in aspect ratio. However, though some small outboard
Catamarans have achieved good results, it is not by any means
certain that the theoretical benefits apparently possible are in fact
capable of realisation in craft of any size. There is also a Trimaran
developed which claims advantageous features. Here three-hull
units are incorporated.
To some extent this Catamaran development would seem to be
not too distantly related to the Sea Sled. In both cases the issue
canmt be said to be entirely clearcut. The: influence of spray be-

tween the hulls probably causes additional resistance.
Hydrofoils
All the problems are not yet solved and it is probably fair to say
the really important ones still remain to be clarified so far as the
really serious craft is concerned, whether from the military or corn- ,
mercial point of view. In view of the potential importance of this
subject Chapter I11 is devoted to discussion of its development by
an expert in this field.
Hovercraft
Much the same applies to the Hovercraft or Air Cushion Vehicle
(A.C.V.) which has been powerfully developed with the backing
of Government money in the last few years. Here again it is felt
that more justice can be done to this subject (Chapter LV) by an
acknowledged expert who has participated in the research and
development of this type of craft, especially from the hydrodynamic
and aerodynamic angles.
Monohedron
This is a variant of tEie hard-chine planing form developed accord-
ing to a theory expounded by Dr. Lindsay Lord in his book Ths
Naval Architecture o f Planing fhlls (Cornell Maritime Press) The
reasoning in this book is interesting. Certainly some of his theories
are soundly based, in particular the idea that high aspect ratio
achieved by a large beam to length ratio and constant deadrise
MODS. TO SECTIONS
i SHOWN DOTTED
Fig,10;-' ' Monohedron" typ8 hull
TYPES OF HIGH-SPESD CRAFT
make for good planing conditions. However, though without first-

hand experience at full scale, it is suspected that some compromise
has to be made to achieve a good performance in the practical
seaway (see Fig. 10).
The so-called warped bottom is stated by Lindsay Lord to be
the cause of inefficient planing due to suction effects resulting in
the equivalent of additional load. Undoubtedly this is true if carried
to excess, but without some warp it is difficult to obtain sufficient
<C
vee" in the forward sections to avoid excessive slamming. The
exception to this is provided in the Ray Hunt form, where the
deadrise is so great at the transom that it can be maintained right
through to forward and is sufficient to achieve the necessary soft
riding qualities. There is some penalty in resistance here which,
though possibly not too important in the smaller craft, would com-
promise the full speed performance fairly severely in a large craft
with limited available power.
One particular type of F.P.B., whose designer has obviously
made use of the Monohedron principles if not slavishly following the
theory, has resulted in a form liable to considerable slamming in
a head sea.
Ray Hunt
This is a development of the hard-chine planing form which has
achieved extraordinarily successful results in high-speed running
in a seaway. The hull is extremely beamy and has considerable
Fig. rr;-"Ray Hunt" Q j e hull

I3
and constant deadrise running throughout from right aft. So

great is the beam that the chines are above the calm water running
(and static) water line. Incorporated on the bottom below chine
level are a series of "strakes" which have the effect of throwing
spray out well clear instead of riding up the hull. They undoubtedly
have some effect in reducing the wetted surface at high speed as
it is possible to envisage an effective reduction in planing beam in
fairly calm conditions. This would be caused by one of the inner
line of spray strakes becoming a "new" chine due to the effect of
deadrise throughout. This may be applicable also in broken water
conditions but the issue here is not so clear cut,
As a result of this considerable deadrise it seems likely that at
v
relatively high speeds --25 this bonus from the "new" and re-
d~
duced planing surface may be achieved in suitable conditions. The
sea-keeping qualities are excellent, though in a head sea there is
a tendency for rather large pitching amplitudes (see Fig. I I ) .
Levi Craft
~ e n a t oLevi, who designs for Cantiere Navaltecnica at Anzio in
Italy, has been very successful in recent years especially in offshore
racing. His hull form is in the deep-"veed" category making use
of spray strakes. The beam is usually less than in the case of Ray
I Hunt. The Ultima Dea, which would have finished third in the 1962
Daily Exfiress Race, is a good example of Leviys work and un-
doubtedly has potentialities not yet fully developed mainly owing to
mechanical considerations.
Dowty Craft
Although the hull of the Dowty turbocraft follows sound and fairly
conventional lines, being designed by Fred Cooper, .it is the pro-
pulsion arrangements which call for special mention, Here, instead
.
of making use of the normal propeller, shafting and rudder arrange-
ments, the boat is propelled by what is called jet propulsion, The
output of the prime mover, in this case a petrol engine (Ford), is
used to turn what is, in effect, a centrifugal pump within a duct.
The flow is accelerated from forward where a scoop is located at a
suitable point in the bottom to the jet unit right aft.
The overall principle is the same as that for the normal marine
propeller in that thrust is obtained by a change or destruction of
momentum. The great advantage here is that the boat can be opera-
ted in shallow water without difficulty-in fact it can be run ashore.
The potential danger of the propeller to water skiers is also avoided.
I4
Thc overall propulsive efficiency is probably somewhat less than for

the well designed propeller system, certainly at reasonably high
speed, but there is unlikely to be sufficient margin one way or the
other to matter. Steering and reversing is effected by manipulating
the jet unit as a whole. The principle for reversing consists in
reversing the direction of flow by means of a hinged cowling which
is very comparable to the thrust reversing arrangements used in
large jet aircraft.
Though there is little really new in principle about any of the

types described above, yet the relative qualities of the various types,
more particularly as related to planing versus round-form hulls,
are still the subject of much controversy.
There can be little doubt that the round form represents the
optimum in sea-keeping ability when extreme conditions are to be
met, such as in the case of a lifeboat, where high speed is not a
prime consideration. However, this desirable hull form if driven
beyond a certain speed becomes quite hopeless, largely due to the
presence of considerable convexity in the contours of the hull along
which the water will flow from forward to aft.
If, in effect, a mass of water is caused to flow in a circular path
along any part of the hull, a centripetal force normal to the flow
will be generated. This force is dependent upon the square of the
velocity and the radius of the convex buttock line, so that it rapidly
reaches unmanageable proportions.
A glance at the surfaces of a conventional round-form hull will show
many areas where these forces or suctions can be generated. One of
the most important is probably the buttock lines in the afterbody.
These are certain to have an element of convexity, as also have the
transverse sections. I t is essential, therefore, if speed is to be a
prime consideration that this flow in a circular path be eliminated
or controlled.
For this reason, when high speed is required the use of hard-
chines and similar devices for preventing circular flow in a convex
path are incorporated. From consideration of first principles a
deflection downwards or even horizontally of the flow which would
otherwise climb up the hull will result in a lift force due to the effect
of change pf momentum having a resultant vector in the direction
required. Much the same type of effect is produced by variable
transom flaps or indeed the so-called spray strakes of the Ray
Hunt type.
Once it is accepted that we just cannot make our lifeboat hull .
T7
run faster than would be indicated by 2-= 1.0-1.6, then we are
dE
HIGH-SPE~D SMALL CRAFT
forced to adopt some compromise. This tends to be divided rather
loosely into planing or hard-chine and round-form or displacement
hulls.
These rather clear-cut classifications are not really very appro-
priate in these days because anyone setting out to design a fast
boat will have to incorporate as much of the qualities of both types
as possible. For instance, there are hardly any round forms of the
fast type which do not have a chine aft and quite likely a "knuckle"
worked in the forebody a short distance above the static water line.
Equally, no hard-chine hull will be able to avoid some element of
6<
vee" or transverse convexity and will try to establish a round-
form type of forward section,
The ideal is, of course, to produce a form which will run efficiently
on a reduced wetted surface at high speed, having maximum possible
effective aspect ratio and optimum planing angle and which can
deal successfully with the waves as they arrive from any quarter,
To read the work of some authors it might be imagined that,
because they experienced a bit of a rough ride in head seas in a
planing boat, the answer must be the use of a round form. The
solution is not nearly so easy or clear cut and it is certainly not true
that round forms avoid all slamming in head seas. Much depends
Fig. 12:-Vertical accelerations at 0.25 L aft of the

FPP for a hard chine and a round-bottom hull in
head seas; AIL =2; 2 h/A= 1/30.
16
on their proportions, and a very beamy hill1 with rather flat "floors "
can slam more than a good hard-chine form at the same speed. About
all one can say with complete confidence is that no form other than
a variant of the planing hull could possibly achieve 50 knots with
a 40-ft. boat, while it is extremely unlikely that a planing form
would be selected for a lifeboat hull. The choice between these
extremes involves a great deal of study and compromise as later
chapters in this book will show.
A certain number of valuable model tests have been carried out
under controlled conditions which are helpful in arriving at a
judgment. A typical result is shown in Fig. I 2 which is taken from
Fundamentals of the Behaviour of Ships in Waues (see References). Re-
ports from sea are seldom conclusive unless the comparison is
carried out at the same time, in the same seaway and at the same
speed. This is a condition which is almost impossible to achieve
and even then the dimensions would have to be comparable.
In recent years the cult of offshore power-boat racing has aroused
international interest. I t will be found no round forms can compete
with the speeds offered by the hard-chine planing variants, though
they put up a good and worthwhile performance.
I n the 1962 Daily Express race from Cowes to Torquay, for in-
stance, the winning Tramontana was a fairly conventional deep-
"veed" boat with warped bottom (see Fig. 13). The design was
prepared with the main objective of running as fast to windward in
waves as possible. The prevalence of westerly winds at this time of
:HINE RUBBER
DEFLECTOR
Fig. 13:-" Tramontana" type hull

I7
year made the decision a reasonable one, though this is not to say the
form would not have performed acceptably well in ccfollowing"or
"quartering" seas if it had been necessary. O n the whole the lesson
from this very valuable experience was that there is still no entirely
clear-cut advantage inherent in any particular form. O n the pre-
mise that much will depend upon performance to windward, ob-
servation would point to the fact that above all else length of hull
was a predominant factor. The deep-"veed" types which had
proved unbeatable up to date seemed to be handicapped by a
liability to "balloon" into the air from a wave top as compared
to the relatively reduced pitching experienced in Tramontana,
having a warped bottom. This could be little more than a matter
of length and relative weight per unit of planing area or density,
but on the whole it would seem that the best way to get up wind
and sea is by keeping the "veed" forward sections well into the
waves. This has been established on more than one occasion by
the use of variable incidence transom flaps.
Although it was true the Tramontana had considerable power at
her disposal, the overall power-to-weight ratio was somewhat less
than that of many of her rivals and she would, in any event, only
be using a small fraction of her available power in adverse sea
conditions. Some references which may help to bring the matter
into perspective are included below.
[P.D.C.]
REFERENCES
DU CANE, P. Trans. I.N.A., 1956. The Planing Performance, Pressures and

Stresses in a High-speed Launch.
N.P.L. Report No. S.H. MVg Feb. 28, 1955.
DU CANE, P. Model Evaluation of Four High-speed Hull Forms in Following and
Head Sea Conditions. Symposium on the Behaviour of Ships in a Seaway,
Wageningen, Sept. I 957.
MARWOOD AND SILVERLEAF. Contribution to discussion Design Data for
High-speed Displacement type hulls and a comparison with hydrofoil craft.
Third Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics, Wageningen, Sept. 1960.
VOSSERS, G . Fundamentals of Behaviour of Ships in Waves. International
Shipbuilding Progress, Vol. 9, April I 962.
CHAPTER I11
HYDROFOILS
IT IS THOUGHT to be feasible to build a 400-ton hydrofoil boat de-

signed to fly in a 12-foot sea at speeds in the order of 50 knots: this
being by far the highest speed ever attained by any marine craft
in a seaway of such severity. Model tests of such a boat running
at 50 knots in a state 5 head sea have been conducted in the towing
tank of the Davidson Laboratory, Stevens Institute of Technology.
The hydrofoil system was a non-cavitating, submerged foil with a
simple auto-pilot sensitive to amplitude only. The seaway per-
formance of the model was considered outstanding, with the re-
corded centre of gravity acceleration being only f .3og-a truly
remarkable result considering the size of the waves and the speed
of operation.
Of course, it is recognised that the successful demonstration of
sea-keeping behaviour in a model, under controlled laboratory
conditions, does not mean that a practicable full size design has
been produced. Such fundamental questions arise as:
What are the power requirements of such a craft?
Are power plants available to supply the required power?
Are transmission systems available to transmit the power to
a propulsion device?
What propulsion devices are available?
What are the component weight breakdowns in a hydro-
foil craft?
What payload-range values can be expected?
Are control systems adequate and necessary?
What are the possible hydrodynamic limitations to be
expected?
What are the sea-state limitations on a truly operable
hydrofoil boat?
Are there size and speed limitations on the craft?
I t might be as well to examine the power requirements first. To
appreciate these fully we will compare the hydrofoil craft with the
more familiar displacement and planing types. I t is emphasised
that the numbers used in these comparisons are based on the current
state of technical development in the field of hydrodynamics, The
results of present and future research studies are expected to lead
to improved performance of hydrofoil craft and quite likely of
planing craft also.
Resistance of Varlous Marine Vehicles

Fig. 14 is a plot of the total resistance to motion per pound of dis-
placement for various marine vehicles travelling over a range of
speeds. Examining the curves for the displacement hulls1 it is seen
that the resistance to motion firstly increases slowly in relation to
speed and later increases very rapidly with small increases in speed.
1000 FOOT
Total Resistance DISPLACEMENT
BOAT
.V = Speed.- Knots
Fig. 14:- Thrust per pound of displacement uersus speed
The absolute speed at which the resistance starts to increase rapidly

is a function of the craft's length. The critical speed is reached
when the speed-length ratio is approximately 1.0. Hence for a
1,000-ft, ship the critical speed is nearly 32 knots, while for a
zoo-ft. ship the critical speed is nearly 14 knots. The large increase
in resistance above a speed-length ratio of I is due to the generation
of waves developed by the displacement hull and with the attendant
familiar "squatting by the stern" of the ship. The important
observations to be made here are that (a) when operating within
the critical speed range the resistance of a displacement ship is
less than I per cent of the weight of the ship and (b) for a displace-
ment ship to go faster economically it must be made longer. Hence
given a ship the size of the S.S. United States, for instance, we should
not expect it to go much faster than approximately 32 knots, other-
wise it will require a prodigious expenditure of power. When speed
can be reduced further, such as in the case of supertankers, the
resistance-weight ratio is less than one-half per cent.
I n an attempt to reduce the large wave-making resistance of
ships when running at speed-length ratios larger than 1.0, the
planing craft was developed. The planing craft sacrifices some of
the free lift of buoyancy gained by displacement craft and in its
place develops a dynamic lift on the bottom which supports most
See Reference I, p. 39.
HYDROFOILS
of the weight of the hull. Since the buoyant force has been replaced
by dynamic lifting force, the draught of the planing craft is con-
siderably reduced and consequently the undesirable wave-making
resistance is also reduced. The dynamic lift on a planing surface is
a n expensive item and is paid for by the development of another
type of large resistance called "induced" drag. The variation in
total resistance with speed1 for a typical planing hull of approxi-
mately 100-ft. length is also given in Fig. 14. I t is seen that the
resistance first increases rapidly as the speed is increased to some
2 0 knots and then continues to increase at a slower rate for speeds
higher than 2 0 knots. The observations to be made from this curve
are : (a) whereas the resistance for a properly designed displacement
hull is less than I per cent of the weight, the resistance for a planing
craft is nearly 15 per cent; (b) whereas it would be impossible to
operate a 150-ft. displacement ship at speeds in excess of some 10
to 15 knots, it is entirely feasible to run a planing hull at speeds
in excess of speed-length ratios larger than 1.0. In fact the planing
hull is advantageous only at high speeds and is inferior to the dis-
placement hull at low speeds. To summarise, the planing hull form
allows a small craft to be practically operable at speeds very much
higher than would be possible with a small displacement vessel-
though the planing boat will require some 15 times more thrust
than the displacement ship.
Turning now to hydrofoil craft, it is well known that this system
develops sufficient lift to raise the supported hull clear of the water
surface, thereby completely eliminating its wave-making drag and
its induced planing-drag. Since a submerged hydrofoil is merely
an aerofoil which is recognised to have superior lift-drag ratios to
a planing form, we should expect some reduction in resistance by
the use of hydrofoils. That such is actually the case is shown in
Fig. 14 for a typical hydrofoil craft. I t is seen that at low speeds,
when the hydrofoil craft is still in the displacement range, its re-
sistance is inferior to both the displacement hull and planing hull.
However, after take-off, i.e. when flying on the foils above 20-25
knots, the hydrofoil craft is superior to either form. In fact, at speeds
of some 60 knots its resistance is nearly 12 per cent of the weight
of the craft. Above 60 knots, the resistance of the hydrofoil craft
again increases with speed.
Resistance Breakdown for Hydrofoil Craft2
Let us examine more fully now the resistance curve for a hydrofoil
craft (Fig. I 5). The components of the resistance are :
See Reference 2, p. 39.
The resistance breakdown given herein is based on accumulated test data collected
in model tests a t the Davidson Laboratory, Stevens Institute of Technology, and in high-
speed tests at the N.A.S.A. tanks at Langley Field, Virginia.
( I ) The hull.
(2) The hydrofoils.
(3) The appendages (support struts, shafting, transmission pods,
etc.).
When operating in the displacement range (below 2 0 knots) the
total resistance increases rapidly with speed, being composed of
SUPERCAVITATIMG
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Speed -Knots
Fig. 15:-Drag characteristics of hydrofoil craft
the wave drag and form drag of the hull, plus the form drag of the
appendages, plus the form drag and induced drag of the hydrofoils.
When the speed is large enough for the craft to fly on the hydrofoils,
the hull is lifted clear of the water and there is a noticeable reduc-
tion in resistance. Up to a speed of some 60 knots the resistance is
due almost entirely to the hydrofoils and the appendages contribute
only 15-20 per cent of the drag. In this speed range the hydrofoil
is working in its most efficient state-that is, it is fully wetted on
both upper and lower surface by a steady uniform flow and is
referred to as a subcavitating hydrofoil. The foil drag is essentially
constant and is nearly 10 per cent of the weight of the craft, while
the appendage drag increases as the square of the speed. When
operating above approximately 45-60 knots the foil lift deteriorates
and its drag increases considerably due to the onset of cavitation on
the upper surface of the hydrofoil.
If we continued "flying" at higher speeds with subcavitated foils
the resistance would rise very rapidly as shown and prevent opera-
tion of the craft. Further, considerable erosion damage will be
developed on the foil with the continuous formation and collapse
of cavitation bubbles against the foil structure. Recent basic studies
on cavitating hydrofoils have led to the development of so-called
supercavitated hydrofoi1s.l These foils are so designed that at high
22
HYDROFOILS
speed the water is completely separated from the upper surface,

resulting in a large stable cavity which collapses far behind the foil
and causes no erosion. The lower surface is designed so as to de-
velop the required lift force at reasonable expenditures of drag.
The solid curve at the high speed end of Fig. 15 is the total drag of
the craft when using supercavitating foils as shown in the sketch. I t
is important to note that although the supercavitated foil is most
beneficial in reducing the drag of the lifting element, the appendage
drag is continually increasing as the square of the speed, so that at
speeds in excess of 80 knots nearly half of the drag is due to the
appendages. Further, the drag of supercavitated foil craft is nearly
20 per cent of the craft weight-while in the subcavitated area of
operation it was only 1 2 per cent. There is a close analogy here
with the optimum lift/drag of a good planing surface which will
also approach this figure.
Required Horsepower
Translating the previous resistance curves into required horse-
power to propel the various craft we have the following comparison
in Fig. 16. I n developing this plot we have assumed an overall
propulsive efficiency of 70 per cent, and a rough water resistance
increment of 20 per cent. For equal size craft there is plotted the
required horsepower for a displacement craft operating at 14knots,
a subcavitated hydrofoil boat at 50 knots and a supercavitating
hydrofoil boat at 80 knots. It is obvious that within the same size
of boat the subcavitating craft must have nearly 7 times the power
of the displacement ship while the supercavitating boat must have
nearly 18 times the power of the displacement boat.
To summarise then, when we speak of high performance hydro-
foil boats we are talking about large power concentrations in
boats of relatively small overall dimensions. This obviously calls
for major changes in the concept of marine power plants, which
point is dramatically demonstrated by comparing the nearly
REWRLD
HORSEPOWER
(THOUSANDS)
YJPERCAVITATED
Fig. 16:-Required
WEIGHT (TONS)
-
horsepower for various marine craft
23
~oo,oooh.p. required to propel a relatively small hydrofoil boat

(500 tons) at 80 knots with the 200,000 h.p. required to drive the
S.S. United States, a 70,ooo-ton ship, at some 32 knots. Hence we
must pack one-half the horsepower of the S.S. United States into
a craft nearly one-fifth of its length and which can still carry a useful
payload.
The Propulsion System

The propulsion system includes the power plant, the transmission
system, and the propulsive device.
Power Plant
The need is for propulsion prime movers possessing high power-
weight ratios and low specific fuel consumption. These require-
ments are not capable of being met by most marine engines; on
the other hand they are not unlike the requirements of aircraft
engines. Hence it seems natural to consider the adaptation of these,
particularly gas turbines, to marine use.
We will consider three types of existing power plants:
(I) High-speed diesel engines.
(2) Diesel compound engines (use of an exhaust turbine com-
pounded to the engine).
(3) Marine conversions of gas turbines (free turbines).
Petrol engines are not considered because of the desirability of
operating on low-grade fuels and because of the highly volatile
character of the fuel.
Fig. 17 compares the pertinent characteristics of the three types
of power plants in terms of actual weight, horsepower and specific
100,000 -
DRY WEIGHT, (LBS)

-
HORSEPOWER
Fig. 17:-Horsepower-weight summary

24
HYDROFOILS
fuel consumption va1ues.l The circles plotted on this figure relate

to existing engines: as can be seen there is a good deal of real data
on expected performance of available power plants. Let us now
discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of the diesel and
gas turbine engines.
DIESEL ENGINE
Advantages: Low specific fuel consumption.
(I)
The specific fuel consumption is constant
(2)
over a wide range of throttle settings.
(3) I t uses a cheap, non-hazardous fuel.
Disadvantages : ( I ) I t is heavy and complex.
(2) Single units are limited to about 5,000
s.h.p.
GAS TURBINE
Advantages: Has very low weight (nearly one-tenth
(I)
that of a diesel).
(2) Uses a cheap, non-hazardous fuel.
(3) Requires little maintenance between
overhauls.
(4) Single units are available in powers
greater than 20,000 s.h.p.
Disadvantages: ( I ) Has a high specific fuel consumption.
(2) Fuel consumption is high at off-design
operating conditions.
The marine version of the gas turbine is a relatively new develop-
ment. Fig. 18 shows a cross-section through a free turbine con-
version of a simple turbojet. It will be noticed that the turbojet
exhaust nozzle has been removed and replaced by a gas-coupled
power turbine aft of the efficient gas generator. This conversion
produces extremely attractive thermal efficiencies which are reflected
COMPRESSOR -/ 1
BURNER
1 LFREE TURB.
ORlG JET EXHAUST
NOZZLE REMOVED
Fig. 18:-Free turbine conversion of simple turbojet

1 See References 4 and 5, pp. 39-40.
25
in the specific fuel consumption values sf -50 lb./h.p.-hr. Such an

engine conversion is being tested by General Electric for installation
in the Maritime Administration go-ton test vehicle. This unit is
expected to deliver 20,000 h.p. and weigh nearly 6,000 lb.
The choice between diesel and gas turbine operation is governed
by the relative importance of machinery and fuel weights, and range
___S
RANGE OF ENDURANCE
Fig. 19:-Range-weight comparison
. requirements. Because of their inherently low specific fuel con-

sumption diesel engines, although relatively heavy, will become
increasingly attractive as the required range becomes high enough
to make the S.F.C. difference compensate for the initial weight
difference (Fig. ~ g ) . lThere obviously exists a range at which the .
machinery plus fuel weight are equal for both systems, and range
requirements beyond this point are best met by the diesel system.
The point is that the choice of engines is very much dependent
upon the use planned for the craft. In A.S.W. operation, for in-
stance, the hydrofoil craft requires long endurance at displacement
speeds combined with brief periods of foil-borne operation at high
speeds. For such a system it is advisable to have both a diesel and
gas turbine; a small, low-horsepower diesel will provide the relatively
small power requirements in the economical cruise condition, while
a gas turbine will provide the large horsepower required in the
short term flying condition. For short range work, when the dis-
placement performance is a minor consideration and the high-speed
requirement is paramount, the gas turbine alone should be used.
Whatever the purpose, the state of development is such that proper
power plants are immediately available for the design.
Transmission +stem
The large horsepowers installed in hydrofoil craft must ultimately
be delivered to a propulsion unit through a suitable transmission
26
HYDROFOILS
system. Because of the confined space and the weight limitations

in hydrofoil craft design, the transmission systems must necessarily
be compact and lightweight. If, for the moment, we assume the
propulsion device is a marine propeller, the transmission system
must transfer the developed power from the power plant located in
the hull down to the submerged propeller. This transit of power is
PROPELLER / 'NACELLE
Fig. PO:- Transmission system for marine propulsion
best accomplished through a transmission system housed within the

hydrofoil support strut-Fig. 20.
Detailed studies have been carried out1 on the practicality of
three of the more promising transmission systems. These are:
(I) Mechanical transmission.
(2) Hydraulic transmission.
(3) Electrical transmission.
The hydraulic systems are not at present advantageous for two
reasons: their weight is high and the required physical space is too
large to be enclosed within struts of reasonable size. Also, they are
a t present better adaptable only to small power installations of the
order of 2,000-3,000 s.h.p.
The electrical system is discounted for the following reasons : its
efficiency is low (in the order of 70 per cent); the diameter of the
electric motors increases with horsepower much faster than the re-
quired propeller size. The nacelle diameter thus exceeds the pro-
peller diameter. In addition weights and costs are high.
For the time being only the mechanical transmission system ap-
pears to be feasible. Mechanical transmissions require right angle
bevel gears at the top and bottom of the hydrofoil support strut
and are believed to provide the best transmission characteristics.
Bevel gears and transmission shafts can be designed for powers up
to 25,000 h.p. and speeds up td 6,000 r.p.m., producing transmission
efficiencies up to 95 per cent. Such a mechanical system is being
See References 5 and 6, p. 40.
27
fitted into the go-ton Marad Hydrofoil boat. I t should be realised

the gear cutting techniques involved present quite a serious problem
involving special machine tools and are expensive.
Propulsion Devices
Thrust producers which can reasonably be considered to propel the
hydrofoil craft can be classified in the following groups:
(I) Jet nozzles.
(2) Air propellers.
(3) Water propellers
(a) Subcavitating
(b) Supercavitating.
For the speed regime of interest in hydrofoil craft operation, 0-100
knots, the relative advantages and disadvantages of the various
propulsion devices are shown in the accompanying table from
which it can be seen that at the present time the supercavitating
propeller appears most favourable.
FEATURES OF VARIOUS PROPULSION DEVICES

(Speed range u@ to roo knots)
Water
Device Air
Characteristic Jet ~ V o ~ z l e Propeller Proteller
(Supercavitated)
Efficiency Very low High Highest

Weight Low Highest High
Space
Requirements Low Highest High
Transmission
Weight None Low Highest
Passenger
Noise Level Highest High Low
Not feasible
Summary Not Most
for Hydro-
Attractive Suitable
foil craft
Orthodox propellers can and are designed for reasonable efficien-

cies up to about 35 knots: up to this speed the propeller is a sub-
cavitating device wherein the upper and lower surface of the blades
are fully wetted by a uniform steady flow. Propeller efficienciesup
to 80 per cent can be expected in this speed range. When the speed
is increased above 35 knots the orthodox propeller will cavitate with
28
HYDROFOILS
an attendant loss in thrust and decrease of e@ciency. Using the principle

of the supercavitated hydrofoil, previously discussed, supercavitated
propellers have been developed for operation at speeds in excess of
35 knots with efficiencies of up to 70 per cent. The efficiencies thus
attainable have decreased interest in the use of air propellers in the
speed range up to 80 knots. Although supercavitating propellers
are a relatively recent innovation their development1 has proceeded
at such a rapid rate that this type of propeller will probably be in-
stalled in the PC(H) and the Marad Hydrofoil boats.
Seakeeping Considerations and Modes of Operation

The most important advantage and perhaps the greatest justification
for a hydrofoil craft is its ability to maintain design speeds in severe
STABLE PLATFORM
MODERATE WAVE SlZE
100% RESPONSE
CONTOURING
VERY LARGE WAVE SlZE
NSE
INTERMEDIATE
INTERMEDIATE WAVE SlZE
Fig. 21:-Hydrofoil response to waves
sea conditions without developing large increases in resistance and

without the development of large motions or impact loads. To
support this opinion let us examine the possible types of controlled
responses that can be developed by a hydrofoil1 craft as it moves
through a wave system. Fig. 21 shows three possible types of hydro-
foil responses as the craft traverses a head sea pattern.
The most desirable type of operation in rough water is that shown
in the upper sketch in Fig. 2 I. This type of performance, which is
referred to as stable platform operation, is the most comfortable
to the crew and passengers in that the accelerations of the centre
ofrgravity are nearly zero. This stable platform can be achieved for
moderate wave sizes-i.e. when the wave height does not exceed
the clearance between the hull bottom and the hydrofoils. When
wave heights are very much in excess of the hull clearance, we must
obviously contour these waves as shown in the centre sketch of Fig.
2 1 ; otherwise the hull will crash into each approaching wave. If
29
the boat is travelling at high speed, the contouring ride will resemble
that of a roller-coaster and subject the crew and passengers to pro-
longed uncomfortable motions. The third possible mode of operation
is intermediate between the first two types and will develop centre
of gravity accelerations between platforming and contouring opera-
tion. However, depending upon the wave size, the hull will contact.
occasional wave crests. I t is obvious now that a discussion of hydro-
foil craft operation in waves must concern:
(I) Ability to control craft altitude and trim so as to achieve
either stable platform; contouring; or the intermediate
response.
(2) Relation between wave size and size of craft.
(3) Speed*
(4) Limits of discomfort for passengers.
Methods of Control
I t is clear that a hydrofoil boat moving through the waves is sub-
jected to a constantly varying disturbance tending to upset the alti-
tude and trim of the craft. This is not unlike the problem of an
aircraft flying through gusts, There are two principal methods of
controlling hydrofoil craft to meet these disturbances:
(I) Area stabilised or surface-piercing hydrofoils.
(2) Submerged foils equipped with auto-pilot system.
Surface-piercing Foils
I n this system the hydrofoils are fixed in attitude with respect to the
hull and respond to an increase in speed or an increase in load by
reducing the immersion of the lifting surface until the hydrodynamic
lift equals the total weight of the craft. In effect these foils perform
the dual function of sensing the disturbance and correcting it, The
system is inherently stable and, at least in head-sea conditions,
requires no additional control elements. In a following sea it is
likely that the craft will require some simple trim control lest it
loses lift and falls onto the waves.
The important features of the surface-piercing system are its
economy and the fact that, being self-stabilising, it tends to "fail
safe". O n the other hand the system will result in a harder and
less comfortable ride when running in a seaway.
Submerged Foils
A submerged foil system is inherently unstable. Since the area of
the submerged foil system is constant and is continuously submerged,
the lift control must be provided by variations of angle of the foil
HYDROFOILS
or by control surface deflectors such as flaps. The system has no built-

in height sensitivity so that the motion of the craft must be sensed and
appropriate controls incorporated to vary the lift in accordance
with load and immersion. These factors are usually controlled by an
auto-pilot (Fig. 22), which includes a sensing system, usually either
sonic or resistant, a computer and a mechanical actuator.
MECHANICAL
DEVICE
WAVE SENSING
Fig. 22:- Typical auto-pilot system
The principle of auto-pilot control is, of course, familiar to air-

craft designers, and most of the basic development work is available.
Existing commercial designs can be applied to hydrohils, but there
are important differences between the requirements for a boat and
an aircraft which must be considered. The most significant is the
need to control altitude extremely closely in a boat. The require-
ments are:
( I ) That the hull is maintained clear of the water and yet the
foils are not allowed to broach. (In large hydrofoil boats
the foils normally operate some I 0-1 2 ft. below the surface.)
(2) That excessive vertical accelerations do not occur in any
occupied area of the boat.
Other important considerations are that the system shall have
adequate range in terms of speed and varying sea conditions, and
that the craft shall be assured of adequate stability and manoeuvra-
bility about all axes. Prototypes which surmount these difficulties
successfully have been installed in three craft-The Flying Duck, Sea
Legs and High Tail.
The cost of the present systems forms a significant part of the
total outlay of a hydrofoil boat and there is scope for the develop-
ment of a minimum and relatively inexpensive system. The very
simple displacement-type servo unit used in the Davidson Labora-
tory tests was able to keep the vertical accelerations of a 50-knot
boat travelling in a sea-state at 5 to i-.30g, but this performance

has yet to be confirmed in a prototype boat.
There are two methods of overcoming wave motion in hydrofoil

craft, and they are to a certain extent capable of being interrelated.
Stable Platform Operation
This involves so designing the craft that the strut length is greater
than the significant wave height in the areas in which it is to oper-
ate. The hull will thus be clear of the majority of waves and able to
Ay with the minimum vertical, or centre of gravity, acceleration
(Fig. 23).
WATERS
PROBABILITY OF AVERAGE OCEAN

PLATFORMING 60
%
40
WEIGHT OF CRAFT - TONS

23:-Operational limits in North Atlantic (stable platform operation)
The signiJiGant wave height is defined as the average height of the

one-third highest wave developed. In the open areas of the North
Atlantic (Fig. 24), this significant wave height is 16 ft. This must,
therefore, be the minimum length of strut if the craft is to achieve
go per cent operational ability. Such a strut length would also
ensure IOO per cent operation in coastal waters, where wave heights
are only one-half to one-third of those in the open ocean.
IOC
PROBABILITY OF NOT AVERAGE OCEAN

EXCEEDING GIVEN HEIGHT 6 0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
WAVE HEIGHT (FT)
Fig. 24:- Wave height occurrence-North Atlantic

32
HYDROFOILS
The length of strut which is feasible for a given size of hull has
been the subject of analysis (Fig. 25) and the relationship is governed
by the Froude scaling law which states that the linear length increases
with the cube root of the weight of the craft. Thus, a go-ton boat
could operate in wave heights up to 7 ft.; or a boat of 300 tons in
I 3-ft. waves.
WEIGHT OF CRAFT- TONS
Fig. 25:-Hydrofoil strut length versus weight of craft

,
Wave Contouring Operation
I n this method the wave height exceeds the strut length, and the
craft contours the waves, with pronounced centre of gravity accelera-
tion as a result. Fig. 26 shows the magnitude of these accelerations
OF CENTER OF GRAVITY
'G" UNITS
WAVE LENGTH
WAVE HEIGHT
.
20
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
WAVE HEIGHT- FEET
Fig. 26:-Heave accelerations in head seas at 50 knots--re contouring
on a craft travelling at 50 knots if it were to contour the waves

perfectly. The wave steepness is the governing parameter in deter-
mining the accelerations, not the wave height. I n a state 5 head
sea, and with a boat travelling at 45-60 knots, the frequency of
encounter is nearly half a cycle per second; far too great for passenger
endurance, for whom sustained accelerations should not exceed
A -158 (Fig. 27). Pure wave contouring is only practicable if the
wave height is less than approximately one-third of the distance
from the keel to the lower tip of a surface-piercing foil, As an

example, an 80-ton, 50-knot boat should ride comfortably in 34-ft.
waves. Such craft could be operated in calm sea areas or on rivers.
I n Russia very large, high-speed hydrofoils with very small clearances
have been operated, though with a submerged foil system.
.........
~(RY~UNCOMFORTABLE
.30 .........
.........
- .........
.........
.........
.........
.........
.........
ACCELERATION
.........
.........
,20 - UNCOMFORTABLE
.........
0' s .........
.........
.........
.........
.........
- . COMFORTABLE
.........
.........
6 o : ~ ~ o . r ~ - S STATE
EA 5
.........
.........
1 2 3
FREQUENCY-CYCLES PER SECOND
Fig. 27:-Passenger comfort limits
Comparison of Seakeeping Ability for Displacement Ships and Hydrofoil Craft

Up to this point the discussion has been centred entirely around
the seakeeping ability of hydrofoil craft, but it is desirable also to
consider this type by comparison with a planing boat of the same
length, In the case of both hydrofoils and planing craft performance
in a seaway is much dependent upon the type. In each case we
must assume a good design which, of course, can vary considerably
from the optimum according to design features incorporated. How-
ever, for the hydrofoil much depends upon whether the type
considered is of the surface-piercing or submerged foil type.
For the former, while up to a certain point the ride will be softer,
there comes a sea state beyond which the ride suddenly becomes
' much worse than for a conventional hull. This is due to the fact
that once the waves are higher than the running clearance between
bottom and surface then the speed has to be reduced very substan-
tially. There is no automatic control for this case to produce con-
touring or platforming. For the fully submerged case where full
automatic control is provided combined with long legs between
foils and strut some considerable improvement rnay be anticipated;
but at the moment this claim is academic in relation to what has
actually been achieved on the water, excepting for quite small boats
(Fig. 28).
T o discuss this point in somewhat greater detail it should be men-
tioned that for the surface-piercing hydrofoil it is not only the waves
from ahead which cause trouble. When the waves approach from
astern or the quarter a difficult situation arises due to the orbital
HYDROFOILS
velocities in the wave system which, in effect, cause much reduced

angle of incidence and stalling into the wave face ahead. A beam
sea can cause a very rough ride due to the effect of increasing foil
area in plan as the tip is approached. This is to give the necessary
restoring force and results in a jerky movement at the extremities
of the roll amplitude. I n discussion here the fast, round form is
HYDROFOIL CLEPRANCE LESS

HYDROFOIL THAN WAVE HEIGHT. 'fH6
POINT IS DEPENDANT ON TYPE
OF HYDROFOIL AND
CHARACTERISTICS OF
CRUISE SPEED CONTROL S Y S T E M .
I CONVENTIONAL HULL
I
SEA STATE -
Fig. 28:-Seakeeping com&arison
included with the hard-chine as in truth they are both planing craft
at the speeds under consideration and the qualities of one type are
tending to be incorporated in the other and vice versa.
I n an attempt to summarise it is probably a fact that in quite
small waves the surface-piercing hydrofoil will give a more comfort-
able and economic ride. When the going gets tough the planing
craft of either form will perhaps be uncomfortable but still able to
"take it" and remain operational under worse conditions. The
promise of the large submerged-foil type, automatically controlled,
is great but it is still a promise rather than a fact.
Size and Speed Limitations

It now remains to consider the general relations between speed and
size of craft; the weight distribution; and the consideration of worth-
while sizes of hydrofoil craft. I t must be emphasized that much
depends upon the exact purpose for which the hydrofoil boat is
designed; the following is necessarily a generalisation based upon
such knowledge as we have, on a subject in which there is still much
room for development.
Efect of Arbitrary Size-Speed Selection

At the outset, it is clear that boat size and speed cannot be inde-
pendently selected. Consider the consequences of arbitrary com-
binations of size and speed as illustrated in Fig. 29.
D 35
The upper series of figures points out the impracticality of main-

taining a constant operating speed and arbitrarily increasing the
weight of the craft. In order to provide the necessary hydrodynamic
lift to support the larger craft the hydrofoil area must increase
rapidly as shown in the figure. The required size of the foil rapidly
outgrows the size of the hull as the weight of the craft increases.
CONSTANT SPEED (40 KNOTS)
10 TONS
+--
25 KNOTS 40 KNOTS 80 KNOTS
Fig. 29:-Variations in size and speed
This is a demonstration of the so-called "square-cube " law-where-

in the weight of the craft is nearly to the cube of a
linear dimension,l whereas the lift of the foil is proportional only
to the square of linear dimension. This rapid growth of foil size
results in the foil weight becoming a larger and larger percentage of
the total weight until there is no longer any weight available for
fuel and payload. Obviously, it is utterly ridiculous to consider a
hydrofoil version of some of our present 20,000- or go,ooo-ton ocean
liners if the speed is limited to 40-50 knots.
O n the other hand, there is the question of settling on a given
weight of craft and determining the maximum speed that can be
achieved. The lower figures in Fig. 29 illustrate this possibility. I t
is seen that as the speed is increased the required foil area is con-
siderably reduced (actually as 1/V2)while, when the speed is reduced,
the required foil area again tends to outgrow the hull. It appears
then, that increasing speed is certainly an advantage in so far as
reduction in foil size and foil weight are concerned. However, other
problems do arise when small boats are driven at abnormally high
speed. One is the large amount of power required to attain the
high speed and the second, but perhaps minor consideration, is
that the stability and controllability of a craft with very small
hydrofoils may be difficult to accomplish.
1 Hull weight will not of necessity go up as the cube of the linear ratio because struc-
tural redundancies in small size craft can be reduced in larger scale.
36
HYDROFOILS
Optimum Size-Speed Relation

The most desirable relation between speed and gross weight for a
given design cannot be definitely established until the mission of the
craft has been defined. However, Fig. 30 shows the relation between
weight and speed which will determine that a boat is not handicapped
by over-large hydrofoils nor by excessive weight of power systems
KNOTS 301
A -
= GROSS WEIGHT TONS
Fig. 3o:-Size-sfleed relation
(engines, transmission and marine propellers). The line marked

" Presently Attainable " indicates the size-speed combination which
can currently be attained without unduly penalising the payload

capacity of the craft. The upper line marked "Possible Upper
Limit" can be attained but with some penalty in payload. These
lines are defined in terms of simple form of Froude number relation
V/A1/6. Hence for present day operation a Froude number of 30
is recommended for efficient design, while a Froude number of 50
- results in a somewhat penalised design.
Efect o f Increasing Froude Number

It might be interesting to examine the penalties incurred in increased
power plant sizes as the Froude number is increased. For this illus-
tration calculations have been made for a I 00-ton boat over a Froude
number range from 20 to 70. These calculations used the lift drag
ratios given in Fig. 15, assuming a propulsion efficiency of 75 per
cent, a marine propeller and a total power package weight of
2 1b.Ih.p. The ratio of power package weight to gross weight is
shown in Fig. 3 I . It is seen that the percentage weight of the power
package increases very rapidly with increasing Froude number. At
the recommended Froude number of 30 the power package is a
reasonable 10 per cent of the total weight of the craft. At a Froude
number of 50 the power package is over 20 per cent of the weight.
At a Froude number of 70 (150 knots) it is nearly 40 per cent of the

craft weight-clearly an unreasonable design.
The high Froude number operation may possibly be improved
by resorting to an air propeller drive. This air drive would eliminate
the large nacelle which supports the water propeller and decrease
the size of the support struts which house the transmission system.
? I 0 0 TON CRAFT
0 MARINE PROPELLER
--
WT POWER PACKAGE = %
GROSS WElGHT 1
Weight of power package

Fig. 31:-
Gross weight
Both these items contribute heavily to the large appendage drag

which develops at high speeds bearing in mind that drag ~ ( 2.t )
Further studies are required before any definite recommendations
can be made on the subject of air propellers.
Efect of Increasing Size at Froude Number =30

A similar study was made at constant Froude number =30 to examine
the possible size limitation on hydrofoil craft. The result of this
study, again confined to an evaluation of weight of power package
for marine propeller, is given in Fig. 32. I t is seen that above 1,000
tons (corresponding to a cruise speed of go knots), the percentage
weight, due to installed power, becomes unacceptably large.
O CONSTANT FROUDE NO. = 3 0
1 8 MARINE PfMPELLER ,
61OKNOT: 3-C-^---7---T--C-
0 KNOTS 140 KNOTS
100 300 1000 3000 10,000
500 5000
A = WEIGHT OF CRAFT, TONS
Weight of power package

F q . 32:-
Craft weight
38
HYDROFOILS
Typical Component Weight Distribution

Based on present hydrofoil boat designs and purpose considerations,
the following weight distributions (taken from Ref. 4) are con-
veniently available and should lead to acceptable efficiencies in
operation (Fig. 33). I t is believed that this weight breakdown can be
achieved at Froude number of 30 for craft sizes less than I ,000 tons,
Fig. 33:- Qpical component weights
I t is felt that the hydrofoil concept is technically sound and that

realistic and workable designs can be accomplished within reasonable
limits. However, it has to be realised that excepting for a number
of surface-piercing hydrofoils of the Supramar type and some small
examples of Christopher Hook design, there is little practical sea-
going experience as yet in the more interesting range of submerged
foil craft. The next few years should yield much of interest as the
prototypes now being developed in the U.S.A. are run.
[D.S,]
KEFERENCES
I. Principles of Naval Architecture, Volume 11, Chap. 11. Published by the

Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, New York,
N.Y., 1955.
2. SAVITSKY, DANIEL AND NEIDINGER, JOSEPH W. : Wetted Area and Center of
Pressure of Planing Surfaces at Very Low Spsed Coeflcients. Davidson
Laboratory, Stevens Institute of Technology Report 493, July I 954.
3. JOHNSON, VIRGIL E., JR. AND TULIN, MARSHALL P.: The Hydrodynamic
Characteristics of High-speed Hydrofoils. IAS Paper No. 61-41 pre-
sented at the IAS 29th Annu21 Meeting, New York, N.Y., January
23-25, 1961.
4. PALMER, I. AND ROPER, J. K.: Fundamental Characteristics of Hydrofoil
Craft, Grumman Aircraft Engineering Paper presented at SAE
Metropolitan Section Meeting, Farmingdale, New York, February

1961.
5. Study of Hydrofoil Seacraft, Grumman Aircraft Engineering Report
PGB-H- I prepared for Maritime Administration, November I 958.
6. Study of Transmission Systems for Hydrofoil Craft. Miami Shipbuilding
Corporation, May 1957.
7. TACHMINDJI AND MORGAN: The Design and Estimated Performance of a
Series of Supercavitating Profiellers. Second Symposium on Naval
Hydrodynamics. Sponsored by Office of Naval Research, Washing-
ton, D.C., August 1958.
8. GERRITSMA, J.: Dimensions of Sea Waves on the North Atlantic. Inter-
national Shipbuilding Progress, Vol. I, No. 3, 1954.
9. North Atlantic Coast Wave Statistics Hindcast by the Wave Spectrum Method.
Beach Erosion Board Tech. Memo. 57, U.S. Army Engineers, 1955.
10. Ride and Vibration Data. Society of Automotive Engineers, Report
SP-6, 1950.
-,
CHAPTER IV
AIR CUSHION VEHICLES
VEHICLES DEPENDENT for their support on the deliberate generation

of a cushion of air between their bottom surfaces and the land or
water over which they operate have a wide diversity of names.
Amongst these we have Ground Effect Machines (G.E.M.s), Air
Cushion Vehicles (A.C.V,s), Hovercraft, Air Riders, Skimmers and
so on. Some of the names currently employed refer to particular
forms of craft whilst others are effectively trade names. The
term Air Cushion Vehicle is probably the most precise and in its
abbreviated form, "A.C.V.", will therefore be used throughout this
chapter.
A.C.V.s have made rapid progress since sehous development
work commenced some five years ago and already they are achieving
something like parity with conventional forms of transportation in
certain cases. This suggests that the commercial potential of the
A.C.V. is high. Furthermore, the high speed at which A.C.V.s can
operate readily suggests various Naval applications, particularly per-
haps in the anti-submarine role, and it requires little imagination
to foresee their use as landing craft and for special missions where
their ability to ride over all kinds of fairly continuous but unprepared
terrain would be an advantage.
Quite radical changes of shape, principle and operational tech-
niques are both possible and probable in the A.C.V. field, and the
application of free-ranging inventive genius appears to be more
rewarding at the present stage than the ability to obtain small and
costly improvements through sophisticated engineering. I t follows
that it is difficult to set down even an outline exposition of the
mechanics of A.C.V. performance without being aware that
developments in the near future may make one's approach obsolete.
Also it is impossible to lay down precise rules which can be expected
to apply throughout the whole range of possible A.C.V. configura-
tions. I t is fortunate, however, that the whole range can be ex-
plored on paper with a fair degree of accuracy with the simplest
mathematics.
The discussion that follows is restricted to consideration of the
particular form of A.C.V. which makes use oflthe momentum of a
peripheral curtain of air to maintain the air cushion. All the symbols
employed are defined as they are introduced and also at the end
of the chapter.
Augmentation
Fig. 34 shows a section through a simple air cushion vehicle and
indicates how an A.C.V. works. The illustration is, of course,
purely diagrammatic (as are all the figures in this chapter) and
drawn in general for the overland case. The rate of change of
Fig, 34:-Section through simple Air Cushion Vehicle
momentum in the jet in a horizontal plane may be equated to the

cushion pressure integrated over the periphery of the cushion. Thus :
eV?lt(~+ cos 0 ) =fichl (1)
Most of the symbols are defined in Fig. 34 but we also have:

the density of air;
Q
I the peripheral length of the jet;
A the all-up weight;
and S the planform area of the cushion.
The weight of the craft is approximately the integral of the cushion
pressure over its bottom so that:
From equations (I) and (2) we have:

i
@V:St(I + cos 0)
A= (3)
h
If vertical jets only were employed without a cushion the resultant
lift would be :
By dividing equation (3) by equation (4) we obtain the Augmen-

tation "A" as follows :
The value of the augmentation is not necessarily of primary

importance in design but its algebraic equivalent occurs a number
of times in the various equations that will be developed later in this
chapter so that it is convenient to have derived it from first principles ,
and obtained an appreciation of its physical implications at an early
stage.
Equation (5) shows that to obtain a high value of augmentation
then :
I. The hoverheight should be kept small.
2. The value of X I 1 should be made large, and simple geometri-
cal considerations show that SIZ reaches a maximum with
a circular planform.
Equation (5) also suggests that the value of 6 should be zero, but
in practice the gain in cushion pressure must be offset against the
loss in cushion area (or increase in planform area and hence structure
weight) which reducing 0 inevitably entails, I n practice an angle
of the order of 45O has been found to give somewhere near optimum
results.
1'
We shall find it convenient later to have a symbol for the effective
diameter of the craft. This may be defined as:
D =2
We will also assume :
Z=nD
I t follows that equation (5) may also be written:
Practical values of (h/D) range from about 0.05 to 0.01, and if we

take 6 =45O this corresponds to an augmentation range from 8 to
I
Relationship Between Cushion Pressure and Jet Total Head
The value of yj
may be deduced with a sufficient degree of precision
by assuming that the peripheral jet issues into a region where the
static pressure is a mean of the cushion and the atmospheric pres-

sures. Thus:
where H j is the total head in the jet.

Substitution in equation ( I ) yields :
8)
2 t / h ( 1 -I-cos
' " l H j = ~ + t / h ( ~+cos 8 )
By writing x = (tlh)( I + cos 8 ) the equation can more conveniently
be written as:
This relationship is not precise since p a / H j > I * O when x > I * O

which is clearly absurd. A more precise approach which takes
account of the pressure distribution across the jet leads to:
Fig. 35 illustrates the theoretical variations of pa/Hj with I / X

\ obtained from equations ( 7 ) and (8). I n general, experiment data
1 has been found to substantiate equation (8) but equation (7) has
I the merit of simplicity and will therefore be used throughout this
chapter. The limitations inherent in this expediency should be
borne in mind however.
Power Requirements at Zero Forward Speed

The horsepower required at the fan shaft to operate the jet is given
simply by:
where V D is the ducting efficiency

and rp is the fan efficiency.
Substituting in equation (9) the value of H j from equation ( 7 ) and

Vj from equation ( I ) we may obtain:
I I hl I+%
P L=-.Pc312.
~
550 @1!2?pq,' I + COS 0' 2x1I2 (10)
This equation shows clearly that P L O is a minimum when x = 1.0

so that:
I I hl
PL =-.-...-.03/2
. I + COS e
OX=PO 550 e112'l~"17
(11)
A convenient approximation can be derived from equation ( I I)

as follows:
-
Power Requirements with Forward Speed

When the air cushion vehicle moves forward with a speed V the
total power required is given by:
Pr=PL+ P M + P A + P w (13)
where PT is the total power required
PL is the lifting power
P r is the power to overcome momentum drag
PA is the power to overcome aerodynamic drag
PWis the power to overcome wavemaking drag
As the speed changes, the way in which the total power is divided
between lifting power and thrust power changes. Clearly it is better
to have one central power source and divide it out as required rather
than provide separate sources which will not be required to work at
their full output level over certain parts of the operational range.
This is the case for what is known as an "integrated " power system.
Each of the components of the total power requirement will now

be dealt with in turn.
Lgting Power P L
With forward motion, the value of PL is quite simply modified from
that given in equation (9) by the inclusion of a term to allow for
the amount of free stream dynamic pressure recovered by the in-
take as follows:
where V I is the intake efficiency.

This assumes of course that the curtain flow is not affected by
the forward speed.
Power to Ouercome Momentum Drag PM
For our present purposes we may simply regard the momentum drag
as being due to the loss in momentum of the free stream entering the
fan intake and being ejected all around the periphery of the craft.
Since the A.C.V. will usually have a large mass flow requirement this
term will assume a considerable importance. I n fact for A.C.V.s in
the 70-knot speed bracket it will account for about Q of the total power.
I t will also be assumed that the momentum, profile and wave
drags are balanced by means of a propulsion device having an
efficiency of VP. Thus, neglecting various interference effects, the
power to overcome the momentum drag may be written as:
Power to Overcome Aero4namic Drag PA r i
The power required to overcome the aerodynamic drag may be

written in a number of ways, e.g.:
where AF is the frontal area of the craft

- and CD. and CDare drag coefficients based on frontal and cushion
areas respectively. Values appropriate to A,C.V.s
are as follows :
Power to Ouercome Wavemaking Drag PW

For our present purposes we will assume that the air cushion vehicle
will operate in a high-speed region where wavemaking drag can
be neglected. For the sake of completeness for deep water we may
write :
for 1 / 7 2 > F. > o

where QW is the density of water -
and F, is a Froude number given by V/.\/gD
Wavemaking resistance will be considered further on page 55
of this chapter.
Total Power PT
Adding the components as in equation (13) and substituting for '
Hj from equation (7), Vj from equation ( I ) , and A from equation (5)
we have:
where q = Q V ~
I t should be noted that no allowance has been made for opera-
tion of stability jets which may account for as much as 25 per cent
of PL in some designs.
Optimum Value of x
* The optimum' value of x for minimum power requirement may be
obtained from equation (18) by differentiating with respect to x.
Thus :
This equation shows that the optimum value of x is 1.0 at zero

forward speed and decreases as speed is increased. Substitution
of the value of XOPT in equation (18) yields the minimum power
expressed as a convenient ratio as follows:
Efect of Nun-Optimum Choice of x

The second term in equation (IS), i.e. PA, is not affected by the
choice of x. In the first term the component dependent on x is:
Fig. 36 shows how this varies with x and it will be seen that,
fortunately, a non-optimum choice of x results in quite a small
penalty.
X
Fig. 36
Optimum Value of (qlpc) and (PT/VA)

A convenient criterion for assessing approximately the performance
of an air cushion vehicle is the expression (PT/VA). I t reaches a
minimum when the fuel required for a given journey is least and is
equivalent to the inverse of a form of the liftldrag ratio familiar in
aerodynamics, but in this case the power required for lift is included
as an effective drag. I t of course takes no note of the proportion
2 @ ,. - ---- and so must be used with care.
of A which is payload
The value of (q/p~) corresponding to a minimum value of (PTIVA)
may be obtained by differentiating equation (20) with reBp&t tb
.
(qlpc) This yields :
This relationship is illustrated by the upper curves of Fig. 37 with

two values of Ca and for convenience the values of V D ~ F ,~ I ~ Yand
I F
have all been made equal and their value defined as q.
Equation (21) is rather complicated and can be replaced over the
practical range of augmentation with a simpler equation of the forrn:
In the cases considered, the constants k , and n are given in

Fig. 37.
AUGMENTATION'A'
HIGH-SPEED SMA1,L CRAFT
Substitution in equation (20) of ( ~ / @ c ) O P T obtained from either

equations (21) or (22) with appropriate constants yields the lower
curves of Fig. 37 which again can be represented by a simple
equation of the form:
The constants k, and m for the cases considered are given in

Fig. 37.
Fig. 37 also shows scales of effective L/D (the inverse of PT/VA)
and h/D for a 0 value of 45'.
Fig. 37 is of considerable general interest and in particular it
will be noted that for a given A.C.V., reduction in the hoverheight
reduces the optimum speed whilst increasing the optimum liftldrag
ratio.
One approximate method of assessing the economics of any means
of transportation is to calculate the payload/thrust ratio, and one
would expect that increasing speed would be associated with a
penalty equivalent to a reduction in this ratio. I n the case of the
d PAYLOAD
A.C.V. the effective value of the ratio is -
A
- LID
\
(where again the power for lift is included as an effective drag).

Since Fig. 37 indicates that the L/D ratios will in general only
be of the same order as that achieved with a normal aircraft (which,
of course, has a higher speed than an A.C.V.) then the payload
ratio must be made as high as possible if the A.C.V. is to be com-
petitive on an open market. How the payload ratio is determined
will be considered in more detail later in the chapter.
It may be helpful at this stage to note that the corresponding
value of (PT/VA ) for a planing motor boat with PC = 0-5 is given by
Some typical values which may be compared with the data of

Fig. 37 are given below:
Planing boat length 50 I 50
Speed in knots 20 50 20 50
---
AIR CUSHION VEEIICLES
Efect of Non- Optimum Choice of ( q l p c )

Fig. 38 presents a curve derived from equation (20) for q =oa7 and
Cn =O*Iwhich shows the penalty of operating at a non-optimum
value of ( q l p c ) in terms of a percentage increase over the optimum
value of ( P T I V A ) . Augmentation has only a small effect on the
curves and ibr A values from 10 to 80 a single mean line is sufficiently
precise.
200 -,
PERCENTAGE O F OPTIMUM Q
).
Fig. 38
Choice of Cushion Pressure

The determination of a target cushion pressure PC for design pur-
poses is a complex matter largely dependent on the detailed design
of the particular A.C.V. under consideration. However, the reason-
ing set out below which is relevant to a single-decker, passenger-
carrying craft will help to clarify the various conflicting requirements.
The cushion pressure will have components derived from:
PC, the contribution of the passengers' weight;
pcs the contribution of the structure weight;
PC, the contribution of the machinery and transmission weight;
PC, the contribution of the fuel weight;
together with a n allowance for equipment.
These components will now be considered in more detail.
E 5I
First, consider a 200-lb. passenger who is allowed 5 ft.2 in which
to sit. He will therefore be associated with a floor pressure of
40 1b.ft.-2. Suppose that the cabin to cushion area ratio is K then
the passenger will contribute 4oK to the value of PC. Thus we may
write :
PcP=40K . (24)
The next inevitable contributor to the value of pc is the structure
weight. I n the case of a planing craft this would be about 36 per
cent of the total all-up weight, and in the case of a 60-70 ft. length
boat this figure corresponds to about 40 lb.ft.-2 of bottom area.
The planing craft might well have an alloy plating thickness of
about 0.2 in., but the use of such material in the much more complex
structure of the A.C.V., where buoyancy tanks, lift ducting, air
intakes, distribution ducting, plenum chamber and fins, etc., are
necessary, would result in a prohibitively heavy structure. By cutting
down the plate thickness by an order and applying aircraft-type
structural concepts it is possible to obtain, in the case of the A.C.V.,
structure weights of about 25 per cent to 35 per cent of the all-up
weight corresponding to a contribution to the cushion pressure of
about 20 lb.ft.-2. This figure will vary widely dependent upon the
type of duty envisaged and should decrease as the various problems
involved are better understood. For our present purpose we will
write :
pcs = 20 B
(25)
The contribution made by machinery and transmission will again
vary considerably with type. For a 40-knot planing craft the per-
centage of the all-up weight will be about 25 per cent. This figure
is not unrealistic also for existing hovercraft, but consideration of
Fig. 37 shows that it can obviously vary very considerably depending
on the power required. Suppose that it is assumed as a first approxi-
/
mation that the machinery and transmission weight is uniquely
related to power. Then:
A M=clPT
where c, is a constant appropriate to the machinery employed. Thus
the cushion pressure contribution of the machinery, etc., is:
Similarly the fuel weight can be related to power, speed and the
range R' (in nautical miles) so that:
AIR CUSHf ON VEHICLES
where c2 is a constant determined by the fuel consumption char-

acteristics.
Thus the cushion pressure contribution due to the fuel weight is:
Finally, if we allow an equipment weight of 10 1b.ft.-2 we can sum

the various components of cushion pressure given in equations (24)
to (27) to obtain a total as follows:
Using equations (22) and (23) to obtain the optimum values for
Pr
and (-)
(p/p~) equation (26) can be rewritten as:
This equation is represented graphically in Fig. 39 for K =o.5,

c1 "4-2 and c2= 1-33 (which are fairly practical values) and con-
stants in equations (22) and (23) corresponding to q=0°7 and
CD = O ' I .
Also shown are the optimum velocities derived from equation
(22). Fig. 39 shows that optimum cushion pressure increases with
increasing range, particularly at low values of augmentation. For
a given range the optimum speed decreases as augmentation in-
creases, whilst the payload/A.U.W. ratio increases.
The effect of increasing K, the cabin to cushion area ratio, is to
lift the constant range lines and also to lift the payload/A.U.W,
scale so that higher pressures are obtained together with a larger
payload. Thus K is an important parameter and considerable
thought must be given in the design stages to making it as large as
possible. I t is influenced by area required for fans, ducting, etc.,
which cannot be used for passengers or payload and will always
be less than unity.
Again, it is emphasised that the calculations given above are
approximate only, but the shapes of the curves derived are reasonably
in accordance with more detailed work. Furthermore the calcula-
tions show where considerable savings can be made-for example,
by reducing structure weight or by increasing the value of K.
Fig. 39:-Design Cushion Pressure
Choice of Design Hoverheight

Fig. 37 shows how important it is to choose as low a hoverheight
as possible commensurate with meeting practical and operational
requirements. For a given area of operation it is possible that
adequate operation over waves can be specified in terms of a mini-
mum hoverheight regardless of craft size. Thus it is desirable to
consider the effects of fixing the hoverheight and varying the size.
In fact, maintaining the hoverheight constant whilst increasing the
size of an A.C.V. is equivalent to an increase in augmentation. I t
follows from Figs. 37 and 39 that increase in size at constant height
results in a considerably decreased relative power requirement and
a decrease of the optimum (¶/PC).I t also results in an increase in
the payload/A.U.W. ratio and a reduction of cushion pressure which
both tend to level off when the augmentation exceeds 60.
The rather large degree of approximation that was made in order
to deduce Fig. 39 has already been remarked and, in fact, there is
some evidence to suggest that the cushion pressure will level off
when augmentation reaches a smaller figure of, say, 40. This further
implies that there is a limiting A.U.W. for ordinary A.C.V.s beyond
which the payload ratio does not increase and in fact may decrease,
and some theoretical estimates have suggested a limit of 400 tons.
I
Wave-making Resistance and Shallow Water

The way in which wave-making resistance affects the air cushion
vehicle may easily be illustrated by considering a very much simpli-
fied two-dimensional case.
First, it will be assumed that the passage of the craft produces
waves of length LWand height H as in Fig. 40. Clearly the bow of
the craft will not be raised HI2 above the undisturbed water surface
so it will be placed at the point a. I t follows that the wave profile
from a to b is obviously incorrect, but for the moment we will
neglect this fact. Suppose that the stern of the craft is at a point P
2 W/LWthe angular
-then if the wave profile is given by y =H/Z.COS
trim of the craft will be given by:
H 2nD.
tan a=-
2D
cos -
Lw
. (30)
2nV2
From ordinary deep water theory LW= and since Rw/ A =
g
tan cc equation (30) may be written:
-
where F. =V/ d g~.
Consideration of the energy in the wave leads to another simple
expression for the resistance, viz. :
RW=-egH2
I
16
per foot width . (34
55
From equations (31) and (32) we may derive an expression for RW

which does not involve H, as follows:
with the proviso that 3 n / 2 > I / F i > n / z .

RwD 4 when
Equation (4) shows that -reaches a maximum of -
APc es
RwD
Fn=0.566. The way in yhich - varies is shown in Fig. 41
Abc
.1
together with a curve derived from a more precise two-dimensional

mathematical treatment which yields:
RwD 2
-=-[I - cos I / F ~ ]. (34)
4 0eg
for 27c > I / F >o.
~
Fig. 41:- Two-Dimensional Wave Drag

At low speeds below the hump the cushion pressure is associated

with the formation of a depression in the water and the craft hover-
height above the undisturbed water level is reduced by an amount
roughly equal to the depth of the depression. At the low speed
end of the region, spray will be created and this may result in small
local drag increases. At the higher speed the spray generated is
small enough to be neglected in most cases. Subsequently, at high
speed the cushion pressure can no longer create a 'depression and
consequently the craft rises bodily. An example of trim, rise and
resistance variation with speed in a fair depth of water is given
in Fig. 42.
Fig. 42
57
Further complexities are introduced by operation over water

which is shallow.
The wave-making resistance in infinitely deep water is associated
with waves whose speed is given by V, .

gLwm In shallow water
of depth d the speed of a wave of the same length is :
I t is generally assumed that a ship having a given propulsive

thrust slows from V, to Vd when entering shallow water, i.e. that
the resistance curve moves laterally and a given resistance at V,
now occurs at Vd. If this argument is applied to the location of the
/
resistance hump we can rearrange equation (35) to read:
d/D
FA,= F L{tan
~ h (Tr)} 0'6
(36)
-
where F,' refers to the Froude number V/2/gD at the hump.
If we now use the value of F;, derived from equation (33) then
equation (36) may be solved to give the curve of Fig. 43. In fact
Fig. 43:-Hurnp Froude number in shallow water

the value of ,;?I of 0.566 cannot be expected to apply precisely to

a three-dimensional case, nevertheless the curve as drawn is a very
reasonable approximation to the truth-not only for A.C.V.s but
for all high-speed craft.
At values of d/D below about og15 it is permissible to write equa-
tion (36) in the approximate form:
Vd I 2 d
-=I*oo~F~~
d$
2;.
(5) . b (37)
and this is illustrated in Fig. 43.
Fig. 44:-Hump Resistance in shallow water
Having determined the value of Fn at which the hump occurs it

is now desirable to consider the magnitude of the hump itself. The
mechanism of hump drag variation with depth of water is too
complicated to consider in detail here, but data obtained for planing
craft appears to be quite applicable and Fig. 44 shows a mean
curve initially derived from flying boat and high-speed craft experi-
ments which fits the A.C.V. case quite well. ,
Running in shallow water is associated with other interesting

wave phenomena. Thus, for example, at speeds below the hump
it is possible to generate transverse waves which move ahead faster
59
than the craft. These waves can have speeds which exceed the limit-
ing speed of propagation for a trochoid given by V / 2 / 2 = 1.0 and
reach a limiting velocity appropriate to a solitary wave where
the crest has a sharp angle. This limiting velocity is given by
V/2/1.56gd= 1.0. Fig. 45 shows a typical example of this pheno-
menon photographed during shallow water trials in a towing tank.
Fig. 45:-Transverse waves generated in shallow water travelling ahead and

faster than a model A.C.V.
When the model A.C.V. speed is practically equal to the transverse

wave speed the craft appears to be unstable in trim as it runs over
its own wave system. However, full scale this has little significance
since the resulting change of resistance would cause a change of
'speed away from this critical value.
The waves which precede an A.C.V. in shallow water can be of
significance during operation up a ramp or beach since they can
run up the slope and block the forward peripheral jet.
60
Power -saving Devices

Power-saving devices are currently the subject of intensive research
since it appears not unreasonable to hope that their application
will cut the power requirements by a very large proportion.
Fig. 34 shows what may be termed a simple total loss system where
-
the peripheral jet is directed inward and is subsequently turned out-
FORWARD
-
Fig. $6:-Dewlopment of thrust from angled curtain
ward by the cushion pressure. The jet stream is completely lost and
hence the momentum resistance is high.
Fig. 46 shows how deflectors can be mounted on the jet to direct
the jet air aft in order to produce a thrust. The system is not as
efficient at producing lift however so that the gain in one respect
must be outbalanced in the other. Furthermore if the deflectors
are fixed then the main propulsion system must be able to provide
negative thrust so that the A.C.V. can hover at zero forward speed.
Another disadvantage is that the thrust is supplied low down on the
A.C.V. and this may easily cause an embarrassing bow-up trim.
A further point is that the potential thrust that may be generated
in this way cannot be realised to the full until speeds at or beyond
the hump are reached. Reference to Fig. 42 shows that at lower
speeds than these the A.C.V. jets will most likely be below the un-
disturbed water surface level, and, although they will be clear of
water, none the less the full jet thrust cannot be achieved.
Fig. 47 shows a system in which the momentum drag can be re-
duced to zero in theory by using the jet air over and over again.
Since the power requirement to overcome the momentum drag under
optimum conditions will be about one-third of the total power in-
stalled, this is a particularly attractive idea especially if the fans can
6I
Fig.$7:-Complete recirculation to avoid momentum drag

be located between the exit and recovery ducts so that duct losses
can be rninirnised. The system results in a reduced external spray
generation, but care must be taken when operating over ground since
the system will tend to collect loose soil, sand and small rocks to the
detriment of the structure and possibly the fans.
A more practical form of recirculation is shown in Fig, 48 where
the recirculated jet is eventually exhausted as a normal total loss
r---C R O S S OVER UCT
Fig. 48(a):--Practical recirculation
Fig. +8(b):--View on centre-line of main jet showing cross-over ducts

62
jet. However, without very careful design the losses inevitably

associated with the cross-over ducting can be excessive and again
care must be exercised when operating over ground.
By articulating the jets (not necessarily only in the manner shown
in Fig. 49) certain extremely important advantages accrue. First,
the power requirements will be reduced since the effective hover-
EFFECTIVE HOVER HEIGHT
t Fig,$9:-Articulatedjet extensions
height will be reduced. Second, the articulated jet will "give" to

the crests of waves and the resultant craft motion in a seaway will
therefore be smoother. I n practice the most successful form of
articulation has made use of rubber jet extensions, and in general
such rubber extensions will give an increased clearance of the hard
structure of the A.C.V. above the water surface equal to a high
percentage of the extension length. The percentage varies with
individual designs but will be of the order of 80 per cent.
Each of the configurations considered so far require horsepower to
pump the air, and consideration of this fact leads to the question as
to whether the jet curtain could not be partially replaced by a
63
system that does not require this horsepower expenditure. One

solution is the introduction of sidewalls and Fig. 50 illustrates such
a system. Clearly sidewalls that project into the water must lie
parallel to the craft's direction of motion and any one of the jet
systems previously mentioned may be employed at the fore and
aft ends.
SECTION -ON X - X
Fig. 50:-Sidewall A.C. V.
This arrangement is attractive, but the following potential defects

must be borne in mind :
(a) The large hydrodynamic resistance penalty of the sidewalls
at high speed, particularly in waves due to water skin
friction. This is illustrated for the calm water case in
Fig. 51.
(b) The existence of directional, roll and pitch stability diffi-
culties in calm water and in waves.
A comparison between the flat-bottomed craft and a sidewall
craft-both in their elementary forms-can be obtained from equa-
tion (20). For the sidewall craft yet another term is required due to
the sidewall hydrodynamic resistance, viz. :
R A T BOTTOM
-. - SIDE WALL
where L is the craft length

B is the craft beam
f is the immersed depth of sidewall
CT is the hydrodynamic resistance coefficient.
As an illustration the following assumptions will be made:

With these assumptions Fig. 5 I has been prepared for equal values
of S. For a given h/L the cross-over point between the two craft
is at (qlpc) = 0 ° 2 2 . Thus the sidewall craft may be attractive at
low speeds whilst the flat-bottomed craft will be better at higher
speeds. I t should be borne in mind that in the low speed region the
wave-making drag becomes important as shown in Fig. 41 and this
aspect must be borne in mind before drawing too sweeping a
conclusion from Fig. 5 I.
Stability and Response to Waves

At first sight there is no reason to expect a simple A.C.V. with a
single peripheral jet to be stable any more than a tea tray would
be stable if balanced on a half blown up balloon. I n fact, positive
stability can be obtained when very high augmentations are em-
ployed from viscous and jet impingement effects. Normally, how-
ever, stability must be provided either from hydrodynamic sources,
as may be the case with a sidewall machine with water contact,
or by aerodynamic means. The latter can most easily be obtained
by means of cushion compartmentation and the corresponding
analogy is the use of at least three separate balloons under the tray.
Let us consider in an elementary way the static stability of a
simple two-dimensional A.C.V. having constant total head in the
jets with a solid central curtain as illustrated in Fig. 5 2 .
Fig. 52
66
Obviously the restoring moment is:
dM
whence -= - D2/8
dPc2
From equation (7) :
Now since :
dx2
then: -- x2D
- h,+Da
da
From (38), (39) and (40) and writing a =o
In fact cross flows which take place when the central solid wall
is replaced by an airscurtain reduce the value given above so that
for practical craft we may write:
wlierey is the distance of the V.C.G. above the bottom

and K m is a factor which allows for the effectiveness of the com-
partmentation and varies from about o*I to 0.5-the latter
figure corresponding to good sealing between compart-
ments.
Whilst dM/da is predominantly important in static stability,
another feature-the damping-must be included in any considera-
tion of dynamic stability and, for example, inadequate damping
implies that the A.C.V. will continue to oscillate after an initial
disturbance. The features that affect damping are still not too well
understood, but in general simple A.C.V.s with high stiffness will
generally be found to have low damping and vice versa.
F 67
When running over waves, the A.C.V,-wave system in its simplest
form may be treated like an ideal linear spring with viscous damping.
The craft will therefore have its largest trim response a t a frequency
of encounter near its natural frequency which will be approximately:
where I is the pitching moment of inertia measured in slugs ft.-a

and dM/da is measured in 1b.ft.radians-l.
If the trim 'response is measured in terms of:
Maximum Amplitude of Trim
Maximum Slope Change of Wave Surface
and plotted against Tuning Factor which is
Frequency of Encounter
Natural Frequency
then the A.C.V. response diagram is recognisably similar to that
for a simple spring system as shown in Fig. 53.
- FREQUENCY OF EMCOUNTER
NATURRL FREQUENCY IN PITCH.
The equations of motion for an A.C.V. moving over waves can

be written in the usual approximate form as:
The equations can be made more precise as follows :

(I) They can be extended to take account of non linearities.
(2) They can be extended to take account of cross coupling
terms.
(3) "Effective" values of h and a can be used to take account
of the fact that the wave surface is curved.
(4) Various degrees of sophistication can be employed in the
inclusion of water impact forces and moments in F and M.
Once the damping characteristics d~ and dp and the stiffnesses SII
and SP have been determined from model tests, an analogue com-
puter can be employed to determine the response characteristics
over a wide range of conditions, although model tests are still neces-
sary to check that unexpected phenomena do not develop.
Once the response of the A.C.V. is sufficiently high, bow impact
will occur. Eventually this situation will arise in design considera-
tions regardless of jet extension length and hence the bow must be
shaped accordingly. The bow must have characteristics such that:
(I) I t does not dive under the water surface.
i ( 2 ) Impact accelerations and pressures are low.
(3) Spray is kept low.
These requirements are all too well knows to the high-speed craft
designer and they will not be pursued further here except to make
the observation that integration of a reasonable bow with the A.C.V.
will result in a fairly "ship shape" plan view. However, for an
A.C.V. deliberately designed to operate in extremely rough water
the use of bow hydrofoils or skis which come into operation only
when the bow tends to dive is attractive.
A possible method of reducing response and/or bow impact is the
use of a jet system which permits some means of control over the
cushion centre of pressure. Yet another possibility is the use of
longitudinal water or fuel tanks with carefully designed slosh char-
acteristics such that they provide stabilisation at the peak response
frequency.
[W.A.C.]
SYMBOLS
Used in fornzulae relating to Air Cushion Vehicles
Augmentation
Frontal area of an A.C.V. ft.2
Beam of a side-wall craft.
Aerodynamic drag coefficient based on S
Aerodynamic drag coefficient based on AF
Hydrodynamic drag coefficient-load on the wetted area of side-
walls
Ratio of machinery and transmission weight to total power lb. HP-1
Ratio of fuel weight to the product of power and the time for
which the fuel permits that power to be used x 6080
Effective craft diameter ft.
Depth of water ft.
Heave damping
Pitch damping
T 7
v
Froude number = -
43
Froude number at the drag hump in depth of water d
Froude number at the drag hump in infinitely deep water
Depth of immersion of a side-wall
Natural frequency cycles sec.-1
Acceleration due to gravity
Height of wave from trough to crest ft.
Total head in the jets 1b.ft.-2
Hoverheight ft.
Pitching moment of inertia ~lugs.ft.~
Proportion of cushion area supporting passengers
Stiffness factor
Optimum speed constant
Optimum power constant
Length of wave ft.
Lift, used in the expression (LID)- the liftldrag ratio lb.
Also used as the length of a side-wall craft.
Peripheral length of jet ft.
Restoring moment 1b.ft.
Optimum power exponent
Optimum speed exponent
Power required to overcome air drag, at speed V H.P.
Power required to provide lift at speed V H.P.
Power required to provide lift at zero speed V H.P.
Power required to overcome momentum drag at speed V H.P.
Total power required at speed V H.P.
Power required to overcome wave drag at speed V H.P.
Cushion pressure 1b.ftaw2
1
Contribution to pa due to fuel weight lb.ft.-2

Contribution to pa due to machinery and transmission weight
lb.ft.-2
Contribution to pa due to passenger weight lb.ft.-2
Contribution to pa due to structure weight 1b.ft.-a
$@V2 1b.ft.-2
Range nautical miles
Wavemaking resistance ' lb.
Total resistance lb.
Cushion area ft.2
Stiffness in heave
Stiffness in pitch
.Jet
- thickness ft.
Forward speed ft.sec.-l
Jet air velocity ft.sec.-1
(tl4( 1 +cos 0)
Distance of V.C.G. above the bottom of the A.C.V.
Angular trim in radians
Weigh lb.
Fuel weight lb.
Machinery weight Ib.
Efficiency =y p =~ B V O="lj)q
Duct efficiency
Fan efficiency
Intake efficiency
Propulsion efficiency
Jet angle
Mass density of air slugs.ft.-8
Mass density of water ~lugs.ft.-~
CHAPTER V
S E A W O R T H I N E S S AND MANCEUVRABILITY
THESE
QUALITIES are of importance depending upon the exact
function which the boat will be required to fulfil.
Seaworthiness
I n a previous chapter the fundamental difference between the
planing and displacement types was discussed as related to the
method of progression of the two types through or over the surface
of the water.
The reliance upon the laws governing wavemaking during the
progress of a hull through the water has led the fast type of dis-
placement craft to be designed to have as much length as possible
within practical limits, in order to achieve that desirable fusion of the
system of waves from the bow with those from the sfern. As the length
of the wave set up from forward is related to speed, so a fast craft
of this type must be long.
Equally, the beam should be as small as possible within reason to
achieve low resistance.
Furthermore, an optimum form of section to achieve low-resistance
qualities has been found to approach the semi-circular as far as
practicable.
The combination of all these features in a fast type of craft of
the round or displacement form results in a rather critical perform-
ance from the point of view of inherent stability and performance
in the rolling or transverse plane generally.
It is in this sphere particularly that the hard-chine form comes
out to much advantage, especially when running, for instance, in
that most trying condition-a "following" or "quartering" sea.
A somewhat more detailed explanation will be attempted here
because it is of rather fundamental importance in considering the
use of the hard-chine type of planing hull for seagoing purposes.
When a hull is running fast before or in front of a following sea
/ and wind it is usual for a state of affairs to arise which results in
the hull becoming poised just about on the crest of a wave and then
, overtaking it slowly, because the wave system will be moving for-
ward in the same direction as the hull, only perhaps not quite so
fast.
I n a strongish gale a wave system may well be moving forward at
12 or I 5 or even more nautical miles per hour, so that starting from
SEAWORTHINESS AND MANCEUVRABILITY
the crest the boat will start to run down the face of the wave; and
as the relative difference of speed is quite small, it may remain on
the sloping surface of the wave for some time, which in turn will
involve it being held in a "downhill" attitude for quite an appreci-
able time. As the engines through their propellers will be pushing
the boat ahead, and as the boat is already tending to run downhill,
it will gather speed while inclined in the downhill direction, and in
the case of a big wave will be going quite fast by the time it is
approaching the trough, After passing the trough the bow will
tend to bury itself in the next wave ahead, which will slow the boat
quite appreciably.
Due to retardation, the following wave will relatively overtake the
stern of the boat, and because the aft sections are usually much
broader, and therefore have more lift than the forward sections, the
stern will be lifted high on the crest of the wave while the bow
buries itself even further into the sloping surface of the wave ahead.
A state of affairs now arises where the stern can very readily be
pushed off one side or the other while on the crest, which will have
the effect of presenting the side or profile of the hull to the on-
coming wave until considerable yawing movement results. This
can, if not checked, lead to a boat coming right round to a position
GENERAL MOVEMENTS OF WAVE SYSTEM
__C ORBITAL VELOCITIES
Fig.54:-Behaviour in "following" sea
where the stern has overtaken the bow and in the process has caused
a nasty heel outwards to occur due to the boat travelling round on
the down slope of the wave.
Simplified illustrations will perhaps do something to explain this

phenomenon, which is commonly known as "broaching to" in sea-
faring parlance.
There is also an effect due to a difference in direction between the
orbital velocities in a wave system near the crest and in a trough.
This effect as well as a net pressure difference due to the height of
wave varying between one side and another in a quartering sea also
adds to the yawing and broaching effect described above. Almost
every serious accident to the faster types of seagoing craft can be
traced to this source.l
Even experienced seamen will sometimes delude themselves into
thinking it is safer to "run away" from the following seas and so
increase speed, but be it destroyer, trawler, M.T.B. or runabout, the
governing principles are the same, and a reduction of speed is the
safe course. I t is when plunging into the wave ahead that the
relatively full sections forward of the hard-chine boat can be helpful
in preventing the incipient "broach to ".
If in addition to a good full bow with a pronounced flare above the
chine is associated fairly narrow aft sections and plenty of directional
Fig. 55:-Flat run of chine
Fig. 56:-Chine raked forward allowing "soft"

forward sections
stability and effective rudder control, performance in a following

sea is very good compared to the fast type of round-form hull.
1 For detailed consideration of the broaching case see The Following Sea, Broaching
~ n Surging,
d Du Cane & Goodrich, trans. R.I.N.A., I 96 I .
74
The fast round-bilge hull has to have a very fine entry forward to
avoid excessive wavemaking resistance and therefore undue wetness
on deck as well as resistance.
The lines forward have, therefore, to be very fine so that there is
not a great deal of buoyancy available for lifting the bow clear of an
oncoming wave. This characteristic has been considerably modi-
fied by the technique of working a knuckle in the forebody above
the water line. For example see Jaguar, plate No. 4.
A round form will always tend to "squat" at high speed, so the
aft sections have to be designed rather full and flat, which accen-
tuates the tendency towards "broaching to" in a following sea.
!
Fig. 57:-Low chine with shallow forward sections
Fig. 58:-Deep "vee" with slight convexity

75
Being of round and rather slack-bilged form, the tendency to roll

outward is also much accentuated, which at its mildest is grossly
uncomfortable and frightening and at its worst actually capable of
leading to disaster.
The bad feature in a planing or hard-chine type of boat is
the tendency to slam when being driven into a series of rather
steep waves perhaps spaced a short distance apart such as fre-
quently happens in or around the estuaries and headlands of
the English Channel, especially with tidal current against wind
directions.
This, of course, is due to the flat sections associated with really
efficient planing, but a good deep forefoot with a slight convexity
to the "vee" of the sections can do a great deal to eliminate these
shocks. I n fact a properly designed craft of this type can prove to
be superior when maintaining high speed in a "seaway".
Manoeuvrability
Under this heading are included the qualities of rapid and safe
turning as well as the ability to maintain control in a seaway under
adverse conditions such as strong wind, big waves, heavy following
sea, etc.
The rudder or rudders when
moved one way or the other out of
the centre line have the effect of
first moving the stern (assuming
they are located aft) athwartships,
thereby momentarily causing the
fore and aft line of the boat to assume
an angle to the path along which
the boat is travelling. As a con-
sequence, the water ahead of the
boat as it reaches the hull will find
a lateral surface presented to it con-
siderably greater and of different
form to the usual symmetrical frontal
surface presented in straight running.
I t is the action of this water on
the hull surface presented that in-
Fig. 59:-Turning efect of boat
fluences the turning qualities of the under helm is assisted by action of
boat to a major extent. I t will be water meeting underwater portion
seen, therefore, that in order for the ahead of pivot point
boat to turn rapidly and steadily
the area of effective lateral surface presented to the oncoming
water must be larger in front of the effective pivoting point than
76
abaft it. This pivoting point is also dependent to some extent upon
the hull form and trim.
I n some cases a hull needs the addition of a little extra keel
area forward to help turning. A small plate or fin can produce the
same effect. This fin also has a beneficial effect on tendency to list
towards the effective wind.
Given good design, therefore, of the hull from a point of view of
its lateral resistance to turning, and a good balance of areas before
and abaft the pivoting point, there should be no need to have rudders
particularly large,
Such area as is provided for rudders is, however, much more
efficiently employed when placed under the hull as opposed to being
hung on the transom. I n the latter case the water flowing past the
rudder blade will tend to rise and spill over a deflected blade, there-
by reducing the pressure tending to make the blade effective. I n
fact tests in a model tank show clearly the tendency for air to be
drawn from the surface which will have the effect of stalling the
rudder. In aerodynamic or hydrodynamic terms the <<. image "
(a) Under hull ( b ) Hung on transom
(c) On transom with cavitation plate ( d ) Combined rudder and propeller

bracket
Figs. 60 (a), ( b ) , (c) and (d):-Rudders
77
effect is lost where no hull or plate is over the rudder so that effective
aspect ratio will be halved. It is also possible to avoid air drawing
by fitting "fences ",including combined "fence-cavitation plate "
incorporated with the rudder itself.
If it is desired to employ an externally hung rudder it is a good
idea to have a horizontal plate formed over the rudder blade, which
to some extent substitutes for the bottom.
I
Heel in Turning
As in all practical boats the centre of gravity will be well above the
water-line there will be a tendency for the boat to heel outwards
during a rapid turn.
Figs. 61 (a) and (6):-Boat hels outwards in turn

without eJect of low rudder
i I
TURN
O n the other hand, the effect of the rudder will be to give the
boat a heel inwards or towards the direction of the turn, and the
deeper the rudders are placed the more will be the heeling effect
for a given total area of rudder. It will be apprediated that in a fast
boat this is a very desirable safety feature. This effect is substan-
tially assisted by the build-up of water under the outside "veed"
portion of the fore body.
Torque EJect of Propeller

All propellers impose on the stern of a boat an effect due to their
rotation somewhat similar to that which would be felt if a straight
vape paddle was substituted for a propeller, only naturally not so
mych so. .
The propeller in revolving, besides pushing the boat forward,

tends to pull the stern across in the direction in which it is revolving.
The reasons are not too clear but can be connected with proximity
to hull and perhaps greater liability to cavitate in the upper half of
the propeller disc. I t has to be appreciated that theoretical con-
siderations point to the fact that no such sideways thrust should
exist as the reaction of the propeller blades on water of constant
density will be symmetric throughout a complete revolution.
There is also a certain tendency to cause the boat to heel due to the
effect of friction in the various bearings fitted to support engine and
Figs. 62 (a) and (b):-Boat heels inward

due to efect of low rudder
propeller shafting and also due to a reaction from the propeller

revolving in water.
For straight-through shafting one may consider the extreme case
of the propeller being held stationary in the water while the boat
is free to wind itself round the crankshaft. I n this case the boat
will tend to revolve round the shaft in a direction opposite to that
of the propeller.
When reduction or return-drive gearing is fitted we must consider
the propeller shaft held and the engine-shaft pinion tending to wind
itself round the propeller-shaft pinion. I n this case the engine will
tend to wind itself round the pinion in the same direction as the
propeller; in other words, the heel will be with the engine rotation.
This "torque effect" is separate from the tendency of the propeller
to "paddle" itself and the boat in the direction of its rotation, and
also from the effect of friction in the bearings which is opposite to
torque reaction. This torque effect is felt mainly in light high-
Fig. 63:-Assume propeller held or prevented from

turning-in direction, then engine will tend to force
port bearers down giving boat list or heel to port
Fig. 64:-In .case of reduction gear propeller direction will be

reversed, and fi slowed or stopped engine will give boat heel to
starboard assuming direction of engine rotation same as above.
The factor chiefly injuenaing the situation here is the reaction
of the gear pinions which will result in a heeling moment
opposite to and greater than that produced on engine bearers.
This is gearing reducing and not increasing propeller revs.
80
powered boats such as racing or record-breaking craft, but where a

big slow-running propeller is fitted it can be very inconvenient in
turning, making it much easier and quicker to turn one way. This
can be overcome by offsetting the leading edge of the rudder or the
propeller strut, but this is wasteful of power and therefore detrimental
to speed, so that the best method of eliminating torque effect where
two or more shafts are fitted is for the engines to be opposite "handed"
so that the effect of one offsets the other.
This effect is more felt in the case of large propellers than small
ones, especially in cases where a high power is employed in a fairly
light hull.
I t is quite a popular practice to incorporate the aft support
bearing for the propeller shaft in a strut abaft the propeller which
also incorporates the rudder hinge as Fig. 60(d). Here the claim is
that propeller efficiency is increased by eliminating the flow dis-
turbance caused by the strut placed immediately in front of the
propeller. There should also be some overall reduction in appendage
drag. I t is also claimed in some quarters that the flow to the un-
balanced rudder is much fairer, so that undesirable overbalance
and flow distortion effects tend to be eliminated.
This may all be quite justifiable but the author has yet to find
clear-cut evidence in favour of this type, and he has at times experi-
enced poor turning performance in association with this con-
figuration. I t is seldom, unless a considerable angle is applied to the
shaft, that the intermediate shaft bracket can be avoided owing to
considerations of whirling. At the same time the spade type of
rudder does sometimes reveal somewhat unpredictable behaviour
in the matter of location of c. of p. which can be embarrassing.
[P.D.C.]
CHAPTER VI
DESIGN
THEDESIGN of high-speed craft is analogous to the design of the more
normal types of craft, taking into account the particular problems
which have to be met.
As in the case of the design of other engineering devices, it is fist
necessary to formulate the requirements which have to be met. This,
in itself, is by no means straightforward, and it is probable that the
vision possessed by the designer and employed at this stage will have
a considerable bearing upon the merit of the resulting product.
Though all might not agree it is certainly highly desirable that
those accepting overall design responsibility should have sea ex-
perience in handling these craft. I n addition some operational
experience is of great benefit. Both these requirements are probably
difficult to achieve and perhaps more applicable to small fast craft
as well as to aircraft.
Having formulated the requirements, it will be necessary to pre-
pare a preliminary general arrangement drawing to ascertain the
best disposition of compartments, machinery, equipment, etc.
At this stage it will be realised the general arrangement can only
be an approximation because, for instance, the power, and therefore
the space to be occupied by machinery, also its weight, cannot be
clearly defined. Equally, the optimum dimensions of the ship from
the point of view of seaworthiness, accommodation, appearance, etc.,
are at this stage tentative.
However, sufficient assumptions as to power and fuel stowage, as
well as many other features, must be made in order to estimate the
displacement. This estimate is the basic essential towards pro-
ducing a workable design,
The measure of skill, experience, foresight, and even a little luck,
which may attend the weight calculations will prove a deciding
factor in making the design a success or otherwise.
This is provided the person responsible for the design has the
fundamental knowledge and/or experience required to produce a
good hull form, having made a good weight estimate,
It is the hull form, both underwater and above, as well as the
structure and general arrangements, which are usually referred to
when speaking of the design of a craft as a whole.
The machinery and many other items incorporated represent, in
'
themselves, separate and imposing design problems, but this is not
usually the province of the hull designer as generally understood
82
DESIGN
in ship, boat-building or yachting practice, except to the 'extent

that he is rehponsible for their selection and installation, and for the
means of propulsion. Many o f the problems involved are in the
province of specialists whose advice should be sought if time and other
circumstances permit. An example of this is the propeller design
which is very much a specialist art.
The subject here is high-speed craft, so that having an idea of the
speed and principal dimensions such as length, displacement, etc.,
we can decide upon what type of hull form will suit our purposes
best,
As previously mentioned, the planing type of hull is usually
- 7
required when maximum speeds in the neighbourhood of 1- = 3.0

2/L
or above are required.
v '2.5
For a - it will probably serve our purposes best to have a
df,
hard-chine type of planing boat if performance at high speed is the
chief consideration, while if endurance at the lower speeds is a n
important feature a type of round form best suited to high speeds will
be tried.
The stepped forms will only be selected when very high speed is
required regardless of low-speed performance and range.
If the truth be told, most designers have more experience of one
type of hull than another. In this competitive and specialising world
there are few individuals who can be considered to be true experts
on all types of form, both round and planing. In this way the man
who has designed many hard-chine forms will tend towards this type
when he can; equally, the man who has experience of a number of
round forms will have a predilection for this type and will choose
accordingly when the issue is in doubt.
A practical and successful designer will endeavour to make use of a
hull form about which he has some previous knowledge. This may
be one he has himself designed previously, or it may be one designed
by another about which he has sufficient knowledge on which
to base his design.
I t will, in most cases, be necessary to make relatively minor alter-
ations to a n existing form to suit the particular dimensions and
conditions envisaged, but, none the less, the design will be based
consciously or subconsciously on such previous experience.
The man who claims complete originality in these days will either
be working in the experimental field, in which case his designs
should be considered in this light, or he may produce original
features such as above-water arrangements or appearance. Perhaps
he may have an original method of propulsion or steering gear, or the
G 83
funnel and control arrangements may be novel, but the basic form
in these days is very unlikely to depart radically from what has been
done previously by himself or others even in the case of record
breakers.
This state of affairs exists, of course, to an even greater extent in
the world of aircraft design, where a standard aerofoil section pro-
duced by one of the better-known experimental establishments is
almost invariably incorporated into the design of an aircraft pro-
duced by one of the foremost manufacturers. Usually more than one
calibrated section is made use of when considering the design as a
whole.
I n the marine high-speed world this technique is not yet developed
to a comparable extent, but, apart from the experience of the
relatively few individual designers or firms, there is beginning to ,
exist a solid background of data which can be made available from
the various teat tanks in this and other countries. Foremost in this
field must be the Admiralty Experiment Tank a t Haslar, where is
the collated data from many craft designed and run for war purposes
before, during and since the recent war. Not much has been pub-
lished of this material.
I n the U.S.A. a very useful series of experiments were conducted
around 1941in the David Taylor Model Basin under the auspices of
the U.S. Navy (U.S.E.M.B. Series 50).
Here a basic hull form (hard-chine) was decided upon, possessing
what were considered at the time to be desirable features from an all-
round point of view, i.e. possessing good qualities as regards speed
as well as seaworthiness.
This basic hull was then increased in beam progressively until a
freak boat resulted; similarly, it was reduced in beam progressively
until the resulting hull was too obviously narrow to be of any
practical value.
Three intermediate hulls were tested at beam-to-length ratios
between the extremes either way. These series of hulls were tested
also at varying displacements and trim. Since this report Eugene
Clement at the David Taylor Model Basin has produced a number
of Methodical Series reports which are valuable in optimising
dimensions and principal features such as deadrise, aspect ratio,
planing angle, etc.
The results are of value in many ways as well as giving an idea as
to power requirement for a given speed and displacement and so on in
the case of hulls approaching this actual form to a reasonable degree.
However, despite any data which may be available from official
sources, the experienced designer will probably prefer to rely upon
results obtained with previous craft of the type of which he has an
actual knowledge. I t has to be said here that, although speed is
DESIGN
important, the general behaviour, especially in a seaway, is of

much greater importance and, incidentally, far more difficult to
optimise.
There are doubtless other and possibly more suitable techniques
for deciding upon the actual hull form and dimensions, but the pro-
cedure set out hereafter has been used for some years by the author.
I t is admittedly unscientific and involves to a large extent "trial
and error" methods in the early stages, but, given a good back-
ground of experience, will result in a good boat. I t is strongly
suspected that most outstanding developments derive from "cut
and try ".
I t is necessary, as stated above, to decide upon a length which is
likely to be suitable. A standard form of hull which has a history of
performing well is then chosen. This will incorporate known features
such as the run of the chine and buttocks, the amount of "vee" in
the section, plan form at chine, etc.
Assuming then the trial calculated displacement and location of
longitudinal centre of gravity, a line at which the boat will float at
rest can be found. This is a matter of trial and error involving the
assumption of a static water-line on the proposed hull and the
calculation of the volume and location of centre of gravity of dis-
placed water under this line. A knowledge gained from previous
successful forms will indicate optimun~location of 1.c.g.
When a stage is reached such that the weight of the displaced
water equals the trial displacement and that its disposition indicates
a centre of gravity equivalent longitudinally to that of the proposed
vessel as calculated, then we can consider whether the depth and
trim at which our proposed hull floats is a satisfactory one and is one
which will yield good results when planing at high speeds, and
indeed a t all conditions throughout the speed range. Points to be
considered here are whether the stern is excessively immersed to such
an extent that application of the thrust of the propellers will merely
result in a further immersion or squat of the stern accompanied by
a rise in the air of the bow to an undesirable extent.
Equally, the bow may be obviously too far immersed in relation
to the stern.
The cure in either of these two cases is to attempt a redisposition
of the principal weights such as fuel, machinery, armament, etc.
If this does not effect a cure it may be necessary to increase the
beam throughout or to alter the disposition of forward and aft
sections to achieve the required result.
Obviously there is a limit to the amount one can depart from the
basic shape, but experience alone can decide this.
I n an extreme case it may be found that the amount and dis-
position of the load it is estimated the craft will have to carry makes
it impossible to avoid a freak hull in some respect on the length

limitation previously decided upon. I t may then be thought necessary
to increase the length, and therefore the beam, as well as spacing
out other features which may permit of a satisfactory solution.
I t is, for instance, undesirable that the water-line should cut the
chine line in side elevation too near to the stem (Fig. 6 5 ) .
Fig. 65
If this is the case, though the boat may conceivably run well at
high speed, it will tend to be very "dirty" at intermediate and low
speeds. There are two ways of getting over this difficulty, and it
depends somewhat upon the other factors operative as to whether
a general increase in dimensions is desirable or whether a change in
shape forward will prove to be a satisfactory solution.
To explain the matter of increasing dimensions all round as a
means of getting over the particular difficulty referred to above, it
Fig. 66:-Hull too deep in water
can be seen from the sketches that on first trial the hull is obviously
too far immersed.
I n other words, the weight it is being asked to carry is causing
excessive immersion and so resulting in the static water-line cutting
the chine line too near the stem.
If, for instance, the displacement could be substantially reduced
it will be seen that the water-line will cut the chine much further aft
in such a manner that good all-round performance can be antici-
pated.
Fig. 67:--Hull with betterjotation line

86
DESIGN
The same state of affairs could be reproduced in the case of the

hull carrying the larger displacement by increasing the dimensions
all round and therefore allowing the water-line relative to the hull
to assume the same relation to the chine-line and stem as in Fig.
68 (b).
If the cause of the excessive immersion forward is due to the centre
Figs. 68 ( a ) and ( b ):-Sections showing dzyerent chine heights but

with the same immersed area
of gravity being located too far forward an attempt can be made to

move it aft by altering the positions of the principal weights.
Some measure of compromise in this respect can be achieved by
lifting the chine in its run towards the bow and at the same time
deepening the forefoot to enable the retention of the same amount
of immersed volume.
This will result in a deeper and narrower "vee" which is good for
shock elimination, especially in meeting a head-on sea. I t will also
maintain a level trim when reducing speed and in running very slowly
or while maneuvring. It has its drawbacks however if overdone.
Another possible way of achieving the same result might be to
associate the lifting of the chine forward with deepening of the "vee"
while at the same time reducing the width of transom and therefore
the volume of the aft sections. This will have the effect of allowing
greater relative immersion aft while having the tendency to raise the
bow, or at least to allow the angle between chine and water-line to
reach a n optimum figure.
I t must be appreciated that if the alterations or modifications
forward or aft are excessive too radical a departure from the optimum
planing shape will result.
Many similar problems present themselves in the course of pre-
paring a design and in arriving at the best hull shape, but this is
where experience alone can help.
Once again it cannot be sufficiently emphasised how important
is the weight estimate. The wise man will allow quite a substantial
margin over and above his estimate to cover for the many un-
avoidable increases and additions which have a habit of making
their way uninvited into a new design.
I t is so very much better to find oneself in the pleasurable position

of having a hull floating above or lighter than her designed draught
than too deep.
So many thingdepend upon this weight estimate. The power
required for a given speed will almost invariably depend upon the
estimate of total displacement. If a craft turns out to be substantially
overweight it will stand a chance of floating too low in the water,
to the detriment of seaworthiness, and if the excess weight happens
to be high up also it can adversely affect the stability, not to men-
tion performance.
Except in the case of the smallest and simplest types the design
of a ship or boat is, of course, the work of a number of individuals
co-ordinated under one individual who has to bear the final respon-
sibility for the result as a whole and who is the designer.
I n a large yard it is probable that the designer himself will do
comparatively little actual drawing, but he will probably do a certain
amount of freehand sketching so as to convey to those under him
what is required. He will, if necessary, makeLanyimportant calcula-
tions as a check, but will normally employ a staff for this purpose,
providing them with the appropriate data. He will decide how
much research in the form of hull and propeller model experiments
is required.
A large part of the preparation of a design will inevitably consist
in trial and error. For instance, the finding of the static-water-line
as described previously will be one of the first and most important
tasks. The designer, having set the problem, will await and formulate
his plans based upon the results of these trial calculations.
Design, as a problem, varies quite considerably in its scope and in
the technique and qualities called for in the individual responsible.
There is, for instance, quite a substantial difference between design
where a fairly straightforward problem is presented involving only
an adaptation from an existing successful design, and the case
where a substantially novel problem is presented involving develop-
ment into a regime never previously attempted and where a con-
siderable element of analysis and research combined with a pro-
gramme of systematic experimentation is called for.
An example of the former, which might be called adaptive design,
would be M.Y. Mercuty (see Plate 6 ) , a very high performance
yacht adapted from the Brave class of gas-turbined Fast Patrol Boats
(Plate 3). Here the hull and machinery of the Brave class were
adopted with relatively minor modifications to suit the yachting
requirements.
O n the other hand the Brave class of F.P.B. itself involved
a very comprehensive design study incorporating many configura-
tions of hull, machinery, propulsion arrangements and armament
88
DESIGN
so that the Admiralty could arrive at a balanced judgment of the

optimum all-round design to select. Even here the actual hull form
was selected based on a form produced in 1944 after careful study
of all the wartime experience, so that the hull itself was, in effect,
an already developed form. This is apart from the structural problem,
which, with the propulsion arrangements, represented the two out-
standingly important hull problems and which, in the case of the
latter, involved the installation of a Cavitation Tunnel at Vosper.
A further example of an even more exhaustive series of studies,
development and deduction from'experimentation is involved in the
production of a record breaker such as the Crusader or Bluebird (see
reference on page 96).
I t seems fair to say that quite a different type of individual is
required for the development type of designing than for the designing
of more conventional yachts, warships or liners, where a useful
background of recent experience is available from existing craft.
The training of designers is a subject recently highlighted in a
paper by de Malherbe and Ogorkiewicz entitled Design Studies to Aid
the Teaching on Synthesis, published in the Chartered Mechanical
Engineer, June 1962. Here it is pointed out that the training of all
graduate engineers (including naval architects, which is a special-
ised branch of engineering) tends to concentrate on the basic sciences,
which means, in effect, a concentration on mathematical physics,
which is generally justified by the need for a thorough understanding
of the fundamentals. This, while necessary, can tend to produce
individuals to whom post graduate research will become a natural
selection representing a continuation of the atmosphere of the
university, unless some quite conscious effort is made to put the
graduate into a more practical sphere of operations. Only when
he is nearer the operational side of life can he become a useful
designer. This is not to say research is not vital, but so also are
designers to whom a background of research is a most valuable
asset, for brilliant research is no good unless designers can translate
the results into useful hardware.
One of the most important functions of the true designer is the
ability to clear troubles in the prototype stage. There are apt to be
many claims for the credit when a design is an immed&te and
obvious success. It is when there are some difficulties and awkward
problems to overcome that the true sources of design inspiration
and responsibility emerge.
The words of C. T. Wilkins, Technical Director to the de Havil-
land Aircraft Co., suitably adapted to the world of high-speed
craft, are well worthy of note here. This definition of the require-
ments for a good designer was put forward in the lecture read before
the Royal Aeronautical Society on February 9, 1950.
89
"In the author's opinion, a good designer must first of all have
enthusiasm for his job, a good technical knowledge and an interest
in aeroplanes generally, and if he is not a pilot he should have as
much flying experience as possible and be willing and eager to fly
in the prototype when occasion demands. He must be quick to
appreciate the point when it is explained to him and quick to give
effect to it. Mistakes he may make, but they should not be major
ones and should not be repeated. Anyone who makes no mistakes
certainly makes nothing else.
"He must also have a co-operative personality, for however
brilliant a man may be he will be completely useless if he is unwilling
to co-operate with other people. He must be willing to put in long
hours of overtime, even to spending whole week-ends on the job;
above all, he must have creative ability and a flair for devising the
best way of doing a job simply. This will not be found in any book.
He must have a sound basic mathematical and mechanical training,
followed by, or concurrently with, practical experience in the shops.
There is no need for him to be an artist. The quality of drawing
may be likened to handwriting and in fact serves the same purpose
in conveying ideas on paper from one person to another, and as
such is no more or no less important. Provided both are clear and
legible they need be no more than that. Many youngsters are put
into a drawing office because they can draw. These are usually the
people who remain draughtsmen all their lives.
"When the designer has acquired the above qualifications, it
might be said that he has been provided with a set of tools for the
job. He now has to show that he can use them."
Admittedly this was written of the aircraft designer but it is not
difficult to see the analogy to the requirements for high-speed craft
design.
I n the case of the design of a hard-chine type of hull, if not possible
to use an actual hull which has proved successful, the designer could,
to advantage, decide the actual shape of the gunwale in plan and
elevation as also the chine and keel-line.
He will also give guidance upon the character of the "veed"
sections a t various stations, also shape of stem, stern and sheer-line
generally, including beam camber. This also applies to the character
of the forward flare and shape of counter or transom.
By no means least of the duties of the designer will be the necessity
to decide upon a structural scheme that will meet the demands likely
to be made upon it in service,
Having decided upon the scheme, including the necessary
materials, the minimum weight consistent with a sound margin of
safety must be aimed at.
The location of the propelling machinery so as to ensure a reason-
DESIGN
able and workable shaft angle will have to be decided upon, as also
the tanks, internal, and other arrangements.
The designer, unless very heavily circumscribed by his customer,
which in any case he should avoid, if possible, will undoubtedly
be able to incorporate a certain amount of individuality into the
appearance, not only of the hull but also of the deck structures,
bridge, funnel, etc.
Any individual who has spent any considerable time in the design
of ships or boats will develop a characteristic "line ",which, for good
or evil, will appear again and again in the designs for which he is
responsible.
This is a n inescapable fact and one revealing the identity of the
designer almost as clearly as the character of his handwriting,
There are, of course, fashions and styles and a designer will
possibly subconsciouslyabsorb some of the features of another's work
he likes or admires. I n some cases perhaps this absorption will not be
quite so subconscious, but to copy is a sincere form of flattery, they
say, if that is any consolation!
I t is probable that the best designers are much more than draughts-
men or even artists. The ideal which is almost unattainable consists
in the man who is a sound naval architect, combined with marine
engineer and electrical engineer; yet who is artist and draughtsman,
together with a lot of the diviner and prophet, and last but not least, a
seaman and test pilot.
With it all he must possess patience and self-confidence, No
human has all these qualities, so that designers as a rule predominate
in one of the above-mentioned virtues to the slight detriment
of other qualities. Equally, most designers have their strong points
as regards the qualities of the craft they design. One man will know
and understand the sea and for that reason almost subconsciously
he will tend to avoid anything likely to let him down when on a
lee shore and caught out in an unexpectedly hard blow or storm.
He will have studied the behaviour of his and other craft in adverse
conditions at first hand and shape the hull accordingly. The bridge
and deckhouse structures will similarly be schemed with a view to
their use and comfort at sea.
Except in the case of a freight-carrying ship or submarine it will
be found that there is an almost universal desire to carry the useful
load above the main-deck level.
To give just two examples of this, one could mention the M.T.B.,
where guns, torpedoes and control positions should obviously be as
high as possible to improve the visibility therefrom and to keep
them as far as possible free from spray. This is subject only to
the need to avoid unnecessary exposure of personnel and target
silhouette.
I n the case of a yacht, while it is possible that sleeping cabins

can be comfortably and adequately located below decks, yet no
one could deny that a deckhouse above main deck level is the
ideal for the compartments in which an owner and his guests
are to spend most of their daytime hours. Even a sleeping
cabin, other things being equal, would be pleasanter above weather
deck level, because in bad or hot weather a reasonably sized
window as opposed to a scuttle or port hole can provide fresh air
and view.
Compliance with this feature involves a considerable weight high
up in the craft which must be taken well into account in the stability
calculation.
There is also a very practical limit to the amount of surface it is
desirable or even safe to expose to the elements in the form of
" windage ".
This windage does not, in most cases, provided stability is satis-
factory, constitute a n actual danger in the open sea, though with a
side wind quite a noticeable and even uncomfortable heel can be
produced strangely enough towards the windward side. This i's
explained later. However, in really bad conditions the ship would
presumably be pointed more or less into wind, which would reduce
this heel effect to manageable proportions.
After all, a steadying sail as carried by nearly all drifters and most
trawlers consists in lateral surface well above deck level, but has a
most beneficial effect in damping rolling.
Where such surface can be an embarrassment amounting almost
to a danger is in handling alongside a wharf or pier under cross-
wind conditions or perhaps when moored in a position across the
direction of the wind.
Another type of designer with perhaps a n eye to luxury and
comfort in a yacht will work to the somewhat short-term aims
of producing a craft to suit an owner with more money than sea
sense, who can most easily be pleased by producing the plumbing,
decoration and general amenities approaching as nearly as possible
those of the most luxurious villas or hotels.
This type of owner will probably be quite content to possess a
yacht with these features as he or she will be unlikely to leave
sheltered waters for long at any one time. Any deep-sea work will be
undertaken by the professional crew, who can more or less take their
own time and pick their weather.
The awkward one to deal with is the owner who wants maximum
speed and seakeeping ability combined with beautifully fitted
panelling and, for instance, mosaic tiling in the bathroom.
Some designers almost invariably produce a craft in which the
top weight as expressed in the form of deck structures, etc., is more
DESIGN
than a seaman likes to have with him in bad sea conditions. Sales-
manship plays its inevitable part here.
On the other hand, it must be admitted that provided the meta-
centric height calculation and the general stability, water tightness and
freeboard are satisfactory, there is no harm from the point of view of
sea kindliness in having some top hamper in the form of deckhouses.
Too much stability will result in violence in rolling, so that a
certain amount of top weight can be actually beneficial provided
sufficient range of positive righting moment is available.
Speed Estimates
It is a vital part of the preparation of a design that a reliable speed
estimate should be arrived at.
The problem may be presented in various ways, but essentially
the designer is likely to require to know how fast a vessel will run
with a given horsepower installed.
Alternatively, he may wish to know how much horsepower will
be required to achieve a stipulated speed with this vessel.
As mentioned above, the art of estimating weights will come
much to the fore here, as in all cases where speed aLd power are to be
found the weight is all-important.
I n arriving a t the total displacement at which a vessel is to run,
one of the principal loads is apt to be the fuel required to achieve
a stipulated endurance and therefore range. Obviously one must
have an idea of the horsepower required to produce the speed at
which the range is to be achieved before the fuel consumed per mile
or per hour can be calculated.
I n a vessel designed to have a large radius of action the weight of
fuel can amount to as much as 30 per cent of the total displacement.
In assessing the horsepower for cruising speed a varying displace-
ment will result between tanks full and empty, again differing by as
much as 30 per cent.
I n practice the horsepower will probably be calculated on
the basis of obtaining the full speed desired at half-tanks full
displacement unless it is clearly stipulated that the maximum speed
has to be obtained with full tanks.
Knowing the displacement, or at least knowing it as far as it can
be known at this stage, the power required for a given speed can be
predicted in a number of ways.
For the purpose of this work we shall consider in the first instance
the fast type of hard-chine hull.
Unquestionably the best way to predict speeds is to make use of
model tank data combined with actual recorded results of similar
full-scale craft under practical running conditions.
93
Suitable interpolations will have to be made to fit the case in point.

As the obtaining of and use of the data available from a model
tank is a highly specialised subject it is proposed to devote a special
chapter to this subject (Chapter XXVI).
There is a fairly rough-and-ready method of predicting speeds in
the case of hard-chine boats which consists in making use of a curve
built up from a series of figures representing pounds weight of dis-
placement divided by total available brake horsepower (Fig. 69).
A series of ratios as expressed above can be found from a number
of known craft and plotted against speed.
l0o 0 10 20 KNOTS
Fig. 69:-Lbs./b. h.p, against speed

94
DESIGN
I n the case, then, of a contemplated design, if we know the figure

for Ibs./b.h.p. speed can be predicted with a fair degree of accuracy.
This form of prediction can really only be used where similar craft
are in consideration. That is to say, it would not be much use as a
method where the length differed by much more than, say, 50 per
cent. Equally, it will not be much use where speeds are greatly
different. I t is a good rough guide for runabouts, speedboats, fast
ship's-tenders, etc., where neither powers, speeds, nor sizes are vastly
different.
I
v law to be applicable the above method cannot

If we allow the ---=
d~-
very well be of universal application, as the followjng example

making- use of actual trial data will show.
v =5. Displacement was
A 64-ft. boat doing 40 knots will have a -
2/f,
27 tons for a known 40-knot M.T.B. and b.h.p. 2,200. Lbs.1b.b.p.
was then 27 circa, which, on the basis of a series of ratios plotted
for smaller boats, would give a speed of only 34 knots.
Obviously propeller design and operating conditions will enter
into the matter as well as the effect of "scale". If, for instance, the
propeller dimensions selected are such that cavitation is occurring
the performance will be much down on that anticipated from the
use of the methods of prediction described above. This remark is
not so applicable since emergence of the fully cavitating technique.
Propeller design as related to high-speed craft merits a chapter
if not a book to itself (see Chapter XX).
There are other methods of speed caIculation, or perhaps
approximation would be a better word, which obviate the necessity
to use a model tank.
Series of curves have been prepared based upon data obtained in
an experimental tank.
Most of these curves have been prepared from data obtained from
the works of the famous Admiral Taylor of the U.S. Navy, but they
relate, of course, to a standard hull of the round form and mostly to
the medium speeds.
The really high speeds are difficult to predict from prepared
tables, because, apart from other factors, so much depends upon
making use of the optimum propeller.
A case to show the importance of this propeller question can be
quoted where a type of M.T.B. was put into production in the U.S.A.
after having been tried out in service in the U.K. a year previously.
By the time the U.S. production was running trials one might not
have expected that there was much to be learnt about the perform-
ance, more especially as the same hull form, machinery, and under-
water arrangements were used and the displacement was much
KNOTS
Fig. 70
about the same. Actually the author himself, who was sent over
to help sort out the imponderables, found after some weeks of
detective work that even the displacement figures provided were
incorrect owing to the draught marks being incorrectly fitted in the
first place. I t is not recollected that such was the case in this parti-
cular instance, but when in trouble from this source it is not so
impossible as might be thought to find the boat built to the wrong
shape to a sufficient extent to affect the issue.
Nevertheless, when the boats were first run at full power their
full speed was some 5 knots less than was achieved some months
later at the same power, but with an improved propeller design. This
will perhaps serve to point out how vital is the correct appreciation
of propeller design and manufacture in all its aspects.
Further methods available for performance estimation are dis-
cussed in the following chapter.
[P.D.C.]
REFERENCE
PETER DU C A N E : "Crusader". The Design and Construction of John Cobb's
Jet-Propelled Boat. "The Motor Boat and Yachting," August I 952.
CHAPTER VII
T H E P R I N C I P L E S U N D E R L Y I N G T H E PER-
FORMANCE O F PLANING CRAFT I N T H E O R Y
AND P R A C T I C E
As ALREADY discussed, the definition of a planing craft is difficult to

accomplish with precision.
I t will perhaps suffice, however, to classify planing hulls as those
where the object ofthe designer has clearly been to induce "planing"
by making best use of the dynamic lift generated as a result of the
bottom ruining over the water surface at high speed.
Although, as will be explained later, the performance of the
planing bottom at speed can be likened to that of a supercavitating
hydrofoil, it must be understood that in the case of all such planing
craft an element of the hydrostatic principles which supported the
craft at rest will be providing lift to some extent.
The extent to which this hydrostatic lift will assist in producing
equilibrium in the vertical sense will depend mainly upon the speed,
area and shape of the planing surface which can be usefully employed.
In the case of such craft as fast M.T.B.s and runabouts this type of
lift will become almost of negligible importance when speedllength
ratios in the neighbourhood of, say, 5 are reached. There are, how-
ever, expressions, referred to later, available from published data
which purport to define this lift quantitatively. I t is a mistake to
consider that only those hulls with a hard-chine are planing craft.
Basic Planing Theory

I t is not too easy to expound with precision a theoretical explana-
tion of the laws governing planing performance. Many eminent
scientists have studied the subject and a perusal of the classical works,
mostly published in the 'thirties, will reveal much that is helpful
in understanding the subject without, in my opinion, revealing a
solution which is in all respects satisfactory in fundamentals.
The works of Sottorf, Wagner, Sambraus, Shoemaker, Perring and
Gott are all in their way helpful. In more recent years Korvin-
Kroukovsky, John D. Pierson, Samuel Leshnover, Allan B. Murray
and Eugene Clement have taken the subject perhaps a stage further,
certainly towards putting quantitative values on the various para-
meters involved in considering a given planing surface.
Fundamentally it would seem the passage of the planing surface
or hull free to assume an attitude consistent with equilibrium at
97
velocity V over the surface of the water will generate a force normal
to the "run" of the planing surface. Its amount will depend upon
the loading and weight of the boat to be supported hydrodynamically
and provided the speed is high enough we can ignore the hydrostatic
effect.
The tangential force will depend upon the friction between water
and the surface of the planing bottom.
I n each case the integrated velocity of water relative to the wetted
surface from forward to aft is an important quantity.
A satisfactory explanation of the fundamental laws governing
the situation might be facilitated if we knew or could approximate
to the mass of water disturbed in the course of the passage of the
planing surface.
If the mass of water moved and the velocity and direction thereof
were known we could equate the resultant of thrust and lift to the
momentum change taking place in this mass of the water in given
time. I t would seem the circulation theory could be used as for
the case of fully-cavitating propellers, but so far as is known no
such effort has yet been made.
Total Lift from Momentum Considerations

A theoretical method of solving the above problem has been de-
veloped by John D. Pierson and Samuel Leshnover in their recent
report from the E.T.T. entitled An Anahsis of the Fluid Flow in the
S'ray Root and Wake Regions of Flat Planing Surfaces. Here they
expound a method for obtaining a value for lift by consideration
of momentum vector changes in the system.
The difficulty described above of knowing the actual mass of
water involved is overcome by considering a "streamline " sufficiently
(infinitely far) below the surface to avoid distortion from a straight
line.
I t would still seem, however, somewhat of a pious hope that the
width of the spray root should be capable of measurement with any
reasonable degree of accuracy, also the reasoning outlined below is
based on neglecting friction and gravity, I t also assumes a planing
surface of infinite dimensions.
When it becomes necessary to consider the more practical "veed"
form the problem will be even more apparent. However, as the
E.T.T. report is of general academic interest the reasoning and con-
clusion of the authors is set out below:
"The principle of linear momentum may be applied to the mass
of fluid which at time t , occupies the volume bounded by the free
surfaces, the solid boundary, some streamline y,, and the lines AB,
CD, and EF shown in Fig, 71. Let the momentum of the fluid thus
Plate 9. 73-ft. AirlSea rescue vessel of compromise hard-chine form
Plate 10. 68-ft. High-speed L a u d
Plute I I. N.A.S. T.Y.-@e Fast Patrol Boat

'%t, .-'
,"
PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING T H E PERFORMANCE OF PLANING CRAFT
,.
bounded be M At some later instant t2, this same mass of fluid will
have moved under steady-state conditions so that it will then be
bounded by the same streamlines, but AB will have moved to A'B',
CD to C'D ', and EF to E'F'. Meanwhile the momentum of this fluid
wdl have changed in both magnitude and direction to some value
M,. I t is then easily seen from Fig. 71 that the vector rate of
Fig. 71:-Momentum changes injorer aroundjat planing surface
change in momentum between M I and M 2 will be due solely to the

contributions from the portions of fluid ABB'A', CDD'C' and
EFF 'E ' during the time interval (t2-tJ .
"Now by the principle of linear momentum, the rate of change of
linear momentum, dM/dt, of a mass is equal to the vector sum, R, of
the external forces on that mass. Therefore:
where the symbols +4 and -t indicate vector addition and subtrac-

tion respectively. In order to avoid having to take into account the
_
horizontal component of the external force on the "bounded " fluid
due to the pressure distribution along the vi streamline, this line will
be taken sufficiently far below the free surface (approaching infinity)
where its shape and orientation is considered to approach that of a
straight horizontal line. Then, by denoting this particular stream-
line by y and the corresponding infinite distance Hi by H,, the
last equatlon becomes :
But since R is the resultant of the external forces on the "bounded"

fluid mass, it must be equal to the vector sum of the normal reaction,
-F, of the solid boundary on the fluid and the vertical force, P, on
the fluid due to the integrated pressure distribution over the entire
y, streamline. The last equation can therefore be written as:
R=e(H, --8)V2*~8V2+eH,V2=(-F) P.
"The relationship expressed in this equation is shown graphically
in the vector diagram of Fig. 7 1. Adding the horizontal components
of these vectors gives:
-F sin z = -e(H, -d)V2 +@V2 cos z -t-eH,V2
=e8V2(1 +cos z)
or
'r
F= -@V2 cot -
2
. 9,
Aerofoil Analogy
T o refer back for a moment to the aerofoil analogy it is as well to be
clear that there are fundamental differences between the planing
bottom and the aerofoil.
While the aerofoil is completely "submerged" and derives a large
proportion of lift from the suction acting on the upper surface, the
planing surface will derive its lift only from the pressure on the under-
side resulting from momentum changes in the high relative velocity
of the encountered water stream. a
One of the fundamental differences between aerofoils or hydrofoils

arises when considering the CLmax. which a section of given planform
is capable of developing. For the case of the aerofoil as has been
mentioned above a considerable proportion of the lift is derived from
the upper surface of the section up to the point where a breakdown
in the character of the flow takes place resulting in sudden loss of lift
or "stalling" (see Fig. 72). This stall occurs at increasingly higher
angles of attack as the aspect ratio reduces. A circular planform
submerged plate exerts its CLmax., for instance, at 45' before the lift
breaks down and the surface stalls.
Lift
C ~ feAV2
= making use of appropriate dimensions. I
For the planing surface case, however, no sign of "stalling " occurs ;
and while it is true CLmax. for aerofoils of low aspect ratio can reach
a higher figure than in the case of those with high aspect ratio, this can
only be as a result of higher angles of incidence and it should be
appreciated that maximum section lift is not, of necessity, a criterion
for the efficiency of the lifting surface as expressed, for instance, as a
Note: where p is used in formulae throughout this chapter it represents mass density
(Ibs. ~ec.~/ft.').
I00
PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE PERFORbfANOE OF PLANING CRAFT
lift/drag ratio. For the planing surface of aspect ratio up to one or

a little more there is fairly convincing evidence that the efficiency will
improve with increasing aspect ratio, certainly for a given angle of
attack. Higher aspect ratios than these are not really of much
practical importance in the planing boat case owing to considerations
of impact loading and the general geometry of the boat.
STALL
oC ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
Fig. 72:-Stalling of an aerofoil
As mentioned previously, some of this lift can be attributed to

hydrostatic principles even in the case of a ski or planing surface of
negligible thickness. There will still be acting on the underside of
the planing surface a force resulting from the tendency of the locally
depressed water surface to reach the general level of the surrounding
water (see Fig.93).
I n the case of an aerofoil it is the wing which moves at high
velocity through the air. However, in order to study performance of
the appropriate aerofoil section experimentally, a model of the wing
remains stationary within a "wind tunnel" while a, current of air at
known velocity is passed over it, This air velocity represents the
speed of the aircraft relative to the surrounding air.
I n the case of the planing surface this method of obtaining per*
formance data relative to a stationary planing surface could probably
be employed, though as far as is known this method has so far not
been adopted.1 I t would, of course, be necessary to induce a flow of
water with its surface at the appropriate height on the planing
model to pass under it at "scale" speed.
Planing Surface Experimental Data

The more usual method for this case is to tow in an experiment
tank a planing surface constrained to a prearranged angle of
incidence and wetted length and to measure the forces thereon. A
1 This has been adopted recently in certain behaviour investigations carried out in
the Vosper Cavitation Tunnel.
I01
great deal of data on planing surfaces was collected and published in

useful form by W. Sottorfl of the Hamburg Tank and Shoemaker2
in the U.S.A. about 2 0 years ago.
I n the case of, for instance, hard-chine hulls of the M.T.B. type
they can be towed through an experiment tank as described in
Chapter XXVII.
The essential planing conditions for the flat bottom can best be
described by study of the following thesis:
Flow Analysis under a Flat Planing Surface

Consider a flat plane, infinitely wide, advancing with velocity V at
an attitude to direction of motion. To establish certain funda-
mental relationships it is simpler to consider the dynamically similar
case of the plane fixed and the fluid moving past with velocity V, as
shown in the diagram.
SPRAY ROOT
Fig. 73:-Flow cotzditions under Jlat planing surface
If we take the idealised flow past the infinitely wide plane whose
trailing edge is at A and neglect the effects of friction and gravity, as
they do not affect the basic characteristics, the flow pattern, which
will be two-dimensional, will be as shown in Fig. 73.
The flow impinges on the plane and divides as shown, the main
stream continuing to the left and a smaller stream of initial width 6
being deflected to the right (in practice this portion "thrown
forward " becomes spray due to the action of gravity). One stream-
line which terminates at right angles to the plane at the "stagnation
point" divides these two regions. At the stagnation point the velocity
of the fluid is zero and at this point maximum pressure occurs-all
the velocity head has been converted to pressure head, i.e. stagnation
pressure = geV 2.
Experiments with Planing Surfaces, N.A.C.A., T M . No. 661, 1932, and No. 739, 1934,
bv W. Sottorf.
' 2 Tank Tests ofFlat and V-bottom Planing Surfaces, N.A.C.A., TN. No. 509, Nov. 1934,
by James M. Shoemaker.
PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE PERFORMANCE OF PLANING CRAFT
Since the fixed plane-moving fluid concept is an example of steady

motion, i.e. one in which the velocity at any point is independent of
time, we may apply Bernoulli's equation to the flow in this particular
case. Thus the velocity at every point on the surface streamlines CD
and AB is everywhere V since the pressure is constant and equal to
Po (atmospheric pressure) along these streamlines. Furthermore the
velocity is uniformly V across the fluid of depth H some distance
ahead of the plane; it will ultimately become uniformly V of depth
(H - 6) some distance abaft the plane and the "forward thrown"
portion will ultimately have a uniform velocity V, thickness 6.
Using the above approach the flow and thus the velocity and
pressure distributions can be determined theoretically by the normal
methods of hydrodynamics. It is sufficient here to indicate the nature
TRAILING EDGE STAGNATION POINT

(TRANSOM)
Fig. 74:-Relation of pressure to velocity through length of planing surface
of the results obtained, which are as shown in Fig. 74. The pressure
distribution is sharply peaked in the region of the stagnation point
and the theory shows that the smaller the trim angle the more
sharply peaked the curve of pressure distribution. I t siould also be
noted that theory indicates that the pressure is everywhere positive.
By integrating the pressure the total normal force F on the plane can
be evaluated. The value of this force may also be obtained by
momentum considerations. However, in order to retain a realistic
approach to the problem we will consider now the practical case of
the fluid at rest and the plane moving forward with velocity V and
use energy considerations to determine the value of the force F (see
Fig* 75)
The plane is assumed to be moving forward with velocity V at trim
angle 2 into fluid at rest. Relative to the plane the flow pattern will
Fig. 75:- Velocities

in way of a planing
surface related to a
be identical to that shown in Fig. 73. The velocities relative to a

fixed observer in this latter case are obtained by simply adding to
them vectorially the uniform horizontal velocity V. Thus at A
velocity relative to plane is V tangential to plane. The velocity
relative to a fixed observer will be the vector sum of this velocity and
the horizontal velocity V and is 2V sin z/2 as shown in Fig. 76 (a).
2Vsin'C/2 (a)
Figs. 76 ( a ) and (b):- b C
Velocities in way of a v
planing surface relative to
a jxed observer
Similarly at D the velocity relative to a fixed observer will be

2V cos 212 at ;2/2 to the horizontal (see Fig. 76 ( 6 ) ) .
Both well before and well abaft the plane the fluid is at rest. Now
the work done by the normal force in the direction of motion in unit
time = FV sin z.
Mass of fluid "thrown forward " in unit time = QCWand its absolute
velocity is 2V cos z/2. I
Therefore its kinetic energy is iedV(2V cos ~ 1 2 and ) ~ this is the

only energy imparted to the system.
Work done by force = K.E. imparted to system.
.*.FV sin z = &&V.(2V cos ~ 1 2 ) ~
.'. F=e6V2 2 cos2 42
sin z
= e6V2
2 c0s2212
2 cos 212
sin 212
.*.F = e8V2 cot 212
This is the same result as arrived at on page 100.
From the foregoing analysis it is apparent that a very considerable
controlling factor is the portion of fluid deflected in the direction of
motion.
I 041
I t will be realised this mass of water (spray) of thickness 6 which

is deflected forward only occurs in its ideal form as shown in Fig. 73
when considering flat planing surfaces of infinite width associated
with gravity-free conditions and water without viscosity.
When considering the more practical case of the flat planing sur-
face of finite width and taking into account gravity and viscosity of
Fig. 77:- Transverse

path of spray, leduing
j a t andprismatic plan-
ing surface
water, the forward-moving mass of thickness 6 quite soon becomes

spray and falls away from the surface. If we now consider the even
more practical case of the "veed" planing surface there will arise a
considerable transverse direction in the spray mass. Hence the
greater the transverse element in the spray direction resulting from
the "veed" shape of planing surface the less will be the lifting
force (F).
To develop a given supporting force (F), which in the practical
boat must be equal to the all-up weight, the planing surface in
contact with the water will therefore have to be of bigger area, and
hence greater frictional resistance for a given speed, as the angle of
"vee" (deadrise) is increased.
At the same time it can readily be understood, especially in the
case of the flat planing surface, where lift forces are very localised,
that high planing pressures are involved. The more the "vee", there-
fore, the less the bottom loadings.
A good rough-and-ready indication of the magnitude of the
bottom loading can be obtained by observation of the angle at which
the spray leaves the hull as well as its amount. The highest loadings
occur, of course, when spray leaves in a forward direction as from
the flat surface. If the spray is seen to emerge almost at right angles
relative to the running hull, this will indicate high loadings such as
may be present with very flat %eeY'bottom sections or stepped forms.
The best running boats from the point of view of soft riding can as a
general rule be judged by the neatness and apparent sternwards
movement of the spray generated. Fig. 78 shows diagrammatically
the spray direction relative to the boat and absolutely (relative to a
point in space).
It can well be understood that even for the case of the spray flowing
away relatively sternwards V(abs.) is forward involving high pressures.
I t can well be imagined therefore how high must be the loadings
Fig. 78:-Spray
direction and
velocities
consequent upon the forward direction of V(abs.) when V(re1.) is at

right angles to the hull-a not uncommon case,
The accompanying pressure plot as shown in Fig. 79 shows the
magnitude of the pressure throughout the length of the wetted surface
of a flat plate form of planing surface. It will be observed that at one
point well forward the pressure will equal the velocity head keV2
and that the velocity of the water at this point, called the stagnation
X p WETTED LENGTH
DISTRIBUTION
Fig. 79:-The two-dimensionalJow about a klaning flat plate.

Longitudinal section of plate
106
point, will be zero relative to the plate. At points progressively

4
further aft the pressure will be reduced and t e velocity will con-
sequently increase until it leaves the aft edge of the planing surface at
V again. It is a convention that in the region of the propeller the
velocity will be equal to V,. as it will be near enough to the aft
edge for most cases, I t has been suggested experimentally that there
is a reduction in pressure or suction beneath the aft sections of the
hull. However, this is rather difficult to justify theoretically where
flat or nearly flat planing surfaces (buttock lines) are concerned.
Effect of Convexity of Buttock Lines or "Rocker"

While, as above stated, it seems doubtful whether negative pressures
can be deemed to exist under any part of the flat planing surface, it is
I
worth considering what might take place where a noticeable degree
of convexity or "rocker" is worked into the longitudinal shape (aft
buttock lines) as in the sketch below.
Fig. 80:-Efect of convex buttock lines
Consider conditions at or near the surface in the vertical section

AA. We know that where the water leaves the planing surface at A
it must have reached very nearly full velocity V at atmospheric
pressure again after having been reduced to zero at the stagnation
point (see Fig.79). If the formation of the boat is such that the buttock
lines tend to run upwards aft and the trim of the boat is constrained
in some manner to agree with w.1.l then it is inescapable that a
suction or air pocket would be liable to form as shown.
If, however, as happens in the case of a practical planing boat, the
hull is free to take up the trim as dictated by equilibrium conditions
then the water-line will become as in w.L2 SO that the condition of
atmospheric pressure and velocity V must exist at the transom. In
other words the boat will run with the exaggerated trim angle
indicated in relation to the water-line w.L2.
This in turn brings in its train such undesirable features as high
concentration of water loadings on relatively flat aft sections of the
hull as well as perhaps some awkward propeller operating conditions.
For the above reasons the practical hard-chine planing hull form
should eschew a marked degree of longitudinal convexity in the
after sections as far as possible, although it is, of course, impos-

sible to avoid this altogether throughout the length of the run of .
the bottom.
I n order to keep the run of buttock lines aft to reasonable angles
it will help to work in the necessary "vee" in the forward sections for
shock-absorbing purposes if the run of the chine is convex and
then concave considering the side elevation from aft to forward (see
Fig. 81).
Fig. 81 * a
Effect of Longitudinal Curvature

Sottorf, however, discusses the effect of longitudinal curvature in
his paper No. 739:
"According to the pressure distribution measurement on surface
A, the pressure at the forward edge of the wetted surface where the
deflection of the water occurs, rises immediately to maximum and
rapidly drops again rearward. If the surface is curved fore and aft
the water flowing relatively to the surface undergoes a steady
directional change downward, as a result of which the change of
momentum, and correspondingly the pressure, transmitted by the
water per unit surface, is greater over the after unit areas than in the
Fig. 82
?RIM W. AND CG'

,p/l' VERSUS CG FOR SURFACE A , AND 16-17
I 08
case of the flat bottom. This means that the mean pressure on the
wetted surface p,=A/F' increases, and for equal lift (F') A (area) is
reduced, compared to the flat bottom, thus resulting in a gain of
frictional resistance WR at equal angle of trim. I n Fig, 82 the angle
of trim a' for the curved surface denotes the setting of the chord
corresponding to the wetted length I'.
"For comparison with the flat surface A, we investigated surface
No. I 6, having a radius of curvature R = I I ,500 mm., and surface No.
E CM 1 CF VERSUS a FOR SURFACE A & 16-17
I 7 with R=6,ooo mm. These surfaces, 0.3 m, width, had a fore-and-

aft curve with constant radius, but were flat transversely. Fig. 83
shows the minimum resistance of surface No. I 6 to be I 0.3 per cent,
and that of surface No. I 7, 15.6 per cent lower than that of surface A.
The decrease in resistance is approximately proportional to the
reduction in wetted surface. The moment is reduced to an even
greater degree than the wetted surface, because the distance I, of
the resultant from the after edge of the planing surface becomes
smaller as the pressure distribution curve becomes fuller. Fig, 82,
where the ratio Z,/P versus a is given for the flat and curved surfaces,
shows how ZJ1' decreases as the curvature increases."
The effect here may well be a reduction in velocity of water in the
region of the propellers as well as an increase in pressure in this region
of the bottom.
The consequence of this longitudinal curvature in the planing
surface at the aft end may perhaps therefore result in much improved
operating conditions for the propeller with consequent marked
improvement in efficiency due amongst other factors to delay and
reduction in the incidence of cavitation.
Some result similar to this probably explains the use of the "effekt"
rudders on the German "E" boats at high speeds. In this case a
relatively large rudder placed near the centre line is used for steering
the boat, while two smaller ones placed wider apart open in
opposite directions actuated by separate controls when the speed
starts to increase to an extent resulting in pronounced trim by the
stern. The effect is to reduce the trim and increase the speed, the
exact reason for which result is obscure, but is probably not un-
connected with reducing velocity of flow and so increasing pressure
under the bottom in this region. The "effekt" rudders are usually fore
and aft at low or normal speeds. A similar effect can be anticipated
from the use of transom "flaps" capable of depressing the flow as
it leaves the bottom edge of transom.
Effect of Deadrise ("Vee")

As already discussed when considering planing principles, most,
if not all, seagoing boats make use of an element of "vee" or
deadrise in their transverse sections, varying from almost zero at the
transom to 60' or more forward. This results in reduced shock and
planing loadings and also increased wetted surface in order to support
the same all-up weight.
The effect of deadrise compared to the flat plate case can be seen
from a study of Shoemaker's data as set out in Fig. 84.
The efficiency of the planing surface in this case can be represented
A
by the parameter - which for a plate is:
R'
8.5 for 10" deadrise
6.3 ,, 20" deadrise
5.0 ,, 30' deadrise
Obviously when we get much beyond, say, 50" deadrise the point is
approaching rapidly where at go0 deadrise, representing a plate on
edge, it will support nothing. It must be clear that constant deadrise
is considered here,
A
SYMBOL C A ' w
X 0.1
f .2
u .3
4 4 4
0 a 5
30' DEADRISE
10' DEADRISE 20' DEADRISE
VARIATION OF A I R , W L / b 8 C p l b AT BEST TRIM ANGLE

WlTH PLANING COEFFICIENT. K.
10
8 %
J
U
6 z
;I
2
4
.
2 2
01
0
O 04 08 12 16 20 24 28 32
K= ---
A
tt2p~2b2
VARIATION OF A I R W L l b & c p / b AT BEST TRTM ANGLES
WITH PLANING COEFFICIENT K 0"DEADRISE
R
To those accustomed to using the - figure when considering, for
A 1
LI
instance, tank modelresults, it should be remarked that - used above
R
is non-dimensional and more akin to the liftldrag ratio of the aero-
R
dyqamicist, whereas - is usually expressed as lb. per ton of displace-
A
ment.
Effect of Aspect Ratio

An important parameter affecting efficiency to some extent
analogous to aerofoil theory is aspect ratio. For the case of a wing of
span
rectangular planform aspect ratio is represented by -(seeFig.85).
chord
beam
For a planing surface this will be represented by
wetted length (w.1.)
w .
To cater for the case where the planform may not be uniform in
chord (w.1.) aspect ratio is frequently expressed B 2/S, where B = beam
g5:-Ed
Fig. =Aspect ratio
i
and S = total wetted surface. For the case of the "veed" surface
wetted length is usually expressed according to the accompanying
sketch (see Fig.86).
Some measure of the effect of aspect ratio can be observed from a
study of Shoemaker's data (see Fig. 84) for the flat plate case.
A
Here a distinct peak will be observed in the curve of - at which
R
w.1.
---0.4.
b
I t will be seen that at figures both above and below this point the
A
- figures are not so high.
R
I t may be claimed that the indication here is that optimum aspect
ratio would be (&) =25
E
L
N
G
H
T--/ ON STATIC WATERLINE L . ~ !
*/-
Fig. 86:-Sketch
showing means of
expressing wetted
length
On the other hand account must be taken of the fact that these
curves are plotted by Shoemaker on the basis that for each point
optimum trim angle is assumed. The nature of the experimental
technique may possibly compromise these results to some extent.
A study of Fig. 87 (from Shoemaker's paper) will show that
optimum angles of incidence around 4$" can as a generalisation
Fig. 87
A N G L E O F D E A D RISE-DEG.
be taken to represent the optimum for flat plate rising to 64' for 20"
deadrise.
For a number of reasons planing angles of this magnitude are
frequently impractical at least in the case of a hard-chine craft.
Perring in R. & M. I 646 produces an expression for lift :
L=kL SeV2
where k, = aa and a=slope of lift curve coefficient against angle
of incidence. So that hydrodynamic lift of planing surface of aspect
ratio A can be calculated from the formula:
where a=o.45 A0*42and A (aspect ratio) = 621s.

This applies to the flat plate case and indicates that increase of
aspect ratio improves lift for a given surface and angle of attack.
In the same paper (Perring, R. & M. I 646) the case of the "veed"
planing surface is discussed and an expression similar to the above is
derived making allowance for deadrise angle. Here again the aspect
ratio which is defined for surface with angle of "vee" =,!isIexpressed as
b sec 2p
A=
S
HIGH-SPEED SMAIA CRAFT
ASPECT RATIO
Fig. 88:-The constant "K" of Equation 2
PLANING SURFACES 0.003

0 HULLS
0.002
0.4 06 1.0 2 3
ASPECT RATIO
Fig, 89:-The exponent "n " of Equation 2

1I 4
The indication is still to the effect that increase in lift for a given
surface will increase with the value of aspect ratio though the total
lift will be reduced almost linearly as the angle of deadrise increases.
F. W. S. Locke1 has made some useful contributions to the study
of planing surfaces in his paper An Em~iricalStudy of Low Aspect Ratio
Lifting Surfaces with particular regard to Planing Craft.
Here he shows inter alia that for aspect ratios less than 2.0, which is
above the practical limit for hard-chine craft, the lift coefficient CL
can be estimated with reasonable accuracy by C L = q K ~ "where
Lift
.
*BAv2 K and n depend only upon the aspect ratio and q is
a function primarily of the operating conditions. Locke finds that if
7 is assumed to be unity for an aerofoil (i.e. completely submerged)
q will have a value which is near enough for all purposes to $ for
flat-bottomed planing surfaces.
Figures 88 and 89 give values for K and n in Locke's Equation
for CL for given aspect ratios. Study of Locke's data (see Fig. go)
will once again show the effect of increasing aspect ratio on lift
coefficient.
The case of the "veed" planing surface is covered by Locke by
introducing a factor y into his lift equation:
where K and n are found as before from Figures 88 and 89 (Locke)

while y is dependent upon deadrise in accordance with Fig. 91.
Fig. 92 is of use as an indication of where dynamic planing principles
may be considered to be operative to an effective extent. I t will be
observed that to the right of the shaded line q in Locke's planing
equation can be assumed to be 4, while to the left this is not
applicable, probably because the effects of hydrostatic forces become
relatively important in these ranges.
It may be thought that the above discussion of planing principles
1
1
and aerofoil analogy is only of theoretical interest to the practical
1i designer of planing craft, but it is submitted that so many relatively
i
unexplained phenomena exist in the performance and behaviour of
1 practical planing craft, even today, that these principles are worth
I study if only as an aid to understanding some of the many apparent
1 contradictions between theory and practice which still exist.
I Planing Surface Variants

E
As stated above, while for optimum planing efficiency it appears
that angle of attack of a planing surface relative to that at which zero
Aeronautical Research Engineer (Hydrodynamics), Research Division, Bureau of
Aeronautics.
I II5
ANGLE O F ATTACK. DEG.

Fig. go
DEAD RISE DEG
-
Fig. 91:-Bounda y of planing o a t bottomed planing surfaces
lift is developed may be said to be between 4+" and 64" dependent

upon the deadrise. I n the practical seagoing hard-chine boat, for
various reasons, however, this angle is normally found not to be
practicable. I t may be observed that for the example on pages I 19
to 128 worked on Allan B. Murray's method the running angle of
incidence almost coincides with the optimum at 4O.
For the case of the two or multi-stepped hull, however, the more
efficient planing surface can be incorporated certainly at the main
step where relatively high aspect ratio and angle of incidence may be
anticipated (see Fig. 6).
As has been mentioned already, some compromise as far as
capability to absorb shocks is ,envisaged here and it is almost im-
possible to ensure that spray from the main step will not impinge
upon the after body. This, according to experiments conducted by
Sottorf and others, can increase the resistance of this step alone by as
much as 30 per cent.
Another variant which was used in the case of the Crusader
consisted in the arrangement of three planing surfaces or skis
attached to what might be termed a buoyant fuselage in such a
manner that at high speeds a satisfactory balance could be obtained
from the two planing surfaces (skis)' aft and the single forward
planing surface.
I t is true that at first sight it might appear that the long thin ski
form would involve unduly low aspect ratio, but at the higher speeds
this would by no means be the case owing to progressive reduction
in effective wetted length with speed increase.
I t is of interest that in the model stage "skis" adjustable as to
angle of incidence and distance apart were used and after much high-
speed model running the optimum angles of incidence arrived at
experimentally were 54" for the single forward planing surface and
34' for the two aft surfaces.
Hydrostatic Lift
At this point it is appropriate to consider again the hydrostatic lift
which was mentioned previously.
Referring to the sketch (see Fig. 93) and assuming the hydrostatic
lift is represented by the volume of the wedge below the static
water-line, then:
L2B
Volume =-sin z cos z
2
L2B
Vol. =- sin 2 z
4
I 18
Fig. 93:-Hydrostatic lift in planing
The buoyant lift of this submerged volume is :

L2B
Ab=- w sin a z
4
This, it should he noted, is quite independent of speed.
Performance (Resistance) Estimation

We should perhaps now consider how to use what planing data is
available to us for the purpose of making a resistance estimate in the
initial stages of a design study for a planing craft, and before going to
the length of arranging for a model investigation in one of the ex-
perimental towing tanks.
Provided we can estimate resistance it will, of course, follow that an
estimate of effective horsepower can be arrived at by multiplying
resistance for the full-scale craft by speed which will give us a
measure of work done in a given time.
I n I 950 Mr. Allan B. Murray of the Experimental Towing Tank
(E.T.T.) at Hoboken, New Jersey, read a paper before the American
Society of Naval Architects which collates much of the available data
and forms a most useful and informative addition to the knowledge
of those wishing to understand these subjects.1
Other valuable data has been made available from the E.T.T.
including amongst other papers Wetted Area and Center of Pressure
of Planing Surfaces mentioned below.
The work of F. W. S. Locke is of value in any study of data avail-
able for practical use by the designer. The work of Eugene Clement
of the David Taylor Model Basin will be found valuable in deciding
upon the relationship of the principal dimensions on his Hull Form of
Stepless Planing Boats, read to S.N.A.M.E. Chesapeake Section,
January I 955.
Doubtless much useful information could be made available in
Great Britain if such experiment stations as the A.E.W. Haslar were
to publish their collated data. Perring, R. & M. 1646, is of value as
The Hydrodynamics of Planing Hulls.
I I9
well as G. H. Millar as early as 1914. The revised edition (1954)

of K. C. Barnaby's excellent work Basic 3Vaual Architecture covers much
of this ground and Douglas Phillips-Birt has studied the problems
and given some good material.
Barnaby deve1ops"a"K " method of performance estimation which
is of practical value as well as being very simple.
Considering the simple planing case with the flat bottom carrying
a load L and ignoring friction, the diagram of forces is as shown in
Fig. 94 (a) from Allan Murray's paper:
When the friction F which of course acts along the bottom of the
planing surface and parallel thereto is added t h e resistance (R)
becomes :
F
R=Ltanz+ -
cos Z
where F=e/2 Vm2SCf.
By making use of data prepared at the E.T.T. by Korvin-
Kroukovsky, Savitsky, and Lehman, (Wetted Area and Center of Pressure
of Planing Surfaces), the wetted length and resultant c. of p. can be
found for a planing hull of known deadrise and beam at a range of
angles of incidence.
WHERE:
P- DISTANCE OF THE RESULTANT T - A N G L E OF TRIM-IN DEGREES

WATER PRESSURE FROM STEP -ANGLE O F DEADRISE-IN DEGREES
MEASURED ALONG THE KEEL
8 - MEAN WETTED LENGTH h - n/b - WETTED LENGTH / BEAM RATIO
Fig. 95:-Charts enabling determination of centre of pressure of planing

surfacesfrom E. T.T. Report .No. 360
LIFT COEFFICIENT IS DEFINED AS:
C ~ = A / & ( W ~ ~ ~ = ~ C ~ / C ~
FOR A D AT PLATE-DEADRISE ZERO:

c ~ ~ = ~ ~ . ~A(' /. ~o+ I. o~ooQh2/cv2)
~
FOR A VEE SURFACE OF DEADRISE W:
A-'LOAD LB. Y-ANGLE OF TRIM IN DEGREES A-RATIO OF MEAN WETTED

?-WATER DENSITY V-VELOCITY IN
FEET PER SEC. LENGTH TO BEAM
b-BEAM IN FEET -
,8 DEADRISE IN DEGREES Cv- SPEED COEFF. =
Fig. 96:-Interrelationship of variables for planing surfaces,

E.T.T. Report .No. 360
A chart as shown in Fig. 9.1 can then be plotted and the total
resistance obtained by reading off the figure appropriate to that at
which the c. of p. coincides with the known c. of g. of the craft under
investigation.
The appropriate worked example is included below for a hull
about which a good deal is known, so that we can check the estimate
of e.h.p, so obtained from tank results, and incidentally in this case,
from actual performance on the water at full scale.
Preliminary Resistance Estimate-68 -ft M .T.B . *

.
Particulars of Hull
1.w.l. 68 ft. o in.
A 45.0 tons = 100,800 lb.
1.c.b. 28.32 ft. For'd transom at 1.w.l.
Chine beam at transom
IO*' ft*) mean = 12.35 ft.
9,
23 ,, mid-point 15'
mean -
,, ,, mid-point 14.I ft.
Deadrise at transom
Speed = 42.2 kn. = 72 ft./sec.

8-25'
Using Figs. 95 and 96, we will need the speed coefficient:
And the load coefficient :
And the lift coefficient:
We also need CLo, the lift coefficient for a zero degree dead-
rise planing surface. A value of CLo=0.145 is obtained from the
lower chart of Fig. 96 for @, the deadrise angle = 8.25' and
CLP=0.1312.
To obtain a complete picture we will go through calculations for
a wide range of trim angles, t,from 2" to 7'. The following tabula-
tion gives the results :
(7)
Ib.
cG-p
-
725
540
408
302
237
(11)~ (12) (13) (14) (15)'

--
Cf+A R F Tan z A tan z R
- -
I n this tabulation columns ( I ) to (4) are clear enough from Fig. 96.
1..in (5) is wetted length, equal to iZ times b.
- in (7) is the wetted area of the bottom.
lb.
cos 'f3
R,in (8) is Reynolds number, speed in feet per second times wetted
length divided by the kinematic viscosity. For the latter, I .46 x I O - ~ ,
the value for sea water at 50' F. is used. For different temperatures
Table 14 in Barnaby's Basic Naval Architecture, page 154, can be
used.
(9) is the Schoenherr friction coefficient.
( I I ) is (9) plus a correction for roughness of the ship's bottom.
0.400 x IO-~,the value adopted by the American Towing Tank
Conference, is used ( I 5).
Uniform Procedure for the Calculation of Frictional Resistance and the Expansion of Model Test
Data to Full Size, Bulletin No. 1-2 of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine
Engineers, New York, August I 948.
F in (12) is the predicted skin friction calculated by:

F =+eV2,S (Cf+ d R)
1b
where S = -
cos p
*
I t will be found that for thig purpose the assumption that V,,,
= speed of advance (V) leads to estimates nearest the actual recorded
figures resulting from trials.
Values for V,,, were obtained by other methods :
(i) Making use of an expression put forward by Mr. John B, Parkin-
son of N.A.C.A., Langley Field:
wA cos z
where V=forward speed (ft./sec.)
Vrn=mean speed over the wetted surface (ft./sec.)
W =dynamic load on the hull1 (lb.)
A=wetted surface projected on base plane (ft. 2,
z=angle of planing relative base (deg,)
w=specific weight of sea water (lb./ft.3)
g= acceleration of gravity (ft./sec. 2,
This assumes Bernoulli's theorem to be applicable to the

planing case.
(ii) Based on using V, without correction for roughness (this factor,
0.400 x I o-~,was added to Cf in each of the other cases).
However, as explained above, the use of V (speed of advance) gave
closest results to actual, all other methods of assessing V, resulted
in an underestimation of the total resistance.2
(14) is the residual resistance, 100,800 x tan z where
L =A = 100,800 lb.
(15) is the total resistance, frictional plus residual, by
R = A tan z + F
The frictional resistance, the residual resistance, and the total

resistance are plotted against the trim angle as solid-linesin Fig. 97.
Continuing, we determine the centre of pressure versus z by use of
Fig. 95.
See Appendix at foot of page 126.
I t has to be admitted that this can only be conjectural because the residual resist-
ance could equally be the cause of underestimating the total.
These values are plotted on the top of Fig. 97. In our design, the
centre of gravity is given as 28.32 ft. forward of transom. This
means our planing surface will have to operate at 4.03' and our
resistance will be 13,200 lb. Thus, we have a tool in Figs. 95 and
96 for predicting the power requirement for the boat.
Predicted trim z = 4.03'
Predicted resistance = 13,200 lb.
13,200 x 71.3
Predicted e.h.p. @ 42.2 kn. =
550
Appendix
(i) Determination of W =dynamic load on hull, lb.
= A - hydrostatic lift
12bw sin 2z
= I 00,800 -
Solving in tabular form :
1 Z2bw
-sin
I sin 22
-
1 22
58.0 ft. 3,360 69,400 31,400 lb.

42.2 ,, 1,860 51,200 49,600 ,,
32-7 ,, 1,070 36,700 64,100 ,,
24.1 ,, 580 23,800 77,000 ,,
18.1 ,, 327 15,600 85,200 ,,
(ii) Solving in tabular form:
A=lb. 1 cos z A cos z
(iii) Determination of F = heV, S(Cf+AR)
I t should be appreciated that this method as applied to the normal

types of hard-chine boat requires an approximation to be made to
reduce the hull in question to a planing form of constant beam and
deadrise, also incidentally of constant planing angle (7).
This, of course, is but seldom the case as the hard chine is usually
of what is termed the warped-bottom form, also the beam varies
throughout the planing bottom. It is furthermore not too easy to
assess the angle z at which such a craft will actually be planing, as the
buttock lines in aft sections, although almost straight, will not
normally be running at the same angle of incidence to the statio
water-line. Some average here also will have to be arrived at,
probably based on the z for the buttock line at about $ beam
from the centre line. However, the results appear to justify these
assumptions.
127
DISTANCE OF C.P FROM
RESISTANCE 1,000 LB A.i? 14 FEET
a m o a m ~ ~ ~ ~ G = G
15 G 20 ~ 25 b
I t will be noticed from the calculations that residual resistance is

arrived at by using A tan z. The purist may regard this as being
a somewhat primitive assumption as air resistance cannot be in-
cluded and certain simplifications are made as mentioned above.
The frictional resistance will depend largely upon the wetted
length, average velocity over the wetted surface assumed and the
method employed for assessing frictional resistance coefficient (Cr).
Friction resistance is expressed as :
LB
where S =- @=angle of deadrise) and V,=average velocity,
cos p
which is usually assumed as V.
I n the case of Allan B. Murray's paper the method advocated for
assessment of Cr is taken from Bulletin No. 1-2 of the Society of
Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, New York, entitled Uniform
Procedure for the Calculation of Frictional Resistance and the Expansion of
Model Test Data to Full Size. He also refers to a method used by
Sottorf and developed by Prandtl, which appears to give good
results.
Locke has also offered us help in this direction in report
No. 1415 of the Research Division (Bureau of Aeronautics) :
Recommended deJinition of Turbulent Friction in lizcompressible Fluids.
There is some doubt as to whether a "roughness factor" should
be applied as recommended by Allan B. Murray, but on the whole
it may not be a bad idea if the performance is to be estimated
on conservative lines, such as may be the case when the craft has been
in the water some time and needs a scrub. This seems justified by
comparison between the worked example and the actual e.h.p. for
this particular case as found from tank tests. On the whole a rough-
ness factor seems justified. '
It must, however, be appreciated that despite the above attempted
justification for assuming the correctness of the roughness factor
0.0004, it is quite possible that one of the number of other possible
variables enumerated could confuse the issue.
While on the subject of "roughness factor" it can be noted that in
the U.S.A. this application is recommended for clean new vessels. I t
is by no means established that the full-scale vessel to which these
predictions apply and to which the scaled-up e.h.p.s are compared
was in fact new or particularly clean. As the speed was in the
neighbourhood of 43 knots the Reynolds number is high (2.82 x I 08).
A factor which can also affect the issue fairly substantially is the
estimation of wetted surface for the purposes of arriving at a figure
for frictional resistance of the full-scale hulls.
In our calculations it can be seen from column (7) that the expression
Ib.
-is used. As is probably already clear, this involves the assumption
cosg
that deadrise is constant and that the wetted surface is of the same
length throughout a transverse section. I n practice, of course, neither
of these assumptions is altogether tenable.
Characteristic of Curve of Resistance

To refer to the table in Fig. 98 from Shoemaker, we find that for
all speeds above 12 ft,/sec. resistance (R) is constant for loading of
Fig. g8:-Speed ft.lsec.
20 Ib. or less. Above this loading the curve does not flatten out until
about 30 ft./sec. is reached, presumably due to the fact that the water
is not leaving the planing surface cleanly but is climbing up the
sides causing added resistance due to the equivalent of additional
wetted surface area.
Now the significance of this constant value of R with increasing
speed points to the fact that the characteristic curve for such planing
hulls is a straight line-subject only to the effect of air resistance
or propeller performance, bearing in mind constant angle of in-
ci dence.
I n the case of the 5-ft. model (see Plate 38) used to gain information
as to likely behaviour and possible performance of the late Mr. John
130
Cobb's Crusader, in the investigation stage we made use of a rocket

calibrated to produce a steady thrust of 31 lb. which achieved
97.5 m.p.h.
The assumption here must be to the effect that had it not been for
air resistance and appendage drag of rudders and fins the model
would have continued to accelerate until the rocket was expended.
I n practice, of course, the appendage drag was pretty high owing
to the necessity to keep fairly large fins in the water to assist in keep-
ing her straight.
This phenomenon has been proved mathematically by Daniel
Cf;t-eV2ilb2
Savitsky by assuming R/A =tan z -I-
A
where z is trim angle or angle of incidence
A =wetted length
b =planing beam
Cf is turbulent friction coefficient as given by Schoenherr.
Eventually we arrive at the expression:
Thus it is seen that over the speed range indicated R/A is de-
pendent only upon z and not V.
For the fixed trim case and with given load the effect of variation
of speed will be to reduce the wetted area and therefore R, (Reynolds
Number) in the frictional resistance term. This in turn increases
the value Cf so that an effectively constant friction component of
resistance results. For the very high-speed cases this state of affairs
would not of necessity hold but may not be much different. The
incorporation of deadrise in the planing bottom should not alter
this relationship.
U.S.E.M.B. Series 50 Data

There is available to us a methodical series of tests of zo related models
of "vee"-bottom hulls prepared by the David W. Taylor Model
Basin, Washington. Here the planing surfaces calibrated are actually
ofwarped-bottom form. Fig. gg shows a typical page from this report,
From this it can be understood that knowing -,
v beamldraft ratio
2/L
and displacement/length ratio and angle of incidence, we can obtain
an estimate for resistance expressed in lb. -per lb. of displacement,
B
In the above-mentioned terms beamldraft ratio or - is found by
H
making use of the block coefficient K,.
R 131
yL= 4.5
A=N
T =0"
BEAM DRAFT RATIO
BEAM DRAFT RATIO
A=N
= 4"
'I-
.', r
BEAM DRAFT RATIO
Fig.99:-Contours of total model resistances, lb./lb. of displacement
B K1xB2xL
-
H
is then
Volume
where K, = I. 16 x IO?
Or from above
These are useful tables though the results are applicable strictly
only to the actual form tested which was designed some years ago
(1940). I t is doubtful, however, whether the results are far enough
out to matter in relation to recent designs.
A most useful "envelope" of results, the work of E. P. Clements at
the David Taylor Model Basin is reproduced in Fig. 100. By means of a
very simple calculation it will produce a figure for e.h.p. which should
be obtainable provided a good form has been developed. As Mr.
Allan B. Murray so rightly states in his paper, mentioned previously,
"it is comparatively difficult to produce a hull level with the best,
but on the other hand even the most experienced designers can quite
easily produce one which falls short of the optimum by 10 per
cent! "
To anyone experienced in this work the justification for.this state-
ment cannot be denied.
As the calculation is so short I will give the results of an experi-
mental M.T.B. designed by my firm nearly 10 years ago which had
considerable deadrise in its sections and was on the whole rather
narrow aft-at any rate compared to some. This was mainly for
reasons of good behaviour in a following sea.
Case I
A =45 tons
L = 68 ft.
Speed=42.2 knots
V 42.2
From Fig. IOO resistance per pound of displacement =0°135 lb.
Now from trial analysis in conjunction with tank tests

b,h.p. was 3760
while e.h.p. was 1800
and p.c. was 0.48
This result seems to justify the use of this "envelope ",
0.20
0.15
R
w
'
0.10 PLANING BOTTOM
ENCLOSED BETWEEN
V DISPLACED VOLUME
Bpx MAXIMUM BREADTH
OVER CHINES
0.05 v SPEED FTISEC
From E. P. Clements S.N.A.M.E. paper, rg63

Fig. I00
-
PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE PERFORMANCE OF PLANING-CRAFT
Case ZI
A = 50 tons
Speed = 42 knots
w.1. = 68.75 ft.
From Fig. IOO
Note: The actual trial carried out in the case of this boat was run
at a maximum speed of 41.9 knots at 49.1tons displacement for
which the e.h.p. from tank tests was estimated at 1,835.
I n this case the hull form was of a somewhat more efficient form
than that of Case I. There was less 'free" in the section and greater
beam in aft sections, which could be interpreted to indicate higher
aspect ratio which we already know indicates increased planing
efficiency.
David Taylor Model Basin Report No. 14901

This report by Eugene Clement and James D. Pope has been pre-
pared to predict performance of conventional stepless and stepped
planing craft. Here the pure planing lift and centre of pressure
location are calculated making use of semi-empirical equations
derived by C. L. Shuford, Jr., at N.A.S.A. Langley Field.
The Lift Coefficient C L defined
~ as A/&eSV2is based on principal
wetted area also C L equals
~ C L+~C L ~
where C Lis~lifting line term
and CLCis cross flow term
Lift Lifting line term Cross flow term
o.gnA5
CLS = ----- cos 2~ ( I - sin /I)
I +A
+4-3 sin2z cos3z cosp
There has now (1963) been published by Taylor Model Basin a methodical series
prepared by Eugene Clement and Donald Blount and read before S.N.A.M.E. November
1963. This will probably be found more up to date and useful so far as planing forms
are concerned.
I35
where z is in radians
A is aspect ratio bll,
1, is mean wetted length (distance from aft end of planing
surface to the mean of the heavy spray line) ft.
is deadrise angle, degrees.
Centre of Pressure (nun-dimensional)
where I,, is centre of pressure location (measured from aft

end of planing surface) ft.
From the above and making use of the method for calculating
resistance as described previoiisly, the authors are able to arrive at
values for R/A over a range of values for B, z and A. From the
above they are able to conskuct some auxiliary graphs which pro-
vide guidance for solving planing hull design problems.
A minimum resistance point can be found from typical graph
as in Fig. I or. Fig. 102 shows that for ,8 = roo a lift-drag ratio as
high as 8.5 can be achieved with aspect ratios greater than 1.3
and with z 4'. However, promising as this is, it will be realised
that no practical stepless planing form could operate at such high
aspect ratios---at least it is most unlikely. A figure less than half of
this is more usual, so the promising lift to drag ratio cannot be
achieved unless some arrangement to control trim and wetted
length is made.
A hull of the stepped type will be required for this. Such a boat
which will be able to control the trim and achieve these high
efficiencies at high speeds without detriment to low speed per-
formance is being developed at the David Taylor Model Basin.
The usual drawback to the use of the stepped hull is that relatively
low deadrise at the step combined with a concentration of the
majority of the loading in a small area leads to a rough ride in a
seaway. This arrangement under development, however, makes use
of adequate deadrise at the step, and a means of controlling trim by
positive means, so there are hopes of that happy situation arising
where we obtain the best of both worlds provided the complication,
and therefore expense, is not excessive. This development follows
principles enunciated and developed for many years by Mr. Plum,
a Danish engineer.
As a matter of interest the normal planing form will run at an
R/A figure about 40 per cent greater in the high-speed range. This
is the same as referring to a liftldrag figure 40 per cent less. In
practice, of course, the overall propulsive efficiency will be much
Fig, I01
dependent upon appendage drag, which may possibly be somewhat

increased for the controlled step case.
As the expression for residual resistance, (R) is used here as before
R = A tanz
The residual resistance A tan z consists in the amount of pressure
resistance causing wave making as well as the induced drag, but it
is assumed for this case the former is relatively small. Added to
this must be frictional resistance calculated in the usual way and
based on wetted area (see p. I 29).
I HIGH-SPEED SMALL CRAFT
Aspect Ratio
Fig. I02
I t is, perhaps, of interest to note that an alternative semi-empirical

expression for CL of a planing surface has been developed at the
Davidson Laboratory and is given on p. I 2 2 as :
C L=+l
~ +0*00g5a2/cv2)
(0~0120a+
where is lift coeff. for flat plate

A is ratio mean wetted length to beam
C v is speed coeff. =V/ d$
z is angle of trim in degrees
for a vee surface of deadrise ,6 :
C9 =C L-~0 ~ 0 6 5 , 6CLo'6
Trimming Angles
Referring once again to the matter of making use of optimum trim
by making use of the E.T.T. developed method of analysis as
138
set out,' it is possible to see whether an increase or reduction in
effective angle of incidence r will bring about an improvement in
planing efficiency.
Also we have seen both from data supplied by Shoemaker and
Diehl that 4i0-6i0is likely to represent the optimum.
At the same time it is doubtful, in the author's opinion, whether
i
the lines of a hull could be altered to result in an acceptable degree of
accuracy as far as the actual running angle of incidence is concerned,
when considered throughout the running range from rest to full
speed. I t is for this reason that the author makes the possibly un-
popular and controversial statement that it is safer to adhere as
closely as possible to a known form, departing but little except in
scale.
Fig. 103:-Model towed at "scale" speedfrom outrigger
This applies also to the 1.c.g. position and loading factor, which, for
similar hulls, should not be altered to a substantial extent in relation
to other dimensions.
Should there appear to be any real justification for such alteration
it is recommended that a model should be investigated in a towing
tank, or, if this is not possible, at least towed at scale speed from a
. launch with a n outrigger (see Fig. 103).
Though not supplying much information from a resistance point
of view, such trials serve to give a good deal of information as to
behaviour, trim, angle of incidence, wetted length, surface, etc., all
of which go a long way towards giving the experienced designer
confidence in the resulting craft. Even the appearance of the spray
can indicate quite a lot, including bottom loadings.
I t is probably not an exaggeration to say that provided the model
looks to the experienced eye to be trimming and behaving well, any
Wetted Area and Center ofpressure of Planing Surfaces b y B. V ,Korvin-Kroukovsky, Daniel
Savitsky, Wm. F. Lehman.
alterations one way or the other in the estimated value of e.h.p.

will be more than offset by the skill and experience shown in the
arrangement, selection and design of the propeller arrangements.
I n other words, propulsive coefficientis the vital factor here and
forms the subject of Chapter XXIV.
There is another good reason why it is sometimes difficult to adhere
to optimum planing angle, at least in the hard-chine type.
This relates to the all-important matter of matching the machinery
output at given revolutions with the hull requirements for the speed
corresponding to these revolutions (assuming, of course, a fixed-pitch
propeller). Though referred to in Chapter XXIII, an elementary
diagram indicative of this problem is shown in Fig. I 04, in view of the
very great importance of this aspect.
HARD CHINE
/ ' B U T LESS
EFFICIENT AT HIGH SPEEDS
AND LESS HUMP
ENGINE OUTPUT
'HUMP" CONDITI
HARD CHINE.
EFFICIENT
AT HIGH SPEEC
REVS.
I t is here that the so-called free-power turbine, speed gear change

or controllable-pitch propeller can prove of great assistance,
provided the cost in efficiency, weight, complication, or expense is
not excessive.
Criterion for Performance in the case of Planing Craft with

Differing Dimensions
The importance of the above lies in the fact that it is not by any
means easy to be certain that a projected planing craft design
will perform satisfactorily. There are so many characteristics-such
as the ability to change from floating conditions to dynamic planing
without excessive interim trim, clean departure of spray from planing
surfaces, etc.-which have to be just right.
The better-known parameters are

V/ A l l 6 .
v/~/Z
and ~/2/3,
also
As these numbers are based on wave-making characteristics they-
are sometimes considered not to be applicabli to planing craft.
The reasoning set out later in this chapter, which was developed
for the relationship between the model and full scale in the case of
the Crusader project, shows that for actual geometrical similarity
Froude number is in fact applicable to a useful extent.
Prediction of Speed Possibilities where Speeds are Very

High-such, for example, as in the case of Potential Record
Breakers
I t may be of interest to describe briefly how a prediction was
obtained of the speed potentialities of the late Mr. John Cobb's
Crusader which was designed with a view to achieving an eventual
speed of 240 m.p.h. Actually, it is my opinion that the craft was
equalling, if not exceeding, this figure on his last tragic run at Loch
Ness, when, despite the fact that he cut out the engine little more
than halfway down the measured mile, his average was 208 m.p.h.
for the whole mile.
Bearing in mind the fact that to represent 240 m.p.h. in full scale
with a model running at, say 30 m.p.h., which is about as fast as
any known tank carriage in Great Britain can achieve, and assuming
30 ft. as the length of the full-scalejob, we arrive at the following:
x=30=0*47ft.
64
where x = length of model.
This, of course, is not a practical proposition for many reasons, so

it became necessary to think out some alternative to the tank test.
I n this particular case we could simulate the "Ghost " jet unit by
fitting a model rocket of known thrust.
I t was decided that to iive the model the best possible chance
of simulating behaviour at full speed, while at the same time making
some reasonable speed prediction, we should build one at a scale big

enough to ensure that the speed corresponding to the full scale would
bring it into the same turbulent flow range in air. I n other words, it
was decided that the Reynolds number in air for the two cases
should be fairly close and well away from the laminar or transition
stage.
Fig. 105:-Comparison o f geometrically similar planing surfaces
Investigation showed that a model 5 ft. long-that is to say, at one-

sixth full scale-seemed likely to fulfil these requirements if a suitable
rocket could be found.
Here thrust equals resistance and resistance is proportional to La;
so, assuming a thrust available of 5,000, it was necessary to have a
5000
rocket capable of -lb, = 23.2 lb.
63
Actually the rocket we were able to obtain through the kindness
of the Rocket Propulsion Division of the R.A.E. was calibrated to
about 3 I Ib., which was a little too much; but to some extent this was
R
corrected by slightly excessive scale displacement, so the -
A
figures
were reasonably comparable.
We achieved 97.5 m.p.h. with the model, which, using the Froude
basis of comparison, was about equivalent to 240 m.p.h. (see
Plate 38).
I t may be wondered whether this expression still holds good for a
case such as this in view of the fact that it is based on wave-making
considerations. We could consider the simplest form of planing
craft, which might consist of one or more wedge-shaped planing
surfaces as shown, where one is twice the other in the matter of linear
dimensions.
Assuming these wedges to be geometrically similar, it is also
necessary, in order to obtain similarity in running conditions, that
the immersed portion, and therefore the running surfaces, should
be geometrically similar (see Fig. 105).
I n order that immersed volume in each case shall be geometrically
similar W2=W1 x k)'=w1 x 8.
To produce equilibrium, therefore, under planing conditions still

assuming geometrical similarity the dynamic lift generated by the

larger planing surface will have to be 8 times that of the smaller.
Now lift is proportional to area of planing surface times velocity
squared.
So, as the area of the larger planing surface is 4 times that of the
smaller, in order to produce lift 8 times it will be necessary for
In other words, for similarity, ratio of speeds will be proportional

to square root of ratio of linear dimensions. This is the Froude
relationship.
There is, of course, an element of approximation here, because the
change of Reynolds number, due to increase in the value of L,
results in a relative reduction in coefficient of drag (CD) and therefore
in frictional resistance, which has the effect of underestimating
predicted performance if a direct scaling up is calculated according
to Froude relationship. A reference to Fig. 252 will explain this.
The flying-boat specialists as a rule make use of the parameter
V/ -\/%for the reason that in the case of planing craft B is usually
constant, while L, which must be interpreted as wetted length, is a
variable quantity dependent upon the speed.
The flying world makes use of the figure resulting from dividing
load by supporting wing surface. I n the case of aircraft this figure,
expressed in lb.Ift.2 wing surface, gives an indication of characteristics
near the ground, such as take-off, landing, approach, ability to accept
acceleration without stalling, etc.
T o some extent the equivalent of this figure as applicable to plan-
ing boats can be of value as a criterion of the ability to change from
buoyant condition to planing.
This can be quite a critical matter in the case of heavily loaded
boats.
To consider fundamental principles of planing the generation of
the dynamic lift necessary to sustain the loaded weight of the craft
under consideration must depend mainly upon V2So, where So is a
function of the total projected surface which can be assumed to be of
value from the point of view of lift.
This value So can, by convention, be defined as being one-half the
static water plane area for sake of example. This will allow a reason-
able reduction in effectivesurface due to the effect of speed and also
allow for the effect of deadrise likely to be encountered in such types
of planing boat. Some experimenters prefer the assumption of the
planing surface at high speed to be ba. This is probably more
applicable to the faster types.
Dimensions 738. War- 4695t. Crash rg-ft. Jolb

time M. T.B Tender Boat
V=speed ft./sec.
L=waterline I .56
length ft.
V=speed knots
L=waterline 5.12
length
V=speed knots 1
B=max. beam at 3.25
W.L. ft.
A=wetted area 1
ft.2*
J =static immer-
1 6.22
sed volume ft.
s1
f=knots
J =volume of dis- I I .55
placement ft.=
lb.'
w=lb. /ft.
Dimensions marked * are those made use of by Eugene Clement

in his Hull Form of Stepless Planing Boats, Chesapeake Section of
S.N.A.M.E., 12th January 1955:-
A=projected area bounded by chines and transom in plan view.
L=overall length of area A measured parallel to base line.
BA= mean breadth over chines- A
-z.
K= 1.056 v where V is speed in knots and '7 is volume of dis-
placement in ft.8
PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE PERFORMANCE OF PLANING CRM?T
v
I t will be appreciated that - represents a variant of the Froude
L P
A 812 A
law. its inverse or perhaps - are useful criteria.
S-, SOL
C, or Load coefficient=Load/wB8 (where w = mass density of
water) is a useful comparative criterion used in the seaplane
* - world
quite frequently.
A summary of the figures resulting from the use of these
criteria is set out in the table opposite.
[P.D.C.]
CHAPTEK VIII
RUDDER DESIGN I N PLAN FORM AND

SECTION
To OBTAIN optimum results from a given rudder area and applied

torque the shape of the rudder in plan and section should be con-
sidered.
The rudder in fulfilling its function, which is to apply a lateral
force at the point on the hull to which it is attached, can be con-
sidered broadly as a submerged aerofoil.
The qualities of various standard sections as related to the more
normal types of craft are fairly widely known in the world of naval
architecture. The reader is referred to Gawn's paper in the Trans-
actions of I.JV.A. of 194.3. The movement of c. of p. is also discussed
here.
I n this case, where normal speeds are under consideration, the
performance of an aerofoil section is expressed by plotting the
coefficient of lift (CL)against angle of incidence. As applied to a
rudder, the lift in this case represents the lateral force applied by
the rudder due to its being moved to an angle relative to the
forward path of the boat through the water.
The coefficient of lift C, is a non-dimensional factor applicable to
various densities (Q) and speeds ( v ) .
The basic equation here is represented by:
Total lift (force)
CL=
*eAVa
As far as the shape of the blade is concerned, it is, generally
speaking, true that high aspect ratio is synonymous with effici-
ency as far as lift qualities are concerned.
I n Fig. 106 the ratio L/B will represent aspect ratio provided
a figure for L and B is taken as being an average making due
Fig. 106
RUDDER DESIGN I N PLAN FORM AND SECTION
allowance for taper in either direction when considering the plan

form. Another way to express aspect ratio is L2/A where B becomes
the average value AIL. Where the rudder is placed under the hull
the effective aspect ratio will by convention be double the geometric
value, provided the gap is negligible.
The figure above represents a very practical shape where the chord
at the upper edge is greater than at the lower edge. This has the
effect of locating the c. of p. vertically nearer the attachment of the
stock than would be the case with a parallel form, thereby reducing
the lateral bending moment at the critical section x-x to some
extent.
All the above considerations assume the velocity of the water
passing the aerofoil or rudder to be such that cavitation or "break-
away " (boundary layer separation) does not occur.
Boundary layer separation or breakaway refers to an effect ob-
servable on a foil or wing as speed is increased, when the streamline
flow due to a pressure and eventually a velocity at a point down-
stream from the leading edge starts to crowd out the streamlines
and eventually to form a number of vortices in the space between
the separation boundary and the surface of the foil (see Fig. 107
a, 6, and c). Put in rather elementary language, considering the
Fig. 107 ( a ) :--Separation phenomena
Fig. 107 (b):-StreamlineJZow
Fig. 107 (c):-Velocity changes in boundary layer leading to separation

L I47
flow usually encountered in practice, breakaway of a turbulent layer

takes place when the transmission of momentum by turbulent
mixing in the inner regions of the layer is not sufficient to overcome
the increasing pressure gradient from the downstream layers.
I t is important to bear in mind the fact that for separation this
really applies to the type of flow where the whole area is filled with
fluid (in this case water). For the aerodynamic case the boundary
layer separation on the top surface is formed in the same way, but
when a certain point is reached in the growth of this area it bursts
wide open, causing a sudden and catastrophic loss of lift which is
the dreaded stall.
However, though to some extent analogous in that the same
measures delay the onset in each case, cavitation is in reality quite
a different phenomenon caused by a reduction in local pressure due
to local high velocity, which in turn boils the local fluid, forming a
pocket or cavity full of vapour.
I n each case while to a small extent drag at zero incidence is
. affected by the processes of flow breakdown where rudders are
concerned, the major consideration is how the section shape affects
lift at incidence under sub and fully cavitating conditions. Effec-
tively, drag considerations at zero incidence which can arise in the
case of a strut as well as a rudder are best met by some form so shaped
that an element of pressure recovery is obtained. What is clearly
not suitable is the old-time aerofoil section with maximum width
at one third chord. The so-called laminar flow sections used in aircraft
have maximum thickness much further back, somewhat as for
N.A.C.A. section 0012,say. I n the separated area will be a system
of vortices but unlike the case of cavitation there is no actual
cavity.
I n considering the likelihood of cavitation affecting the flow, let
us first discuss what happens to a thick aerofoil at zero lift. I n the
first sketch below an attempt is made to suggest the pressure distribu-
tion over a conventional type of section along its chord.
Fig. 108
e = LOCAL PRESSURE
p = PRESSURE OF
FREE STREAM
RUDDER DESIGN IN PLAN FORM AND SECTION
The pressure is plotted as the pressure coefficient cp, because this

has the advantage that cp varies more or less in proportion to the
thickness/chord ratio of the aerofoil. The aerofoil shown has a thick-
ness which is 21 per cent of the chord. Negative values of cp imply
pressures less than that of the undisturbed flow, and vice versa. Thus
we see that the pressure distribution over the aerofoil shown has a
suction peak near the nose, where cp= - 0.75, and downstream the
pressure gradually increases.
Now the condition for cavitation to occur is that the local pressure
e shall have dropped virtually to zero,l and this implies that:
Higher suctions than this are physically unobtainable. To put figures

in the formula, at an average immersion (say, q ft.) the value of (plq)
is (30/V)2, where V is the speed in knots. The speed at which cavita-
tion will first make its appearance (V,), subject only to certain
extraneous effects (solids in suspension, etc.) is that for which the
minimum value of the pressure coefficient implies a vacuum: or, in
other words:
cpm;n = - (301VC)
For the aerofoil previously considered, cpmin = - 0.75, so that
V,=35 knots. At this and higher speeds cavitation will occur.
Without digressing on the consequences, let us next consider what
we may do to delay cavitation at high speeds. The obvious solution
is to make the aerofoil thinner, since the pressure coefficient is
thereby reduced. With the conventional type of symmetrical aero-
foil section, cpmh=- 3f(t/c), if t/c is the thickness/chord ratio of
the section.
Putting this fact in the relation for cavitation speed, we find that it
varies inversely as the square root of the thickness/chord ratio
and that:
V,= 16dTt knots
Dropping the thickness/chord ratio from 2 I to I o per cent increases

V, from 35 knots to over 50 knots.
Another thing we can do is to attempt to design the section so as
to push back the position of the highest suction: this may be effected
by locating the maximum thickness further aft. If we do this, not
1 Actually the pressure within the cavitation region will be that of the vapour pressure
of water (see Chapter XX, pp. 3 I 2-1 3).
= 49
only is cavitation less likely to spoil the flow over so much of the foil,
but, as we see in the diagram below, its onset is delayed because, as well
as occurring further aft, the highest suction is also considerably
reduced. The graph relates again to a foil of 2 1 per cent t / c ratio,
and cpm_is changed from - 0.75 to - 0.55, which occurs at 55 per
cent instead of 15 per cent of the chord from the nose.
Fig. log
Again putting in the relevant figures in this formula, for this type of
aerofoil :
V,= 19q g k n o t s
For a P I per cent thick section the cavitation speed is over 40 knots.
These devices for delaying the onset of cavitation are precisely
those adopted in the design of aerofoils for high-speed flight. There is
of course a very good reason for this :for high-speed aircraft we must
do our utmost to avoid the appearance of shock waves on the surface
of the aerofoil. These shocks occur where the local velocity of flow is
supersonic. Now, the greater the acceleration of the flow over the
wing, the smaller will be the aircraft speed at which local regions of
supersonic flow will make their ,appearance. To increase this speed-
the critical speed as it is called-we must reduce the acceleration of
the flow over the wing: we must, in fact, reduce the increase of
velocity, due to the flow pattern-that is, we must reduce the peak
suction. To give effect to the analogy we may derive the relation
between cavitation speed (for 4-ft. immersion) and the critical
Mach number of the aerofoil (M,), which is the ratio of the critical
speed to the speed of sound.
The relation is :
and this is plotted in Fig. I I o.

Thin sections with far-back positions of maximum thickness are of as

much use in delaying cavitation as in avoiding shock waves. However,
we must bear in mind the fact that the things we do to avoid cavita-
tion (or shock waves) at zero lift very often advance the appearance
of cavitation (or shock waves) when the angle of incidence is
increased.
Vc=KNOTS
Fig. IIO
As an example, we might consider the flat plate or wedge-shaped

lifting section. This has an infinitely large cavitation speed at zero
lift, but as soon as we apply lift a separation bubble occurs near the
nose due to local cavitation, and the lifting characteristics of the
section are very poor, with an early stall due to the growth and
subsequent "bursting" of the separation bubble (and with a low
rate of increase in lift with incidence). Of course we must compro-
mise in the design as we do with high-speed aircraft. What we have
sought to avoid-a large maximum thickness located near the nose
of the aerofoil-is precisely what also reduces the suction peak near
the nose due to the generation of lift. Exactly where the best com-
promise lies depends on the speed at which we wish to operate
without the appearance of cavitation. In view of the amount of
work which has gone into this problem in the aircraft field, it would
be of advantage to consider the available results.
So as to obtain the greatest lift from an aerofoil section (at any
given speed) without the appearance of cavitation it is desirable that
at this lift coefficient the highest suction over the top of the aerofoil
should be just below that necessary to produce cavitation, and that
this level of suction should be maintained as far downstream as
possible, as shown in Fig. I I I.
We must here exercise a little restraint, as the farther back we
persuade the high suctions to exist, the more likely it is that the
boundary layer will separate (due to the high rate of increase of
pressure over the back of the section). This bounday layer separation
is a phenomenon quite apart from cavitation, but it has, however,

the same adverse effects on the lift force. It is a fact, however, that
in certain circumstances they can exist together. Here an initial
separation boundary could have a cavitation area superimposed.
Aerofoil sections which give this "rooftop" type of pressure
distribution have been developed by the N.A.C.A. in the U.S.A.
----6==
FLOW
DIRECTION
0.:
Fig. 111 o
-0.5
-1
and are called their 6-series of aerofoils. The designation of one of

this series of aerofoils is, for example, 66r02 I : the first " 6 " is .the
series designation; the second "6" denotes the chordwise extent of the
uniform suction in tenths of the chord; and the suffix "4 " denotes the
range of lift coefficient in tenths, above and below zero, for which the
peak suctions do not exceed this uniform value. The "o " following
012 0.3 0.4 .0.5MAXIMUM CL OBTAINED.
Fig. 112
RANGE OF CL WITHOUT
CAVlTATlNG
the dash denotes that the aerofoil is uncambered, and the last two
figures indicate the aerofoil thickness in per-cent chord which
achieves the desired characteristic.
Generally speaking, it pays to use aerofoils of the N.A.C.A. 66
Series, which have a far-back position of maximum thickness
(at 45 per cent chord from the nose), and progressively to reduce the
thicknesslchord ratio as we increase the maximum speed at which
the foils are to operate. This is shown in the next figure, which also
152
illustrates how, as the speed increases, it becomes impossible to avoid

cavitation even at quite low values of CL.
I t has been observed by the author, more particularly when
handling really high-speed craft, that with certain types of con-
ventional section the steering wheel can be moved quite an ap-
preciable distance before it "bites" into solid water.
For these conditions, therefore, in considering the section of the
optimum rudder it is logical that the trailing edge for the high-speed
case might end with a flat section.
Whatever the exact explanation, there is corroboration from data
available for symmetricalwings, where it has been shown recently that
LEADING LEADING LEADING

EDGE EDGE EDGE
BOTTOM SURFACE -
TOP SURFACE -----------
i DISTANCE OF C.P
QC;? INCIDENCE c
- INCIDENCE
___OI __C
Fig. I 13
I53
the introduction of a blunt cut-off trailing edge can lead to a reduc-

tion of "wave drag" at supersonic speeds. Consequently it was
considered worth while studying the relatively low speed charac-
teristics of such sections. It has been found that the thickening of
the trailing edge can have a beneficial effect on CLmax or CNmax.
Fig. I I 4 presents a curve showing the effect of thickening the trailing
Fig. r14:-Increment in
CLma.? caused by thick-
ening a section aft of its
maximum thickness
edge. This data cannot perhaps be accepted for all cases but is certainly
applicable for N.A.C.A. 0012 section cut off as indicated. The only
drawback to the bluff trailing edge is that the wake is usually
periodic in nature with eddies cast off in turn from upper and lower
surfaces.
While considering analogy from aircraft practice it can be helpful
to make use of a certain amount of "sweep back" to the rudders
of high-speed craft, mainly in the interests of gaining increase of
effective chord/thickness ratio on the more normal sections (see Fig.
I 15). I t has recently been established experimentally that this effect
of the wedge section foil is applicable to the production of maximum
lift in roll damping fins.
Fig, 115
Rudder Balance
T o re"duce the effort on the steering wheel as much as possible in
the smaller types of high-speed craft, where it may be desirable to
avoid power-assisted operating gears, an element of "balance" is
incorporated.
I n this case a proportion of the blade area will be located forward

of the stock axis.
Observation and trial at sea in a number of prototype high-speed
craft have led to the conclusion that 2 2 to 2 5 per cent of the chord is
the maximum acceptable. Beyond this figure the effect as observed
is for the rudder, when put over one way or the other, to run away
to the "hard over" position and stay locked there by water-pressure
effect until the boat is slowed down.
The reason for this phenomenon is the subject of some debate but
does not appear to be obvious.
I t is perhaps worthy of note that within the experience of the author
for some cases even 22 per cent can lead to this effect of "over-
balance", while for other rudders operating under apparently
comparable conditions "balance" up to even 35 per cent appears
justified. The matter is of course complicated by the distortion in the
flow as it emanates from the propeller disc in helicoidal form.
I t is hoped shortly to carry out some experiments under realistic
conditions in a cavitation tunnel in an effort to gain more under-
standing of the problem.
The type of rudder arrangement shown in Fig. 60 (d) where the
leading edge is incorporated into a strut supporting the propeller
shaft bearing abaft the propeller itself is popular in some cases.
I t possibly offers some slight reduction in overall drag but seems
to suffer from the liability that the strut sectiob ahead of the rudder
may initiate a "breakaway" or "cavity" to an undesirable extent at
high speeds.
Owing to the fact that the force developed by the rudder blade
when placed at an angle to the flow of water past its surface is
proportional to the square of the velocity of flow it will usually pay
to place the rudder in the most powerful part of the slipstream of the
propeller. N. Brazell, formerly of the Bureau of Ships, defines this
position as 2 o'clock in the propeller disc of a right-handed propeller
and 10 o'clock for the left-hand case.l His conclusion is that the
rudder blade should be offset in each case in the sense indicated.
To some fairly noticeable extent an increase in the effect of a given
area of rudder will be observed in the case of a relatively low
efficiency high-speed propeller which will result in a greater degree of
"slip " and therefore velocity in the slipstream.
There is a school of thought which advocates a guide fin ahead of
the rudder blade owing to its influence in reducing the effect of
rotational flow from the propeller on the rudder blade.
I t is also observed that a better effect will be produced from a
given rudder area where a small fast-turning propeller is employed
The Position of Propellers and Shafts by N. Brazell, published in Journal of the American
Society of JVaval Engineers, Feb. I 948.
resulting in a small "disc" of influence as compared to a larger

propeller where only a small portion of the "disc " actually impinges
on the rudder itself.
We then have the two cases shown in Figs. I I 6 (a) and (b). The
total velocity of slipstream will be greater in (a) which for given
ship speed will result in gleater rudder force.
While the section should be arrived at taking into account the
Figs, 116 (a) and (6)
various factors mentioned above, it must, of course, be influenced by

the necessity for the incorporation of sufficient strength to withstand
the forces to which it is subjected in service.
The worst case is probably exemplified by that where the helm is
put "hard over" to, say, 35" at full speed. There are at least two
bending moments of importance to be considered here :
( I ) That due to the applied torque involved in moving the rudder
blade through the medium of the rudder stock.
(2) The bending moment due to the resultant of lateral forces acting
throu+ the centre of pressure.
To evaluate stress at critical sections x-x a compound bending and
twisting moment is considered to exist made up of BM+qBM2+ TM2
ft. lb., where BM is bending moment about x-x axis and T M is
twisting moment (torque) about x-x axis.
To calculate the maximum force likely to be developed by a rudder
it is, of course, necessary to consider the maximum velocity of the
water meeting the blade at "hard over" or such angle as may be
required to develop maximum normal force.
As a general rule CLmax will not exceed I .o for simple unarticulated
rudders in uncavitated flow. It ought to be stated here that
for really low cavitation numbers (o)l such as would be envisaged
For definition of (a) see pp. 310,329 and 33 1.
156
where speeds of 40 knots and above are considered, a reduction in

C, can be allowed for when estimating rudder-blade forces be-
yond angles of attack of, say, 5" as cavitation will be present.
Considerable work in this field has been carried out at the California
Institute of Technology in recent years. Study of this data leads to
the conclusion that little danger will be involved by assuming C, , ,
,
at 0.5 or less for the case of a 50-knot craft.
TORQUE (TM) = F x L LATERAL BENDING MOMENT (EM) =FxC
Figs. 117 (a) and ( b )
We can therefore assume the force exerted to be equivalent to the

normal force in the following equation:
Lift
CL= so Lift =CLx &@AV2.
hAV2
As discussed above, V for these purposes should be taken as the
speed of the boat through the water plus the increment in velocity
induced in the slipstream by the propeller. If to be on the safe side
we take V as 1.2 times the speed of the boat we shall arrive at an
expression to obtain the force:
Force = CLx (I-2V)a lb./ft,2
in this case 0.5 x 1.2V2 Ib./ft.2.
There is in fact a noteworthy difference here in the treatment
recommended in the case of high-speed craft, because in the case of the
more normal types of boat and ship of moderate speed, V in the
equation expressed above will be reduced for calculation purposes
as it is generally assumed that the rudder is working in water subject
to a "wake factor". In other words, the hull in the process of moving
through the water will be carrying along with it a certain amount of
water or "wake " in the vicinity of the stern.
I57
The conventional calculations for rudder forces are not therefore

applicable for these reasons, though it is possible the above equation
is somewhat on the safe side, even for the high-speed case.
Having obtained an estimate for maximum force likely to be
developed by the rudder blade at maximum angle of helm (35O say)
this figure must be multiplied by the distance of the c. of p. from the
rudder axis. There is no exact method for obtaining this by calcula-
tion, but if 25 per cent balance is assumed a figure of between 0.05
and 0.07 chord should give reasonable results.
There is room for considerably more experimental work here to
establish movement of c. of p. for the rudders of high-speed craft,
especially if a departure from a standard calibrated section is
contemplated. However, if the stock size for the case of very fast
craft appears to be excessive it can be taken into account that it is
most likely that the speed V will be substantially reduced in the
process of turning before full rudder angle is applied.
As mentioned above, the plan form shown in Fig. I 06 is a practical
compromise. While it is probably true that the blade of high aspect
ratio is the best, other factors enter into the question, so that to be
truthful it is to be doubted whether there is much wrong with a
square blade. I n other words, the plan form within reason is not im-
portant as regards shape but only as regards area, location and section.
There are cases, especially for the very high-speed craft, where
the rudder effect falls off to an unacceptable extent due to stalling or
cavitation. I n this case it can be of assistance to add fences in a
chordwise direction at the top of the rudder where nearest the surface
and perhaps about half-way down. This type of lift preserver is
most frequently used in the aeronautical world to delay loss of lift
due to spanwise flow. These fences will be observed in the case both
of the Comet and Boeing 707, also Caravelle, about half-way out
along the wing towards the tip.
Another fruitful way to increase rudder effectiveness in marginal
cases is to increase the depth while retaining much the same area,
which will result in higher aspect ratio with its attendant perfor-
mance increment.
There is no formula known to the author for calculating the area
of rudder blade required in the case of high-speed craft, but a table of
known and successful values of the area is tabulated herewith,
accompanied by outline particulars of the characteristics of the craft
in question.
I t will have already been appreciated from previous chapters that
a good and sufficient rudder design alone will not ensure a satisfactory
performance in turning.
Very much will depend upon the disposition of the lateral area
submerged when planing.
158
Prop. Total area

revs. per rudder
M.T.B. 1 73' of' 1 50.0

H.S.L. 1----
68'0" 36.17
-----
wisp I 40'5" 1 5-14
Crash
Tender
/ 46'0'' 11.95
Jolly 3,200 0.572 sq. ft.

Boat
----- ----------- ---------
Swordfish 28' of' 2.34 3,200 0.819sq. ft.
----- --
Brave Borderer 96'0" g I .oo 1,700 5.00 sq. ft.
- - --- -
Ferocity 88'0" 75.00 1,900 5.53 sq. ft.
, I n this matter hull form generally is of importance. Excessive

stern trim is likely to make a boat difficult to turn. It can often help
if the false keel (if one is fitted) is cut away aft so that a certain
amount of useful area becomes effective forward of the pivoting point
after the initial change of direction relative to the oncoming water is
effected by the rudder. In the case of many M.T.B.s designed by my
firm a small triangular plate fairly well forward of the pivoting point
is fitted. I t must, of course, not be fitted in such a position that it is
out of the water or liable to be so at planing speeds. This fin can
also help for the case when a wind on the beam causes a list towards
the wind.
To summarise :
From the above we can see that for avoidance of cavitation and
low drag considerations a section with maximum thickness well back
will be the optimum. When we come to considerations of per-
formance at angles of incidence-in other words, performance as a
rudder-it is seen that a considerable compromise has to be made.
For higher speeds than usual, but excluding the highest for the
moment, a section such as N.A.C.A. 66*-021 will represent a very
fair compromise.
When we consult Fig. I 12, however, we see that the maximum CL,
which can be anticipated without cavitation, is as low a figure as
0.1 at 47 knots. From this it can be understood that it is for all
practical purposes impossible to avoid cavitation whatever section
is employed when any appreciable angle of helm is employed at
high speed.
The assumption must be that in all probability the back face of
I59
the rudder under these conditions will be completely separated from

the water flow by a cavity.
This conclusion to some extent supplements the notes on effect of
bluff trailing edge on p. 154, which shows the blunt trailing edge
to be the optimum for both sub- and supercavitating cases. There
may be something to be said for trying a section such as has been
developed by Tulin, Virgil Johnson, et al, which offers a somewhat
better performance in terms of liftldrag at low cavitation numbers.
For the high-speed case, therefore, we have really two somewhat
conflicting considerations affecting the rudder design. The problem
is to provide such a section that when amidships and at rest the
minimum disturbance to the flow is offered. With a view to avoidance
of flow separation or cavitation the optimum section will be the
thinnest possible forward leading to a blunt trailing edge. This
will result in the minimum included angle.
When turning under helm angle it is important that the leading
edge be not too sharp so that some finite width forward will be
involved. The width of the trailing edge will be decided by the
moment of inertia of section required to accept bending moments
when blade is at an angle of attack to the flow. For this type of
rudder in a high-speed flow it is obvious from our earlier discussion
in this chapter that so soon as any noticeable angle of attack to the
flow is applied the back face will cavitate completely, leaving all
work to be done by the working (front) face. I n these circumstances
we at Vosper have for many years now made use of what is in effect
a "wedge " section.
This approach can be discerned in the world of very high-speed air-
craft where the wings and rudder are of wedge section with blunt
trailing edges. An example is the XI^ supersonic aircraft. This
also applies to the modern supercavitating section. In these cases
there will occur a range of speeds below a critical point where the
drag caused by eddies and vortices behind the blunt trailing edge
will be greater than for the more conventional sections, but this
range will not be considered of importance bearing in mind the
overall problem of meeting the requirements of a high-speed craft.
The curves in Fig. I I 8 (a) and (b) from Wind Tunnel Testing
(Pope) will show clearly the advantage in terms of CL (lift CO-
efficient) of using a flat plate which in this context approaches
the wedge-sectioned rudder when an angle of attack is applied to
the rudder. Even in the sub-cavitation regime, and the effect will
be greater after the onset of cavitation, the CL at 20' incidence
is shown to be 0.82 for the flat plate compared with 0.53 for the
N.A.C.A. section-almost a 40 per cent improvement. It should
be borne in mind this applies to steady state and will be modified
somewhat for the case of a moving rudder.
I 60
I WFDGE SECTION I II) I
Angle of Attack, bog
Angle of Attack, Deg
Figs. 118 (a) and ( b )
It is worthy of note in discussing rudder configuration that by

raking the axis aft (as it descends) the tendency is to put the bow
down due to lift applied at aft sections with incidence. On the
other hand, if raked forward as it descends the rudder with incidence
will tend to depress the aft sections and so raise the stem,
The usual theory covering the design of these fittings in the text
books has been departed from because we have considered for many
years now that what is effectively a wedge shape with blunt trailing
edge aft represents the optimum in comparison with one of the
more widely-known symmetrical aerofoil sections.
When in the fore and aft position there is not much to choose
between the two types-theoretically the N.A.C.A. section, for in-
stance, will be somewhat or fractionally less resistful, mainly owing
to the drag set up by the eddy-making qualities of the blunt trailing
edge. However, once the helm is put over, the wedge section blade
will develop quite a lot more lift which in this context represents a
force tending to move the aft part of the boat into the turning attitude
as well as applying a good part of the necessary inward heeling
moment.
The above remarks apply, of course, to the case where the speed
is sufficient to cause cavitation over the back face.
[P.D.C.]
CHAPTER IX
MATERIALS
As WILL already be well understood, weight is of paramount import-

ance in the case of high-speed craft,
I t would be true to say that apart from considerations of cost and
durability the lighter the structure and its contents, including
machinery, the better.
I n the case of the simpler forms of high-speed craft, such
as runabouts, high-speed naval tenders, the smaller rescue craft,
etc., wood is usually employed. Light alloy can and sometimes
is used for this purpose, but on the whole it is more expensive and
not really justifiable until questions of really high speed, such as
those required of a record-breaker, are under consideration. The
exception to this arises when some tropical conditions have to be met
involving worm, coral, barnacle, etc.
The timbers most frequently used for this purpose, where strength
combined with lightness are required, are mahogany and Canadian
rock elm. Oak, Oregon pine and silver spruce are also used to some
extent, as well as plywoods incorporating these timbers in various
forms.
Mahogany of good quality is probably the most useful all-round
timber for the purposed of high-speed craft, as it is employed for side
and bottom planking, decking, bulkheads, deck structures, etc,
Although Canadian rock elm is used to a lesser extent, it is employed
for some of the most vitally important members in the structure, such
as gunwale member, chine, hog (false keel), etc, I t will also be used
for stiffeners, seam battens, etc., wherever the capability of being
bent to a shape is required, combined with strength in both torsion
and shear.
The limitation to the strength of timber lies in the fact that it is,
as a rule, only strong along the axis of the original tree from which
it is cut. As the majority of trees grow vertically and straight, it
follows that a frame or other member will only be strong when its
length follows the axis of the original trunk.
In most cases this implies a straight plank or member. I t is only
in the case of oak, which grows in various, sometimes rather useful
shapes, that we can expect to find a piece of natural timber wherein
the axis has grown naturally to a shape conforming to the shape we
require for fabrication.
I n the case of other timbers some compromise has to be reached
in order to overcome this disadvantage.
I 62
Plate I 2. " Nuoli" class High-speed Patrol Craft
for Finnish Naval Force
Plate 13. Dowty Turbocrafi

Plate 14. Camper and Ncholsons-type M.G.B. of round
form, I I 5-ft. long
Plat$ I 5. H.M.S. "Bold PathJnder " (roundjbrm)

MATERIALS
For the planking and framing of a hull where a considerable

amount of shape has to be worked, this problem can become acute,
as the axis of the plank or frame will almost inevitably diverge fairly
considerably from the run of the grain as grown in the tree, so that
an element of cross-grain conditions will appear, involving weakness.
The reason for this can be explained by illustrating two frame
sections, the one being straight, that is to say, from a portion of the
hull which has not much shape in the sides, and the other containing
two opposing curves, as, for instance, in the forward sections.
I t will be seen that through the
section AA there will be consider-
able weakness and liability to frac-
ture due to the cross-grain effect.
To overcome this, two pieces of
mahogany must be employed side
by side, having been cut from the
plank in such a manner that the
axis of the grain is at right angles.
By this means where the weak
section at AA occurs in the case of
one of the two members forming
the whole, the complementary unit
will have its section at AA so ~ i rlg:-Fyame ~ . sections do~inp.
worked that the grain is prac- cross-grain efect
tically straight here.
Another obvious and better solution to this problem is to employ
what are termed plywoods, in which case several layers of timber
are glued or cemented together in such a manner that their grains
will run in differing directions.
I n this way, whatever the shape of frame or plank cut from the
sheet of plywood formed, there will always be sufficient of the grain
of at least one or more of the plies or skins running in the required
direction to take the stress.
This method of using plywood is capable of being put to an in-
finity of uses in the production of highly stressed high-speed craft,
and, provided the technical problems involved in making a satis-
factory plywood are satisfactorily solved, promises to be the best
where lightness and strength are required.
The above statement is clearly applicable to the sphere of wood
boat-building and does not, of necessity, include those structures
where special and high-duty alloys are employed. All the same, apart
from considerations such as avoidance of rot, soakage, etc., the
strength-to-weight ratio of a plywood structure can compete on level
or better terms with almost any metal structure.
At the same time for craft up to, say, IOO ft. in length it seems very
M 163
probable from the indication of such researches as have been con-

ducted into this problem up to date that the use of plywood if
intelligently planned and assuming full use of the knowledge avail-
able, even to the extent of redesigning the structure where it seems
desirable, can result in a stronger all-round craft for a lighter all-
round weight.
I t is a little difficult to be dogmatic about how much weight, if
any, can be saved by making use of light alloys and at what size of
boat the changeover point would take place.
I n the larger craft, from say IOO ft. upwards, it is fairly clear that
suitable alloy sections can be employed for such members of
the structural scheme as, for instance, the frames, deck-beams,
engine girders, longitudinals, but it is not so clear whether the shell
should be of aluminium plate or wood. There are points to be
considered for each case, some of which are discussed in a later
chapter on use of aluminium (Chapter XII).
The difficulty is that in order to keep the weight down to the
minimum the thickness of skin has to be very small, so that it lacks
"stability". I n other words, it needs too much supporting in order
to avoid distortion, which in turn involves smaller panels than are
a practical proposition.
The problem of supporting a thin skin in a relatively highly
stressed structure such as a hull is solved in various ways, usually
involving the riveting of top hat, bowler hat, angle, 2, T or H sections:
All of these involve rivets as a fastening, which is an unsatisfactory
method where water-tightness is a necessity and where a little dis-
tortion is apt to lead to leakage.
A good skin for the light alloy hull to overcome these short-
comings seems to be a c c sandwich" construction consisting in two
thin outer layers of light metal "filled" by some light stabilising
material such as balsa or foil honeycomb.
A material of this composition could be produced to have the same
tensile strength as, say, Q-in. aluminium sheet but having a thickness
of a t least four times or more and possessing stabilising or anti-wrinkle
qualities outstandingly greater,
Here, it is feared, the difficulty is that of fastening.
The aircraft manufacturing industry has investigated this problem
much more exhaustively than has the boatbuilding industry up to
date, but it has so far not produced a wholly satisfactory answer to
the " sandwich " construction where money and repetition methods
might be expected to facilitate matters.
The difficulty of using the "sandwich" form of skinning with the
normal riveted method of fastening is that a rivet head could not be
properly driven or pressed home without deforming the "filler"
between outer metal skins to a hopeless extent.
164
MATERIALS
This all leads up to the conclusion that as matters stand at the

present day a large high-speed craft of the M.T.B. type above, say,
I oo ft. in length will probably have to be of composite or homogeneous
construction in metal or plastics; that is to say, the main structural
members will have to be of light alloy or even in certain places high-
tensile steel, while the skin or planking
-
is of wood or -plywood
specially prepared for the job.
The great disadvantage of a wood skin and of plywood, for that
matter, is that contact with the water leads to soakage or absorption
of moisture into the timber, which, amongst other drawbacks, adds
to the weight of the structure as a whole.
There is also the fact that marine growths such as barnacles,
weed, etc., on the whole like wood better, but, even worse, the
toredo worm attacks wood, whereas it has no effect on metal.
The above two considerations form substantial inducement to the
production of a suitable plywood type of material with metal
or fibre glass sheathing of light gauge suitably attached to the outside
skin.
One of the more interesting methods of "welding" metal to wood
is exemplified by the Redux process where steam-heated presses
somewh& similar to those employed by the plywood industry are
made use of.
Needless to say, a very large number of similar welding operations
would have to be involved in order to justify the considerable expense
involved.
A case where this process is known to be used is that of the Dove
aircraft, where it is used to fasten aluminium stringer sections to a
moulded ply hull or fuselage.
I n making use of plywoods the greatest possible care must be taken
to ensure the glue employed is of a suitable type to stand up to
marine service. The glue should be of the so-called waterproof type
and the method of "setting" must be carefully studied in relation to
the progress of fabrication.
A discussion of the various types of glue, together with *their
relative merits, will be found in Chapter XIII. I t is also of interest
to consider the possibilities inherent in the use of "plastics" as dis-
cussed in Chapter XI.
In Italy and Sweden a technique of making use of mild steel for
the hull structure of high-speed craft has been developed with great
success. The advantage here is that by employing a really ductile
grade of steel for both skin and stiffeners a thin skin or plating can
be achieved by maintaining a small size of panel.
Here the welding technique is made possible by the ductility of
the steel. Also spot welding is a substitute for riveting.
The structures produced here have proved themselves over the
165
last 10 years to be very reliable and comparable as far as specific

weight is concerned. The outstanding feature is, of course, the
elimination of riveting by welding, which up to date has not
generally been found practicable in the case of light alloy. The
panel size here is about 12 in, x 4 in., which is sufficiently small to
permit of skin thicknesses between 1.8 mm. and 2 mm. (.o71 in.
and .078 in. English thickness).
I n the case of all metals great care must be taken to avoid
electrolytic action as far as possible. This is more especially applic-
able to the practically unavoidable case where the propeller and
rudder, for instance, are made of metals with a differing potential.
Finally, it is worth mentioning that we are now building homo-
geneous craft of timber and its derivatives up to roo ft. using a ply-
wood built up girder structure.
Other recent developments have resulted in the emergence of a
glass fibre sheeting which, when used to sheath the outer planking,
can be most effective in preventing the usual troubles from "borers "
which can arise when in tropical or semi-tropical climates.
[P.D.C.]
CHAPTER X
STRUCTURE
INDESIGNING a hull to meet certain requirements, which in this case

will envisage the carriage of a load, military or otherwise, across
the sea at high speed, one of the most important problems to solve
is that of producing a structural system which will permit of the
desired hull form or shape being achieved and maintained while at
the same time making provision for the mounting and installation of
the necessary armaments or other specialised fittings or accom-
modation.
I t will be obvious that strength combined with light weight will
be an essential feature.
The accomplishment of this aim calls for rather more careful and
precise design than is usually the case with the slower and more
normal types of craft.
This statement would not perhaps be justifiable when applied to
the larger and more complicated types of warship or trans-ocean
passenger liner, but applies more to the structural scheme of the
average small craft such as a commercial type of launch of com-
parable size or to a yacht.
I n most of the latter cases some form of rule or formula such as
are prepared by Lloyd's or Bureau Veritas are used to establish the
sizes of the various components.
If we assume the hull to be formed by the bottom skin and sides
covered in by a deck it will be clear the structure will have to hold
the skin together and/or in position.
The main members fulfilling this function are the frames which
constitute the transverse strength of the craft. It is they which are
fashioned to the shape of the bottom and sides and hold the skin in
position.
This may be carried out directly by laying the heel of the frame
adjacent to and touching the skin, or in some forms of structure the
duty of the frame is fulfilled indirectly through the medium of
"stringers " or "longitudinals " which run longitudinally throughout
the bottom and sides and which will also fulfil a function in con-
tributing to the "flange" or "fibre" strength in a longitudinal sense.
The frame in this case beds on to the stringer, which is, of course,
secured to the planking or skin. There are indirect advantages
attaching to the stringer system, as, in addition to forming a longi-
tudinal stiffener and some slight addition to longitudinal strength
generally, it also has the effect, when combined with the frame
system running in the other direction, of reducing the unsupported

panel size. In the case of wood construction these stringers can also
act as seam battens, thereby helping considerably in fastening the
skin, especially if laid in fore-and-aft planks.
Good practice to assist strength in the case of the heel of the
frames being laid over the stringers is for light packing pieces to be
inserted to fill the gap under the frame and directly in contact with
the skin or planking.
DOUBLE SKIN DECK WITH

OILED CALICO BETWEEN
BRACKET OR GU5SET
DOUBLE* DIAGONAL PLANKING
SIDE FRAME
LONGITUDINAL GIRDER
ONGlTUDlNAL GIRDER
DEEP FLOOR
BOTTOM FRA
FRAME CANT
HOG OR FALSE KEEL
Fig. 120:-Typical wood structure
The lateral or transverse strength, as previously mentioned, con-

sists mainly in the system of framing as well as the transverse bulk-
heading, of course, which should be carried out on as compre-
hensive a scale as possible, consistent with reasonable convenience
and weight.
The framing system in the case of the larger and more highly
stressed craft is sometimes of a composite nature consisting in web
frames a t intervals throughout the length with a simpler type of
framing in between the web-frame stations. There may perhaps be
five of the small frames to one web frame.
The main longitudinal strength of the hull considered as a girder
will come from the two sides which can conveniently be planked
diagonally, and are stiffened by the side frames, which, with the
longitudinal girders running inside the hull, form the "webs ".
I 68
STRUCTURE
The flange or "fibre" strength of the "girder" consists in bottom

and decking with associated deck beams considerably fortified by
good continuous sheer strakes as well as deck stringer plates fore
s and aft or their equivalent.
As it is clear that the decking has much significance longitudinally
it will be desirable to avoid permanent openings for engine hatches
etc, as much as possible.
Where possible pillaring throughout should be well carried out,
Fig. 121:-Typical light alloy constructionfor high-speed craft
especially in way of deck loads such as guns, torpedoes, etc., and

where large areas without support from bulkheading have to be
contended with.
The stressing of an M.T.B. is well beyond what those who have
only an academic outlook on the problem could imagine.
The bottom, where it breaks the surface of the water forward,
that is to say, at about a third of the length from forward, is very
severely stressed and requires considerable extra stiffening in this
region. I t is a very usual practice to halve the frame spacing for
some distance along the hull in way of this region. The gunwale
member is also very highly stressed and should be taken well down
to i&m a good rebate or flange, to which the planking or skin can
be secured. A good deep sheer strake is also good practice and helps
hold things together in this region. A deck stringer plate is of great
value in this connection.
What appears to happen to stress the structure to the maximum
is that when being driven at high speed towards an oncoming series
of waves a much localised loading seems to be experienced in
the region where the chine breaks the surface. As the boat plunges
down towards the wave next ahead it is checked suddenly in its
descent so that the bow tends to carry on down, especially if heavy
weights are located in this region. There is then a tendency for the
forward, portion to shear itself from the remaining two-thirds of the
hull.
Fig. 122 __sr

rw - i
A very strong tendency is then set up to break or strain the top

fibre of the girder. If any weakness exists it will surely be shown by
starting of fastenings in way of the gunwale or sheer strake or, in the
absence of a sheer strake, by the top of the side planking pulling
away from the gunwale member.
The decking may also tend to be pulled away from the gunwale
in this region, and general weakness can cause a buckling even of the
side planking or skin near the gunwale.
I t is difficult to do much in the way of calculation to decide upon
the size of the various members required to stand the necessary
punishment as well as making a reasonable allowance for durability
or wear and tear. However, the possibilities are discussed in the
chapter on the use of aluminium (Chapter XII), also later in this
chapter, e.g. Jasper and Revans.
Most of what has been done up to date in scheming the structure
of high-speed craft has been based on what has proved to be capable
of standing up to the job in former types of craft and making a
reasonable assumption as to what will be required to meet these
requirements in the case of a larger, faster, or more heavily loaded
craft.
Such calculation, therefore, as can usefully be made will be more
for the purpose of making the necessary comparison or scaling up
from a basic structure which has proved itself in service. Alter-
STRUCTURE
natively, where materials of differing strength-to-weight ratio are

involved, calculations can be made to predict scantling size for same
loading.
The calculations employed in shipbuilding, such, for instance, as
would be involved in working out the scantlings for a passenger
ship, are based on certain assumptions as to the worst conditions
which the structure could be expected to withstand and scheming the
structure as a whole to meet two cases. The first is that the ship
is assumed to be supported by wave crests at each end and trough
amidships. The second is that the ship is assumed supported by
one wave crest in the middle.
The M.T.B. or similar type of high-speed patrol craft would not
be strong enough to stand up to the conditions described earlier
if the structure were designed only to fulfil the requirements above
stated, mostly by reason of the acceleration forces due to pitching in
the forward sections and as a result of the impact loading previously
discussed.
Much more knowledge than exists at present would be required to
calculate stresses with any degree of precision, although an approach
can be made by assuming accelerations throughout the length and an
area of assumed localised loading.
The stresses set up in the course of running through a system of
waves at high speed can be and are very high indeed. Much greater
than, for instance, are experienced by a flying-boat hull, even
allowing for the fact that the operating conditions are widely
different. Bottom pressures as much as 80 p.s.i. have been recorded
locally in the Brave class.
Much, as mentioned earlier, depends upon the shape of the bottom
sections, especially forward of midships.
Even here, however, it is dangerous to be too dogmatic, as there
have been cases where a good bottom shape from the point of view
of elimination of pounding, incorporating a good acute angle of
"vee" in the section, is surmounted by excessive flare of the sides.
In cases where this shape is adopted in the forward sections it
is not uncommon for fracture of framing and structure to take
place when plunging into a head sea. This form of forward section
has been popular in recent years for both round-bilge and hard-
chine-shaped craft, as the rapid flare in the shape of the inverted
wineglass has the merit of throwing aside the spray and preventing
or delaying the burying of the bow in following sea conditions.
I t does, however, involve a structural problem which has invariably
to be faced up to sooner or later.
Mention has been made earlier in this chapter of the difficulty
of making calculations to establish the scantling of the various
components forming the structure because no authoritative data
171
exists as to the actual conditions the structure is called upon to meet.

It is possible, however, to envisage some experiments which might be
of assistance.
It is possible, for instance, if an up-to-date craft could be allocated
to the job, to obtain data from full-scale experiment and trial of the
actual pressure in pounds per square inch on the bottom of the boat
and so arrive at some idea as to the duty required of the bottom
panels and also of the framing system in the most extreme conditions
likely to be met. The effect of fatigue as a result of the time element
has to be taken into account.
Needless to say, this pressure is a varying quantity and is at a
maximum comparatively seldom and fairly locally at that.
The structure has to be capable of accepting the shocks imposed
under the worst possible conditions short of mad overdriving or
actual stranding, and even here it is best if it can survive some
maltreatment.
Readings taken from accelerometers and pressure transducers
suitably placed throughout the boat will be of assistance, especially
in designing the security and details of such fittings as tanks, as well
as the security of the various items of main and auxiliary machinery,
armament and such-like important fittings.
It is not improbable, however, that the structural scheme with
which this type of craft ended up the war period is as light, having
regard to the materials available a t the time and used, as could be.
I n most cases, if not all, failures occurred in the prototype and
development stages which had to be put right during the course of
production, so that the inference is that strength is by no means
excessive. Most of the failures experienced were of the "stress
raiser" type, i.e., though the majority of the structure was adequate
special cases would give trouble.
To revert to a subject touched upon briefly already, it may be of
interest to refer to an experiment carried out by Vosper Ltd. It was
thought that, as a result of improved technique, the structure of an
M.T.B. as a whole could be lightened while retaining the same strength.
The possibility was investigated of using glued plywood sections
throughout including a built-up section for the frames as opposed to
merely cutting them out of a sheet of multi-ply. The planking was
arranged to be of plywood throughout, using sheets where no great
amount of shape was involved and using actual plywood planks laid
double diagonal where there was more shape.
The method of deciding upon the optimum substitute for the
structure already employed was to design sections making use of the
most modern plywood technique and test them progressively to
destruction in comparison with the equivalent members making up
the old construction. Much was learnt from this experiment in the
I72
STRUCTURE
course of many years' high-speed running in naval service, In some

respects local strengthening specially to meet the effects of fatigue
after extended periods in service was found to be necessary. This
information could be invaluable in the future.
In this way about 18 per cent of hull weight was saved for the same
strcngth. It is true to say, however, that the structural scheme as a
whole was not altered because the plywood built-up sections merely
substituted for their counterparts in the same structural scheme.
For instance, it is probable that to make the maximum use of the
glued plywood technique it might have paid to reduce the panel
sizes substantially, thereby allowing of a lighter skin to fulfil the
same job.
This could perhaps have been accomplished by the production of
suitable top hat or angle section in ply, aluminium or plastics, to
form a system of stiffeners or stringers somewhat after the fashion of
a stringer section as used in flying-boat or all-metal-boat construction.
The decking would be made of plywood, while such members as
stem, keel, gunwale and chine can to advantage be made up of a
series of laminations of Canadian rock elm.
Where a fair stress is concerned nothing can surpass the wood as
grown, as long as the direction of application remains in the longi-
tudinal axis of the original tree. It is when the stresses are complicated
that ply or suitable metal component justifies its use. I n recent
years a glass fibre laminate has proved its worth and must now be
considered.
The simplest possible form of construction for a high-speed boat or
for any boat for that matter is a pressing or mould from one piece of
material. This offers great promise from the point of view of saving
money when production methods are used, but at the moment it can
only be used to advantage for fairly small dinghies and sailing boats
-at least for the hulls of the latter. There is room for considerable
development in the use of this technique, e.g. Christina.
There has recently become available a fair amount of data
recorded in running conditions at sea so that a design method has
been developed mainly by the British Admiralty in this country and
the Bureau of Ships in the U.S.A. The method does not differ
greatly from that adopted in estimating the bending moments for
the more conventional type of ship. For both types basic assump-
tions of loading have to be made. The conventional ocean-going
ship, as a rule, is assumed poised in two critical positions relative
to a wave of length equal to that of the ship and height & length.
The two cases considered are:
(I) Wave crest amidships, troughs at ends;

(2) Trough amidships, crests at ends.
I73
Only hydrostatic forces are considered; any dynamic effects due to

motion in waves are assumed to be taken care of in the above assump-
tion as to wave dimension.
For the high-speed case it is clear that hydrostatic considerations
are of minor importance compared with the dynamic loadings
involved in the course of running through a realistic seaway.
Instead, therefore, of the curve of forces obtained from the above
hydrostatic considerations related to the gravity forces appropriate
to the section of the ship under consideration, we make an assump-
tion to cover the relationship of maximum acceleration likely to be
experienced to the particular part of the ship under consideration.
I t is found to be reasonable to assume a relationship proportional to
the length of the ship. Obviously the stem is likely to experience the
maximum vertical acceleration while the stern is assumed to ex-
perience some degree of negative acceleration. A practical assump-
tion is that the crossover point where no vertical acceleration takes
place is at 0*2Lforward of the transom. This, it should be observed,
is applicable to the fast, sea-going types of patrol craft. There are
indications that for the smaller and relatively faster types some
fairly severe slamming can take place right aft due to the hull
actually leaving the crest of a wave and landing on the aft sections.
I t will be appreciated that accelerations felt by the ship are derived
from a composite source consisting in the linear acceleration due to
"heave" at the centre of gravity added to the rotary accelerations
around the pitching axis due to the moments applied by encounter
with successive wave formations. However, for practical purposes
the resultant forces of interest are those derived from a combination
of the heave and pitching and can be considered only in the vertical
plane.
From the analysis of the accelerations and bottom pressure record-
ings throughout the boat in varying conditions, reasonable assump-
tions can be arrived at which are sufficient to produce an equivalent
static load curve to that which is normally derived from the con-
siderations of the difference between buoyancy and gravity forces.
The process of estimating these forces, which are dynamic in
character, has been well set out in On the Structural Design of Planing
Craft presented before the R.I.N.A. by Heller & Jasper in 1960.
This is also referred to in The Brave Class F.P.B. by Revans and
Gentry presented to the R.I.N.A. in October 1960. The detailed
assumptions and calculations cannot be reproduced here but it may
be of interest to present the results of pressure plotting over the
bottom of a F.P.B. while running in a heavy sea. (Fig. 123.) It will
be observed that a maximum effective pressure of 36 p.s.i. was
recorded about L/3 from forward and about half-way between keel
and chine in transverse distance.
Sight Edgeaf Deck Waterline ot Rest,Displacement
J C"'g r 109,000 pounds, Zero Trim
.om8 Numbers 52 48
Maximum Effective
-
Pressure, psi
Average Effective
0 10 20 30 40 50
Scale - psi Sections
Fig. 123:-Plot of pressure readings over bottom of TO$. Fast Patrol Boat
When referring to effective pressure it has to be realised that the

reaction of a structure to an impact load is different from that
caused by the same load applied statically. The ratio of the strain in a
structure caused by "dynamic" application of a load to the strain
caused by the "static" application of the same load is termed the
"dynamic load factor ".
Within the proportional limit of the material the dynamic load

factor represents the ratio of the static load to the peak dynamic load
for the same strain. Thus it can be understood that due to the
elasticity inherent in the material and the structure there will be
some element of mitigation of the effect of a given load when applied
dynamically as opposed to the steady state application of the same
load. This effect is influenced by the! inherent damping and can be
judged by observation of the time history of the strain resulting.
For the dynamic factor to have an appreciable effect the measure-
ments of strain will show an "overshoot" in the return beyond zero
such as will be shown with the normal spring system. The more
usual case, however, is that of critical damping.
A further study of this phenomenon is available in the work of
Frankland in Effect of Impact on Simple Elastic Structures, D.T.M.B.
Report 48 I ( I 942).
Having arrived at the forces arising due to accelerations and
bottom pressures for the case in point we then proceed as for the
standard longitudinal calculation which would be as follows:
Determine and plot the weight curve w (x). . .
..(4
Determine and plot the acceleration curve y- n
5
Perform the necessary arithmetic manipulation and plot
the curve [I (X)- w (x) which results in a force
(mass x acceleration).
Determine pressure load distribution P ( x ) from result of
experimental running at full scale.
Determine the equivalent static load curve:
( x ) - [I +-1
Y - (4 w (x)
S
Integrate the resultant equivalent static load curve to
obtain the shear curve, bearing in mind that shear is zero
at both ends.
Integrate the resultant shear curve to obtain the bending
moment curve. Bending moment is zero at each end.
Determine shear and bending stresses from the usual
simple beam formulae.
I 76
STRUCTURE
Dependent upon the material the scantlings of the various mem-

bers appropriate to longitudinal bending moments can be decided.
For the panel stresses and scantlings, having made assumptions
as to the appropriate pressures, various methods can be used mainly
derived from empirical formulae to decide upon panel sizes and their
supporting members as well as plating thickness.
What has to be appreciated is that for aluminium the matter of
fatigue must be taken carefully into acc0unt.l In the paper by
Revans and Gentryon the design of the Brave class, a worked example
is presented in this case for a composite construction consisting of
aluminium structure supporting wood planking (shell). The same
applies to a paper read by the author to the Swedish Institute of
Naval Architects at Gothenburg in February 1960 on the Brave
class.
A stressed skin form of self-stabilising construction can be employed
for boat building where a panel of aluminium or wood can be in-
corporated in one piece from forward to aft above and below the
chines.
I n this case a curvature is incorporated into the sheet in such a
manner that it stabilises itself. This involves the same principles
as are employed in the stressed-skin construction of an aircraft
wing, as also of a lobster claw.
The principle in its simplest form can be demonstrated by taking
a sheet of paper or thin material and applying a force to the unsup-
ported centre, as in Fig. 124(a). The result will be a deformation as
shown. If, however, a curvature or radius can be worked into this
sheet in the vertical axis, as shown in Fig. 124(b), the sheet will then
be much more capable of withstanding the applied force in the
direction in which it yielded in the previous example.
I t is not quite clear how far this principle can really be applied
to hull construction because, for instance, if used in the sides of a
boat, the amount of shape it is possible to incorporate will be limited
by the necessity for maintaining the type of curvature in the panel
such as is described above in a direction normal to the external forces
acting upon the hull.
There would seem to be a distinct possibility of using this principle,
for instance, in working the deck plating or transoms where the
curvature is not unacceptable.
To attempt, in conclusion, to look ahead it would seem that the
issue as between metal and wood, plywood or fibre glass laminates
judiciously used is far from clear, although the latter are undoubtedly
gaining in popularity.
The factor of availability of the material as well as of the type of
labour required to fabricate this material is important, especially in
On the Structural Design of Planing Craft. Heller & Jasper, R.I.N.A., 1960.
I77
Figs. 124 ( a ) and ( b )
relation to times of emergency when construction of these types of

craft are likely to be undertaken on a large scale. This at a time
when the productive capacity of the country as a whole will be likely
to be stretched. Any organisation starting de novo to fabricate
boats on a large scale where no traditional boatbuilding labour is
available would be well advised to start on the basis of making use
of a fibre glass laminate.
The principle of prefabrication to a greater or lesser degree is a
sound one.
Bulkheads, for instance, could be prefabricated in either material;
and while metal plating would have to be fitted by skilled metal
workers, the plywood technique would be fastened and glued by
woodworkers or boatbuilders without much specialised training, at
least not to the extent that a light metal worker requires training.
The future depends a good deal upon the satisfactory solution of
the technique of securing a metal sheathing to a plywood sheet.
If this problem is satisfactorily solved and the gluing technique is
proved reliable, then it is suggested the future should be good for a
plywood construction incorporating built-up or composite sections
and making use of the technique of moulded plating or ply for the
production of the special sections required for stringers and suchlike
members.
I 78
Plate I 6 . H. M.S. "Bold Pioneer" (hard chine)
Plate I 7. "Show Boat"

Plate I 8. Huntsman " 28"
Plate I 9. Fast Day Boat " Tahaj-"

STRUCTURE
I t has always seemed that riveting and screwing are somewhat

primitive methods of fastening which should be replaced before long
by welding, gluing or a similar process involving fusion or adhesion
making a joint IOO per cent or stronger.
This is not to say that the elimination of riveting or screwing is
likely in the next year or two, but it is considered that we can look to
the gradual decline in their importance as the main method of
fastening one important piece of the structure to another.
The first step will probably consist in making use of welding and
gluing almost exclusively for the less important structural and
accommodation systems.
While glue is excellent for the purposes of holding skins together,
it is advisable to insert some screws, even though fairly widely spaced,
to assist in the setting process and to hold the surfaces to be joined
until the glue has set together.
I t must be remembered when scheming the structure that glue is
only good in shear and not in tension.
Welding is somewhat different, as, provided a good weld is
achieved, it can be as strong as the original material in all directions:
Very great care should be taken when deciding upon the use of a
welding technique that in fact the job is a suitable one and is likely
to prove successful. The use of argon in the technique of aluminium
welding has made great strides in recent years.
The best known techniques available in this country are what is
known as the tungsten-arc process, where a separate metal rod is
used, and the consumable electrode process, usually known as the
"Aircomatic " or "Argonaut " process.
I n the U.S.A. the Heli-Arc process has found much favour. I n this
case helium gas is used to shield the weld instead of argon.
I t has to be appreciated that to date no metal aircraft has been able
to make use of an aluminium welding process in the main stressed
members, One reason for this state of affairs is undoubtedly the fact
that in the region of a weld the strength will be reduced to that of
the annealed material, even though it started at higher temper.
For /example, the tensile strength of annealed aluminium alloy of
5 per cent magnesium content is about 18,000 p,s.i. at I per cent
proof. I n the case of some of the double heat-treated alloys used in
aircraft work a comparable figure might well be in the region of
40,000 p.s.i.
[P.D.C.]
CHAPTER XI
REINFORCED PLASTICS FOR BOATBUILDING
REINFORCED PLASTICS have now won a prominent place for them-

selves amongst the most efficient structural materials of to-day, their
most successful application being in the manufacture of glass-fila-
ment-wound cylindrical pressure vessels which weigh less than half
as much as equal strength vessels manufactured from steel with
an ultimate tensile strength of IOO tons per square inch. Their use
in boatbuilding has increased enorm'ously since the second edition
of this book was published, and it is with some diffidence that the
author adds this short chapter to the copious and well-informed
literature on the subject which is now available.
Organic, inorganic and artificial fibres have been used as rein-
forcement in these materials, but none of the organic or artificial
varieties is dimensionally stable under varying conditions of humidity
and they are, therefore, unsuited for marine use. The two best
inorganic fibres known at present are glass and asbestos, which, in
their most efficient forms, can develop ultimate tensile strengths of
250 tons and IOO tonslsq. in. and Young's moduli of 10.0 and
26-5x 106 lb,/sq. in. respectively; as their specific gravities are only
2.4 their specific properties, i.e. their actual properties divided
by their specific gravity, are really quite startling.
Before going on to discuss the moulding materials now being
made with these fibres it should be explained that all the various
forms of glass reinforcement available are based on filaments of
0.003 in. diameter drawn in continuous lengths from a platinum
crucible and that the fibres can, therefore, be woven or run in any
direction or combination of directions to suit different loading
conditions. On the other hand Chrysotile fibres, which are the
highest grade of asbestos fibres mined, are only about 4 in. long
and are very difficult to orient; the best that can be done com-
mercially to date is to produce a felt whose length/crosswise
ultimate tensile strength ratio is 3 : 2.
The problem of using these fibres has been tackled by embedding
them in various forms of heat or self-curing resins and trying to
obtain as good a bond as possible between fibre and resin. All glass
filament is treated with a size as it is being drawn, which is applied
to protect and lubricate it during subsequent weaving or other
processing; this size tends to prevent a good bond between glass
and resin and various processes have been devised for removing
it and modifying the surface of the glass to promote adhesion.
lU3INPORCED PLASTICS FOR BOATBUILDING
There are three main types of thermosetting resins in use for

structural purposes in this country at present and it is felt that a
short description of each may be useful before going on to discuss
the laminating and moulding processes in which they are used.
Polyester or "contact" resins can be made to cure themselves at
room temperature by the addition of a catalyst and accelerator,
or they can be cured with a catalyst only at temperatures around
~oo"C.for periods of about one hour depending on the bulk or
thickness of the moulding. The time takeh to self-cure can be
controlled by varying the percentage of accelerator added, but it
must be remembered that curing time is greatly affected by varia-
tion in ambient temperature and allowance made for this when
deciding how much accelerator to add. When ready for use they
are liquids of thin treacle consistency and can be applied to rein-
forcing fibres by brush or spray and sound mouldings made without
the application of pressure. Early forms of this resin would not cure
in the presence of air, but this drawback no longer exists, although
care must be taken to use filIers and parting agents which do not
tend to inhibit cure. A laminate made with them will burn unless
a filler such as antimony oxide is added, but as the addition of any
filler to a resin tends to reduce its weathering properties, the use of
fire retardent paints should always be considered as an alternative,
Generally speaking, their properties fall off rapidly at temperatures
above 80°C., although great strides are being made by some manu-
facturers to overcome this drawback.
The manufacture and use of epoxy resins have greatly increased
since the second edition of this book was published, but as their
average cost is much greater than that of general-purpose polyester
resins and as the majority cannot be cured satisfactorily without the
application of heat, they have not been much used in boatbuilding.
However, as their shrinkage on cure is very low and as the physical
properties of mouldings impregnated with them are outstanding,
they should always be considered for small components where
dimensional tolerances and maximum strength are the main criteria.
Phenolic resins are cheap, but, generally speaking, they require
curing by heat under some form of pressure, For the large mouldings
we are discussing a vacuum bag is the obvious way to apply this
pressure, and when using this process curing cycles can be varied
from 160°C. for half an hour down to IOOOC.for 32 hours. These
phenolic resins are usually applied to any selected fibre reinforce-
ment and cured to a stage which results in the materials supplied
to customers being in the form of soft and slightly sticky cardboard.
Freshly impregnated material can be stored for up to three months
at around 20°C,, but this period can be greatly increased by storing
at 0°C. Cured asbestos or glass phenolic laminates will not support
181
combustion and only decompose gradually when exposed to a

temperature of 2o0°C.
Summing up, the main advantages of the polyester family of
resins are that contact or no-pressure mouldings can be made
with them and cured without heat; epoxies are expensive, usually
require heat to cure them, but produce mouldings with outstanding
physical properties and dimensional accuracy; while phenolics re-
quire heat and pressure to cure them but are cheap and have better
temperature resistance than either of the others.
Glass reinforcement can be obtained in many forms and the most
widely used in boatbuilding are woven roving cloth, chopped strand
mat and continuous roving, although the more expensive thin cloths
woven from yarn are often used to reinforce the surface coating of
resin. The amount of resin required to make a sound non-porous
laminate will vary according to the type of reinforcement, the
finish applied to it, and the moulding pressure used, but it is import-
ant to keep the glasslresin ratio high because the ultimate strength
of a moulding obviously depends on the amount of reinforcement it
contains.
I t is now the custom for the glass reinforcement and the resin
to be supplied separately, and it is necessary to introduce the resin
into the glass during the moulding process. This is not ideal for
the boatbuilder because there is a tendency for the resin to drain
to the bottom of all vertical or sloping surfaces. If the resin is mixed
to set off quickly to limit this effect, the consequent high exotherm-
ally induced temperature results in undesirably high built-in tensile
stress in the resin after cure, and may also complicate the lay-up
process by setting of newly applied resin before the last layers of
reinforcement can be properly consolidated.
An alternative is to use a thixotropic resin, which is the term
used to describe a resin whose viscosity can be reduced by agitation;
in other words, one which can be brushed into reinforcing fibres but
will not flow once it is there.
T o complete the review of methods of moulding large structures
we must include the comparatively new process whereby chopped
rovings and resin are simultaneously applied by means of specially
designed spray guns.
The production of sound mouldings by all these methods depends
very largely on the skill of the operator whose job it is to roll down
the layers of reinforcement as they are applied, thus ensuring the
expulsion of all entrapped air and also controlling the glasslresin
ratio,
Several firms are experimenting with the manufacture of pre-
impregnated glass cloth and mat which would be ideal for laying
up large mouldings if it could be supplied with the handling char-
I 82
acteristics of slightly sticky soft cardboard. I t is thought that by

using a mixture of catalysts the cure could be initiated at about 80°C.,
after which the exothermic reaction would take over and ensure
complete cure. However, the necessity of using a vacuum bag to
ensure consolidation may well outweigh the advantages of easy
lay up and accurate con&ol of resin content.
/ MATERIALS ---
I STEEL S 9 2 ----------- -
2 LIGHT ALLOY B S 1 4 7 0 -.---.--
3 RANDOM GLASS MAT
4 WOVEN GLASS ROVING -----
--- ----
5 BIRCH PLYWOOD
:
0:
l NCHES
DEFLECTION AT CENTRE OF PANEL
Fig. 125
The efficiency of any structure depends primarily on the sound-

ness of its design, and this is particularly the case when compara-
tively new materials with anisotropic properties are being used.
I n addition to their outstanding specific physical properties reinforced
plastics offer a naval architect the opportunity of designing really
large components having no conventional joints or fastenings which
are inherent weaknesses in any structure and which add consider-
ably to its cost. Therefore, if full use is made of the advantages
these materials offer, it should be possible to produce a stronger and
lighter high-speed hull with them than with either wood or metal.
When travelling at high speed in a head sea the bottom of a
hard-chine boat can, in extreme conditions, be subjected to small
local external pressures as high as 80 lb./sq. in., and it is therefore
this part of the structure which may well be causing naval architects
to consider the employment of new materials.
Basically the bottom will consist of a number of paneb which
will be subject to bending and buckling loads, their efficiency in
sustaining these loads being a function of the stiffness of the material
183
from which they are made and some power of their thickness. Tables
A and B and Fig. 125 show that panels of high-strength low-density
materials with low Young's moduli compare very favourably with
panels of equal weight made from much stiffer but denser materials.
A panel of sandwich construction having skins of woven roving and
a core of random mat will certainly be more efficient than any
shown in the curves in Fig. 125 with the possible exception of that
showing the deflections of 20 in. by 20 in. birch plywood panels
under increasing hydrostatic pressures.
These figures suggest that plywood and reinforced plastics hold
great advantages over steel and weldable aluminium alloys from the
structural point of view, and their attractiveness is further enhanced
when the susceptibility of these metals to corrosion and electrolytic
action is considered.
Plywood cannot be moulded into large complicated shapes with
anything like the same ease as reinforced plastics and this entails
recourse to various jointing techniques which tend to detract f ~ o m
the efficiency of the structure as a whole. Further argulments in
favour of reinforced plastics are their immunity from attack by rot,
fungi or worms and their negligible water absorption; even under the
worst conditions this is never likely to be more than I per cent
compared with anything up to 1 5 per cent in the case of plywood.
Before considering the actual building of a reinforced plastic craft,
it must be emphasised that the premises where this takes place must
comply with certain standards. Unprotected glass reinforcement
is susceptible to attack by moisture and it should therefore be stored
under as dry conditions as possible, while it is essential that moulding
should never take place under ambient conditions of more than
70 per cent relative humidity. In order to prolong their storage
life resins should be kept under cool conditions, but as their hot life,
after the addition of catalyst and accelerator, is very dependent on
temperature, it is most important that the moulding shop tempera-
ture be controlled between fairly narrow limits and never allowed
to fall below 60°F. as this may result in permanent undercure.
The material used for the construction of the mould will pro-
bably be dictated by the equipment available at a given yard,
always bearing in mind that if pre-impregnated glass or asbestos/
phenolic materials are used it may be asked to withstand tempera-
tures up to IOOOC.without serious loss of shape.
For a hard-chine vessel one imagines a flat tray merging into
V sections at the bow, with sides and transom which can be re-
moved in sections after the moulding is cured, the boat being launch-
ed on her tray and floating off it. It will be necessary to support
the men working inside the mould on mobile platforms and it is
desirable that the moulder should be able to adjust his position
184
himself to suit the particular job he is doing. Good ventilation is

essential but severe draughts should be avoided as these may ad-
versely affect the cure of the resin.
The money worth spending on a mould will, of course, depend
on the number of boats to be moulded in it, but, generally speaking,
a really accurate mould with good internal finish will pay for itself
by keeping costly hand-finishing work on the hull to a minimum.
Fig. 126
I t is not proposed to embark on a detailed discussion as to how a

hard-chine hull could be constructed in reinforced plastic, but it is
hoped that some of the ideas outlined in Figs. 126 and 127 may be
of value. The suggested processes are probably too complicated for
the average type of craft, but they indicate the ideals to be aimed at,
and their employment would result in a highly efficient though
rather expensive structure.
Fig. 126 shows a partly constructed portion of the bottom of such
a hull. The bottom is of sandwich construction with woven roving
skins and random mat core; the bottom skin and core have been
laid down, premoulded stringers placed in position, before the resin
is fully cured, and built into the bottom by overlapping the top
skin in the manner indicated. The stringers are moulded in a simple
timber mould and it can be understood how easy it is to manu-
facture an efficient section by using a bundle of high-strength uni-
directional rovings in the bulb and woven or mat material in the
web where good shear properties are required.
Fig. I 27 shows a number of possible ctmstructional techniques
including a premoulded frame in position and made integral with
the structure by laying up the final layers of shell material to form
the sides of the frames. The preformed sections which are built into
the sides and transom by laying skin material over them are really
only formers and can be made of light alloy or extruded plastic.
185
PREFORMED SECTIONS
MOULDED INTO SIDES
AND TRANSOM
FLEXIBLE METAL TUBE

GUNWALE FORMER
FINAL LAYERS OF WOVEN RO

LAPPED ON TO WEB FRAMES
CHINE OVERLAPS FORMING A

LONGITUDINAL STRENGTH
MEMBER
Fig. 127
The use of roving reinforcement in the shear strake is an instance

of making use of the remarkably high unidirectional strength
properties of the material. Another use for this method of reinforce-
ment is in the inner fibre of the frames.
I t is important that laminated mouldings should not be loaded in
tension normal to their surfaces as they are comparatively weak in
this direction; adhesion between two layers of woven roving is
particularly suspect and it is therefore good practice to alleviate
this weakness by interposing a thin layer of random mat. For the
same reason it is very important that the adhesion surfaces of metal
inserts should be loaded in shear only, and that there should be no
tendency for the loads on them to cause delaminating or peeling
stresses.
The majority of glasslresin combinations lose a considerable per-
centage of their strength when subjected to a hot moist environment
and steps should be taken to ensure that no load-bearing member
of a structure is subject to such conditions. In the author's opinion
the results of the gruelling Offshore Powerboat Race of 1962 gave
ample proof of the efficiency of reinforced plastics as structural
materials for high-speed small craft.
[T.L.]
TABLEA
Profierties of some available materials when moulded under ti58 conditions envisaged
-
Ultimate PI % proo, Specific roung's
tensile stress ult. tensile modulus
Material S.G. strength strength lb./sq. in. Remarks
lb./sq. in.
lb./sq. in. lb./sq. in. X 10-6
Steel S.92 Weldable

Light Alloy BS147o NPg
Corrosion resistant and
weldable 10.0 Proof stress after
welding.
Random Glass Mat and
Polyester Resin
Woven Glass Roving Poly
ester Resin
1
Unidirectional Glass Ro-
ving Polyester Resin
Multi-ply Bich Plywood 1.2 Alternate plies at go
'O to each other.
Proof stress i s not apflicable to reinforced plastics because their stresslstrain diagrams are straight lines to failure,
but the figures i n thzs column were used for calculating the maximum hydrostatic pressures given i n Table B.
Specific ultimate strength of a material i s its ultimate tensile strength divided by its specific gravity.
Calculated perfoonnatl~eof20 in. X 20 in. panels weighing 9.7 lb. uilder I~ydrostaticload
with all edges jixed (encastre')
Maximum Deflection at centre of panel at hydrostatic pressure

-
1 1 1 1
Tf1ickness hydrost&
Material of Panel
lKi+uz- lb./si?in. lb./:i in. lb./:i in. 1b.l:; in.
Steel S.92 0.086

Light Alloy BS 1470 0.25
Random Glass Mat 0.45
Woven Glass Roving 0.40
Birch Plywood 0.67
Timber panels made of the well-known double diagonal planking technique are not included because little more
than half their total thickness i s e ectiue i n the Eta expression in the formula for panel stiffrzess. The above figures
haoe hen calculated fiom the f o l k i n g formulae b T. H Evans ( d m . Soc. Mech. Eng., Jour. Appl. Mech.,
Vol. 6, d. I , March I 939).
0.308 waa
Maximum stress at centre of each edge = s =
ta
0.0138 wa4
Maximum dejlection at centre =J= --
Eta
where: w = Uniform hydrostatic load in lb./s in. .
a = Len th or breadth of square pane f i n inches.
t =; thicfness of panel.
E = Young's modulus of material.
Deflections of more than half panel thickness will be less than those shown owing to diathragrn stresses pre-
dominating, and it i s unlikeb that failures would occur in the simple manner assumed, but it rs felt that the figures
do illustrate the potential superiority of reinforced plastics for structures of this type.
CHAPTER XI1
L I G H T ALLOYS I N HIGH-SPEED CRAFT
UNLIKE DISPLACEMENT ships, high-speed planing craft have to support

a considerable proportion of their weight by means of energy derived
from the propulsive machinery. I n this they are akin to aircraft and,
as in aircraft, the weight of the structure is of great importance. The
reduction in resistance caused by the virtual elimination of the wave-
making components of resistance and the reduction in wetted surface
when planing much more than offset the energy expenditure involved
in support, but there is no room for inefficientstructural design or for
unsuitable materials.
The dominant aircraft structural materials are undoubtedly the
high-strength aluminium alloys and these have been developed to a
pitch where they are stronger than mild or even low-alloy steels. Such
alloys suffer from two basic disadvantages from the marine point of
view: they are easily corroded by sea water and they are not at all
suitable for welding in laige structures. I t is true that they can be
clad with pure aluminium which confers good corrosion resistance,
but this is probably only satisfactory when a craft is intended for inter-
mittent use or is expendable. Flying-boats use the clad version of these
alloys, but it is common practice to anodise the hulls and to rub them
down with lanoline at frequent intervals. On the other hand, a range
of alloys has been developed for marine use and generally these are of
very high durability in marine conditions but are of lower strength
than the aircraft-type alloys. They, however, can produce light,
strong and durable hulls and the alloys possess other advantages such
as weldability, good fatigue characteristics and simple formability in
the building yard.
These two categories of materials are the raw materials with which
builders of light-alloy hulls must work and they demand quite
different techniques and plant, as the first group are heat-treatable
and need heat-treatment plant while the second group are work
hardening and require welding plant and possibly heating and
annealing ovens.
The example of flying-boats is one to be examined, as not only do
the materials used overlap with high-speed marine practice but the
type of structure also has much to tell the naval architect.
The fundamental difference between the structures of low- and
high-speed craft must be appreciated. Most metal hulls are of
stressed-skin construction-i.e. they absorb the longitudinal bending
moments imposed on the hull by developing fibre stresses in the decks
and bottom. I n addition there are transverse loads imposed on the
I 88
LIGHT ALLOYS I N HIGH-SPEED CRAFT
bottom plating by hydrostatic forces, but these are generally not large
as the span of the plating is fairly small and the thicknesses of plate
needed to resist the longitudinal loads are usually appreciable.
Where the vessel is capable of a fairly high speed, however, and may
be driven at speed into waves, considerable added water forces are
possible and loadings on the structure may reach 6-7 times those
experienced under steady conditions. Especially at the forward end
of the waterplane,l both local and more distributed impact loadings
are found and these are much greater than those found at similar
speeds in displacement hulls. I n the latter, loadings of a similar type
are found under the forefoot when the ship is "pounding"; but the
speed is usually low under these conditions, whereas the planing hull is
always meeting this type of water loading, and, moreover, at high
meeds.
.L
With water-impact loads a very rigid structure magnifies the

actual load, as its capacity to absorb strain energy is small. The blow
contains a more or less fixed amount of energy and this may be
absorbed by the structure as a large force moving through a small
distance or a small force moving through a large distance. If the
greater rigidity of a particular structure is not accompanied by a
corresponding increase in strength it is clear that when exposed to
a given water blow it will be more likely to suffer failure than a
more flexible but equally strong counterpart. Now this is the reason-
ing underlying the development of seaplane and flying-boat structures
and is a sine qua non for very high-speed marine structure design.
Rather than use a heavy plate, which has, however, by virtue of the
size of its panels, little rigidity or strength perpendicular to its plane,
in conjunction with widely spaced, strong and very rigid stiffeners,
the logical conclusion from the above argument is to use a network of
small stiffeners in conjunction with thin plate. The function of the
stiffeners is really to approximate to a uniformly thick skin capable
of bearing its own loads. The final development of this is clearly the
cellular skin or honeycomb having uniform skin stabilization. Hard
spots should be eliminated and hence it is important that the pickups
from the stiffeners transferring loads to the main structure should be
most carefully designed.
Aluminium alloys of any type are ideally suited to this concept of
structure as their modulus of elasticity is low compared with steel and
due to their high strengthlweight ratio the overall hull weight for a
given standard of general strength and flexibility is lower than with
steel or wood. I t is all too easy, however, to sacrifice a major part of
these advantages by using the wrong alloy in the wrong place in the
wrong way and first the alloys available should be des'cribed.
Measurement of Hydrodynamic L o a h on High-speed Motor Boats, b y N. H . Jasper (S.E.S.A.
Trans., Vol. V I I I , No. 2, 1949).
189
Aluminium Alloys
As mentioned earlier, the aluminium alloys available for the
construction of high-speed craft fall into two categories : heat-treat-
able and non-heat-treatable, the former depending for properties
upon carefully controlled heat treatment. These alloys cannot be re-
heated to allow forming in the yard without full heat treatment being
undertaken and therefore bending of frames,joggling, etc., is generally
impracticable; the exception to this is where the work can be done
cold, but this applies mainly to cases where there has been partial
heat treatment, namely quenching only. The real marine group of
alloys, i.e. the non-heat-treatable alloys, are in point of fact cold
worked to obtain increased properties, the increased properties being
accompanied by a decrease in elongation and ductility. I n the
normally used condition, the latter properties greatly exceed those of
the high-strength heat-treatable alloys.
To the shipbuilder and naval architect the nomenclature is
rather confusing, as the non-heat-treatable alloys are, in fact, "hot
workable" in the shipyard-i.e. they can be raised to temperatures
such that they are largely plastic and formed while in that condition.
Although the resulting metal is in the annealed condition, the
properties are usually acceptable and can be made to exceed those
required as a minimum by the classification authorities. The two
groups will be dealt with in detail as follows :
Heat-treatable Alloys-H.10 and H.15

Aluminium alloys are generally covered by British Standard
Specifications and although each manufacturer has his own alloy
nomenclature it is proposed to adhere to the B.S.G.E. (British
Standard General Engineering) system throughout what follows.
H. 10 and H. 15 are both heat-treatable, the latter being in general
use for flying-boat and seaplane construction, while the former is not
an aircraft alloy but is often used in marine work where the work-
ability and ultimate durability of the two marine alloys are not
required. H.IOin general contains approximately I per cent of
silicon, .7 per cent magnesium and .4 per cent manganese and in the
fully heat-treated condition has a .I per cent proof stress approxi-
mately equal to the elastic limit ofsteel, namely 15 tonslsq. in., while
the ultimate tensile stress is a minimum of 19 tons/sq. in. The fully
heat-treated condition in all the heat-treatable alloys is obtained by
what is known as precipitation treatment, while the solution-treated
or "W" condition is an intermediate stage of heat treatment which is
followed by the precipitation treatment. The solution treatment
basically consists of quenching the material from a high temperature,
= 90
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT ALLOYS POSSIBLE FOR MARINE USE
Minimum Proberties
Ally Condition Remarks
o. I % Proof U.T.S. I Elongation
Sheet I5
and I7 (Flanging
plate quality)
I3 I5
HS. I o
I9 8
HC. I 5
--
NE.6
--
Section
HE. I o
Ton/sq. in. Ton/sq. in. / % on 2 in.
0 denotes soft. Note: Typical properties are in

4H ,, quarter hard. general well above the B.S. mini-
M ,, as manufactured. mum above and reference should
W ,, solution treated. be made to manufacturers' data
WP ,, fully heat-treated. which is freely available.
while the precipitation treatment is an ageing process accelerated by

heat. H.IO in the " W" or solution-treated condition has a high
corrosion resistance approximately equal to the best marine alloys.
H.15 is a copper-bearing alloy containing approximately 4.5 per
cent copper, .7 per cent magnesium, .8 per cent silicon and .75 per
cent manganese. As a result of the quantity of copper included, its
corrosion resistance is poor in sea-water conditions, but its strength is
high, the minimum proofstress being 23 tonslsq. in. and the minimum
ultimate tensile being 28 tons/sq. in. I t is available in a clad form
191
-i.e. with a skin of pure aluminium rolled on to each side of

the sheet-and it is in-this form that it is used for aircraft con-
struction and, in particular, marine aircraft construction. When
clad, it is known as HC.15 and the minimum properties are reduced
by 2-3 tonslsq. in. One of the strongest aircraft alloys, known as
DTD.687A, has strength considerably higher than that of H.15,
but it is not proposed to discuss this alloy in this text, as its durability
in marine conditions is low and it cannot be classed as a suitable
alloy for marine construction.
The above alloys are available as sheet and extrusions, the
aluminium companies supplying a wide range of standard extrusions,
while special sections can be produced to requirements, providing
certain die design rules be observed. The properties of extrusions
in general are rather lower than those of sheet; and due to the heat
stored in the bulk of a large heavy section affecting the rate of quench-
ing in the heat-treatable alloys and partially annealing the work-
hardening alloys, these may have appreciably lower strengths than
thinner and lighter sections.
A great deal of data is available on request from the various
aluminium companies and it is not proposed to go into further detail
regarding the properties of the alloys. Where heavy forming is to be
carried out, such as stretch forming, brake press work, etc., it is
essential that this work be done in the annealed, or, alternatively, the
solution-treated, condition, whichever is relevant to the alloy. I n
general, such work is neither necessary nor desirable in high-speed
marine craft.
Non-heat-treatable Alloys-N.5, N.6 and NP .5/6

These aluminium alloys are all based upon the use of magnesium
as the primary alloy constituent with subsidiary quantities of
manganese. The generic properties possessed by the group are:
excelleiit behaviour in sea-water corrosive conditions, fatigue
characteristics better than those of most aluminium alloys, and good
workability and weldability under practical conditions. N.5 nomin-
ally contains 3+ per cent of magnesium and .5 per cent of manganese,
N.6 5 per cent magnesium and .5 per cent manganese, while the
alloy NP.516 has approximately 4 per cent magnesium with I per
cent manganese. The latter alloy is intended as a marine structural
material, especially for heavy plates and large ships, and can be
obtained in very large plate sizes in the hot-rolled conditions. The .I
per cent proof stress of these alloys in sheet form varies with the
degree of work hardening, the table on page 191 giving minimum
properties for the range. Normally the use of N.516 and N.6 sheet
with N,5/6 and N.6 sections is advised for structural work and these
LIGHT ALLOYS IN HIGH-SPEED CRAFT
should be in the quarter-hard condition where sheet is under con-

sideration and hot rolled with arbitrary minimum properties where
thicknesses are such that the material can be graded as plate, plate
being defined as material above a thickness of -& in. In the case of
sections, N.6 is available as a British Standard, the 516 alloy being
only produced at request by certain manufacturers as it is basically a
plate alloy.
These alloys may be flanged, joggled, cropped, punched, hot
formed, cold formed, or welded, as is mild steel, but of course the
techniques, temperatures, etc., are quite different in most cases from
those in steel practice. I t is not necessary to go into details of these
techniques as adequate data on the subject can be obtained from the
aluminium companies, but the subject of welding may perhaps be
discussed at greater length.
Welding of Aluminium Alloys

The building of welded aluminium alloy craft is comparatively
new and dependent upon the techniques introduced in the last five
years primarily in America and later in this country. The advantages
of welded construction in high-speed craft are, in the opinion of the
author, overwhelming, provided the technique is developed fully and
certain fabrication difficulties avoided. The riveted aluminium
structure, where complicated as in this case, is extremely expensive
by comparison with a welded one, is not as strong per unit weight of
material, is less resistant to the troubles attendant on arduous marine
uses and has to be made watertight by artificial means such as the
insertion of sealing compounds and substances in the riveted joint.
A riveted joint by its nature produces local stress concentrations due
to rivet holes, this being particularly so when small rivets are used,
as the stress concentration factor varies inversely with hole diameter.
Under a dynamic load where fatigue may be of importance, effects
such as this are undesirable and lead to a clear superiority for the
welded joint. The actual comparative strength of joints in practical
cases is nearly always favourable to the welded joint due to the
possibility of continuous rather than intermittent attachment, and by
careful placing of welds local annealing 'effects may be avoided to a
large extent. The loadings produced on fast hulls are very often in the
nature of impact loadings as mentioned later, and experience shows
that it is difficult to avoid trouble with large numbers of small
aluminium rivets under such conditions. The use of welding allows
the structure to deviate from what is, with a riveted hull, bound to be
a close approximation to aircraft practice with its attendant diffi-
culties and costs.
A difficulty sometimes met with on riveted hulls is that of joint
swelling, as the corrosion product produced by aluminium is ex-

tremely voluminous in relation to the quantity of aluminium
consumed; and although the material in the interface of, say, a lap
joint may hardly be attacked, the corrosion product in the event of
breakdown of the sealing medium and protection sometimes
produces such swelling and internal forces that the heads are sheared
off rivets and rivets pulled through counter-sinks. I t is clear that this
particular trouble is entirely avoided with welded construction.
On the other hand, the detail design has to be developed very
carefully, not only from the point of view of structural efficiency, but
also to allow access for welding and, in particular, to allow pre-
fabrication of large sub-assemblies and as much machine and down-
hand welding as is possible. Large all-welded aluminium hulls,
several in the high- and very high-speed categories, have been built,
and in the opinion of the author this is unquestionably the structural
joining and fabrication method of the future, at least where aluminium
is concerned.
Compromise solutions may be used with success and an all-
welded shell with riveted stiffeners (as is often common practice in
large steel ship construction) or perhaps spot-welded stiffeners offers
an attractive alternative. The present development of aluminium
welding favours this solution as the equipment is not very suitable for
intermittent and fillet welding but is ideally suited for long runs such
as are obtained on shell plating and decks.
Naturally, certain difficulties arise with welding ;for example, the
fabrication of thin bulkheads is undoubtedly a problem. Buckling
nearly always occurs and this can be troublesome to rectify. Careful
attention to welding sequences can help and the attachment of the
boundary bar in a jig prior to making plate welds is another possible
help. "Swageing9' is also employed and trouble avoided by a
judicious combination of methods in the light of experience. The
present automatic-feed welding equipment is not really suitable for
welding material below 6 in. in thickness as the speed of traverse
required to prevent "burn through" is so high as to be impractical.
It is believed that attention is being paid to this problem in the
relevant quarters and its complete solution down to, say, ,08 in.
thickness would be of considerable significance.
Clearly, if the surfaces of a hull can be made developable a most
economic construction may be achieved by the use of very long plates
and this assists strength by avoiding a number of transverse butt
welds. Seam welds may be combined to advantage with attachment
of longitudinals, especially as in thin material the need arises for a
backing bar.
This practice may go so far as to locate all seams and butts on the
flanges of structural members and an advantage is that the plate
I94
Fig. 128
edges may be jigged together, using the frame as a location. Welded

design must deviate from riveted detail to be successful and many
items such as the use of round bar chines, bulb plate keels and spot-
welded stiffeners give a hint of the freedom of approach that is
possible.
Design Approach
Longitudinal Strength
I n the case of high-speed craft the longitudinal strength of a hull as a
whole is usually based on that of a successful and similar design and
this is probably the most satisfactory method of deriving scantlings.
However, detail calculation is possible and where a new design is in
hand, in light alloys or metal in particular, it is at least desirable as a
check. I t is helpful to produce aluminium members contributing to
longitudinal strength comparable with those in a similar wood craft.
Two conditions may be assumed: one where the craft is running
steadily and passes over a single wave with crest about amidships, and
secondly where she is running in a sea of considerable magnitude and
of wavelength approximately equal to the length of the hull.
An approach might be made as follows. As the design waterplane
when planing is known from the preliminary hydrodynamic calcula-
tions and the design trim is also known, it is possible to approximate
the water loadings under the hull when passing over a wave of a
given magnitude. As an example, this might be a 3-ft. wave, of a
wavelength, say, equal to the length of the hull. This wave at high
speed will produce a vertical acceleration of the entire ship, the motion
consisting of a vertical acceleration plus a rotational acceleration
about a transverse axis. The values for these accelerations can be
predicted with a reasonable degree of precision. Study of Jasper's
paper, Measurement of Hydrodynamic Loads on High-speed Motor Boats,
will give guidance to these values and a loading curve with a peak in
the region of the point where the wave crest would meet the hull can
then be produced (see appendix at end o f chapter). Given this loading
curve, a fairly reliable value of the maximum bending moment
can then be obtained by considering the forward half of the ship
from the plane of the peak of the loading curve and integrating
the acceleration forces for this portion of the hull. At lower
speeds, where dynamic considerations are not so important, an

approximation to the longitudinal bending moment can be pro-
duced by using the standard ship strength calculations, namely
by balancing the ship as a displacement hull on waves amidships
and at the bow and stern, obtaining the difference between this
buoyancy curve and the weight curve, integrating this loading
curve twice and finishing up with the bending moment for "hog-
ging" or "sagging". Now in this condition the high-speed craft
would not be running as a true displacement hull, but on the other
hand may not be planing significantly. As very much of a rule-of-
thumb suggestion, a dynamic factor of 2 might prove an acceptable
basis of design if the stresses so obtained are greater than those
obtained at maximum speed when running over an isolated wave. If
not, the latter condition clearly determines the scantlings required
by the hull. I n general, planing craft have suffered in the past from
lack of top flange area in the hull girder, and designers should not be
tempted to put too much of the strength of the structure into the
bottom to deal with impact loadings. Often when a preliminary
design is analysed a lack of top flange area will be disclosed.
I n view of the dynamic elements which are introduced, it is
probably best to make some such ab initio approach unless a closely
similar type of craft and structure employing the same basic materials
is available for comparison.
Local and Panel Strength

The efficiency of a panel exposed to reasonably uniform type of
loading is an optimum when the stiffeners are as closely spaced as
possible, as deep as possible, and the skin in the panels as thin as
possible-in fact it can be classed as a membrane. Clearly this is
difficult to achieve, especially as with thin plating, which is asked to
carry a considerable proportion of the longitudinal bending load,
elastic buckling when compressed and shear lag when in tension
would prevent more than a small proportion of the width of each
skin panel being affected. The alternative of thickening the skin and
spacing the stiffener more widely has the disadvantage that it leads to
a less homogeneous structure containing more inherent "hard spots ".
The pressures met with when slamming into head seas are
large a i d for a flat surface are a combination of the stagna-
tion pressure and the pressure resulting from the vertical velocity
acquired by the boat in dropping from the extreme position of its
pitch and heave.
The stagnation pressure may be derived from:
LIGHT ALLOYS IN HIGH4PEED CRAFT
where p is in Ib./sq. ft., a = ship's speed in feet per second,

and @=massdensity of sea water in Ib. ~ec.2lft.~.
At 40 knots the stagnation pressure will be 31 1b.li11.~
r
Where there is vertical velocity, this must be combined with v to
give the actual resultant velocity at impact.
Additionally there will be a dynamic magnification factor1 to be
taken into account.
The panel as a unit between the longitudinal and transverse stiffeners
must take this loading and also the stiffener system must be able to
take the summation of the panel loadings and transfer it to the hull
proper. The panels are able to support very large loads as mem-
branes-that is to say, with a tensile stress only in them; but this
presupposes bowing between the stiffeners, and this, of course,
is not usually desirable. If, however, it occurs it will be much less
deleterious to the hydrodynamic performance of the vessel if the
stiffener system is arranged mainly longitudinally with light intercostal
stiffeners splitting the longitudinal panels into more or less square
panels, but not touching the skin where this can be avoided,
Any bowing will then produce longitudinal striations which are
unlikely to have much influence on the performance of the hull.
A recently published report gives interesting and useful data on
aluminium panels with different types of stiffeners and loadings. This
paper2 covers a wide range of thicknesses of sheet with a variety of
different types of stiffeners, sheet thicknesses ranging from 0.028 in.
to 0.25 in. and stiffeners being "I " bars, "Z " bars, channels, top-
hat sections, both round and flat and "V" type, bulb "T" bars,
bulb angles and bulb "Z " bars. Both point loadings and uniformly
distributed loadings were imposed and effective widths are derived
for the plating. The "effective width" is defined as that portion of
the sheet which may be considered as fully effective in acting with the
stiffeners, and this is taken into consideration where calculating the
sectional inertia of the stiffeners.
The basic expression derived in giving the effective width is:
Effective width=K 4L
, 7C(3+244-~~)
where o =Poisson's ratio and L=span of stiffener.
For concentrated loads K is 0.6 as a general design figure, and for
aluminium the expression becomes:
Effective width= 0.22 L.

On '17teStructural Design of Planing Craft by S,R. Heller, Jr. and N. H. Jasper, R.I.N.A.,
I 960.
Bending Tests on Panels ofStz~enadPlate Sheet. Published by Aluminum Co. of America.
For distributed loads in aluminium K = I .o as an average

- design
-
figure and
Effective widthzo.365 L.
I t should be noted that the above effective widths are in tension
and that buckling must be taken into account. In the tests buckling
did not affect the results appreciably, but in a ship both transverse
and end loadings are likely to occur and the effect on the latter of
plate buckles can be neglected. The Sechler formula may be used, or,
alternatively, the Marguerre formula. These two formulae are:
B effective=o,85t ( ) (Sechler)
where om, =yield stress.
B effective=B ' (Marguerre)
where B =the width between stiffeners, P =the compressive stress

in the sheet, and Pcr=the compressive buckling stress in the sheet.
I n all cases where a stiffener has a flange in contact with the sheet,
the width of this must be added to the effective width; and, of
course, where the effective widths computed are in excess of stiffener
spacing the latter should be used.
DIE NO K-851-A 175A (0045)

,A1 168 . A1 0 241
.WI 196 W I 0 279
Y l 150 Y 0 810 Y 0426 Y 10824
lxxl 2 4 6 lxx 0 3 2 4 lvvl 0 076,.
G~-"o% 0
4 Fig. 129:-Elements of st$-
ener sections. Extruded sections
xyr&ji
1- J are indicated by Die Nos; all
c 10 0 0 7 others are formed from sheet.
All dimensions are nominal in
inches. A =area in sq. inches;
W=weight in poundsper foo t;
y =distance of centroidal axis
from base in inches; I=moment of inertia in inches. The values of A, W,y and
I are determined by measurements on representative samples
198
LIGHT ALLOYS IN HIGH-SPEED CRAFT
961N SPAN 24 IN. SPAN

4,900LB. LOAD-UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED I ,360LB. LOAD-CONCENTRATED ON
2 IN.x21N. BEARING AT CENTRE OF SPAN
9 6 I N SPAN 24 IN. SPAN

4 : 9 0 0 ~ 8 LOAD-UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED .1,080 LB. LOAD-CONCENTRATED ON
OVER CENTRE 521N. OF SPAN 2 1N.x PIN. BEARING AT CENTRE OF SPAN.
24 IN SPAN
I , 6 0 0 ~LOAD-CONCENTRATED
~ ON
41N,x41N. BEARING AT CENTRE OF SPAN
Fig. 130:-Results of beam
STRESSES (Q)
x--i
tests on Specimen A.
rt-, 4 in. x 52 in. x roo in. panel.
1 x -.J I ' p i n . I-beam stzjTeners. Special
LONGITUDINAL
TRANSVERSE
cases of uniformly distributed and
concentrated loads. Measured
TRANSVERSE
stresses (lb./sq. in.) shomn for
sections as indicated ( + indicates
LONGITUDINAL -500 -690
-V12,3?0t)+13~~00+l~.p~oo'
DEFLECTIONS '011 ,132 ‘..455*a- 4 5 7 '044
STRESSES (SECl'ION X - X )
LONGITUDINAL tension; - indicates compression).
TRANSVERSE
Measured dejlections (in.) shown
TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINPL
for sections as indicated
DEFLECTIOF~S
The tests made it clear that although it is difficult to compute the

effective widths of sheet in a complex structure with accuracy,
deflections, and particularly stresses, can be forecast with confidence.
With the effective widths computed, it is then possible to calculate the
modulus and inertia of the stiffeners, and the main important
conclusions derived from the tests are:
The ultimate bending strength of the panels depends upon
the strength of the stiffeners.
Where stiffeners are in tension and sheets are in compression,
stresses in the vicinity of the ultimate tensile strength may be
developed in the extreme fibre of symmetrical sections.
The spacing of connections between sheet and stiffeners need
only be close enough to transmit the horizontal shear and
otherwise do not affect the issue.
Fig. 129 gives details of the range of stiffeners covered in the test
and Fig. 130 gives details of a specific test.
As mentioned earlier, the aim is to achieve a homogeneous
structure and therefore ideally stiffeners should have a good balance
I99
of flange area and should have a high Ily relative to I. This leads one
to a preference for top-hat sections such as type "B" (see Fig. 129)
and these can be riveted or spot welded. The double-faying flange
materially assists the plating in effective width and transverse panel
bending strength-especially if of a wide type as shown-and this
allows thinner shell thickness.
Transverse web frames should pick up the longitudinals lying
across them and these should not be too far apart or they will
constitute hard spots. These transverse webs should have lugs to the
shell to hold them down and cut panel size. A spacing that will
ensure maximum deflections not greater than, say, L/5oo in the
longitudinal assembly under the anticipated loadings is probably
reasonable.
FLAT BARS
FLANGED GIRDER
ANGLE FRAME WITH WELCED

FABRICATED BRACKETS
WIDE TOP HAT SECTION AT

2 x WIDTH SPACING
SPOT WELDED OR RIVETED
TO SHEU
ALL WELDED' SH DETAIL OF KEEL
\ * A
Fig. 131:-Diagrammatic illustration of suggeskd aluminium alloy

construction
O n a large and fairly flat expanse of bottom the best way to
balance stresses and deflections is to perform a "grillage" calcula-
tion as described by Prof. Vedelerl and Dr. Corlett2, but this is
specialist work, although not difficult when reduced to routine
calculation. By the use of these methods, stresses and deflections
resulting from water loadings may be calculated with reasonable
facility; and although the absolute values so produced may be ques-
tionable, the possession of data on one hull is sufficient to allow
calculation of absolute values in new designs.
A great deal of useful data is given in the Alcoa Structural Hand-
book, and aeronautical reports may be read if a still more advanced
approach is desired. Where heavy and fast vessels are under con-
struction and where a really light advanced structure is desired the
work is bound to become of a distinctly specialist nature.
* Grillage Beam. G. Vedeler (Grandah1 and Son, Oslo, 1945).
a Application of Basic Functions to Girder Netuiorks, E. C. B. Corlett (N.E. Coast Inst. of
Engineers and Shipbuilders. Truns. Vol. 66, Pt. I, Nov. 194.9).
Y
LIGHT ALLOYS fN HIGH-SPEED CRAFT
AS a synthesis of the foregoing, Fig. 131 shows a suggested

diagrammatic construction for a high-speed hull. The use of top-hat
sections, the exploitation of welding at chines and keel may be noted,
together with the comparative absence of hard spots. The use of
engine girders supported from bulkheads and decks is worthy of
consideration in such a hull and it is not inconceivable that the
bottom flexibility gained would outweigh the slight structural
complication involved.
Appendix
In Fig. 132 a planing hull is meeting a wave while travelling at
speed. The crest of the wave is shown about L/g from the bow and it
is assumed that the resulting wave pressure is causing a local vertical
acceleration of about 6g.
Fig. 132
This, applied to the hull as a whole, is equivalent to an overall

vertical acceleration and an angular acceleration about the centre of
gravity.
Calling the former mg and the latter 6, the following equation can
be derived :
Bow acceleration=mg + (L.* - x)6
Stern ,, =mg - xr3
Now e will depend on the polar moment of inertia of the hull about
the centre of gravity. However:
Substituting for 0 and assuming x=.45L, y=.65L, we get

Bow acceleration= ( I 6.5 - I .75m)g
Stern ,, =(3-25m- 13*5)8
m is still indeterminate but an idea of the acceleration involved may
be obtained by substituting arbitrary values of m in the above.
POI
HIGH-SPEED SMALL CRAFT a
Bow acceleration is approximately + I gg

Stern : ,, 3) 2 ) -~ o g
If m=3
Bow acceleration is approximately + I og
Stern ,, J, )) - 35
These figures are not suggested as design guides but do give an idea
of the instantaneous loadings possible in a high-speed hull forced
through waves at speed.
[E.C.B.C.]
CHAPTER XI11
APPLICATION O F PLYWOOD AND

LAMINATED WOOD CONSTRUCTION I N
MARINE CRAFT
THERE IS A CHOICE of a number of types of suitable adhesives by

several manufacturers for assembly and construction work, but it is
recommended that any one selected should comply with British
Standards Specification B.S. I 204-cold setting synthetic resin
adhesives for constructional work in wood (phenolic and amino-
plastic). Synthetic resin (phenolic), under which heading is in-
cluded both phenol and resorcinol, is derived from the reaction of
a phenol or resorcinol with an aldehyde. Synthetic resin (amino-
plastic) is derived from the reaction of urea, thio-urea, melamine or
allied compounds with formaldehyde.
Type of Adhesive for Assembly

For the best results where the work is exposed continuously to
weather and water, a phenolic or resorcinol adhesive should be
used. Some of the fortified aminoplastics give excellent results in
conditions of alternate wet and dry, but with continual immersion
in water ultimate breakdown is likely to occur.
Current practice is for an increasing use of resorcinol which gives,
on average, a slightly higher bond strength than phenol and, as
well as being somewhat easier to handle, it also has the advantage
of being water soluble before setting. Therefore, hands, utensils,
etc., can be washed off with water, whereas phenol, not being water
soluble, requires spirit for removal.
Tests to date indicate that both are equally resistant to water
and micro-organisms.
A point to be considered in making a choice between the two is
the considerably higher cost of resorcinol. Both types are obtain-
able as cold-setting adhesives-4.e. they set and harden satisfactorily
in room temperatures from 50°F. to go°F.-although bond strength
can generally be somewhat improved at higher temperatures and
heating is sometimes specified for special jobs where optimum
strength is required. These resins are gap-filling adhesives and are
suitable for glue lines up to as much as 0.05 in., although naturally
the closer the glue lines the better.
The technique of application of the cold-setting resin is not
difficult, but as this varies somewhat with different makes and very
clear instructions are always provided by the manufacturers, it is

not proposed to include details of the various methods in this
chapter.
Plywood Manufacturing Technique

Considerable development in plywood manufacturing technique
has taken place in recent years, both from the chemical aspect of
the adhesives and from the processes employed in the factory. Whilst
many will be aware of the existence of British Standard specifica-
tions referring to the construction and grading of plywood, for the
benefit of those readers who are not familiar with them the follow-
ing brief outline may be of some assistance.
The publications referred to may be purchased for a nominal
sum from The British Standards Institution, 2 Park Street, London,
W. I. Firstly, B.S. 145511956 British-made Plywood for Building and
General Purposes. This specification defines the grades and qualities
of plywood suitable for the foregoing purposes and covers four grades
of face quality and four types of bonding, viz. : WBP-weather and
boil proof; BR-boil resistant; MR-moisture (water) resistant and
weather resistant; and INT-non-waterproof. B.S. I 203 defines
bonding and tests. For all four types of bonding, faces are available
in four grades, i.e. Grade "S" (special grade agreed between
manufacturer and purchaser) and Grades I, 2 and 3.
Plywood constructed to B.S.1455 is not intended to cater for any
stress requirements (nor for plywood faced with decorative veneers)
and, this being the case, it should never be used for any structural
part of a boat. The type described as "interior", which is bonded
with adhesives conforming to A70, is not recommended for any
application for marine work where more or less humid conditions
are likely to exist, owing to the A70 glues having no permanent
resistance to moisture.
Of the two types classified as "exterior ", the weather-resistant
bonded type using adhesive conforming to AIOOis suitable for
internal uses for cabin furniture and light partitions in dry positions
between decks. The "exterior" type weather-proof bonding can
be used for outside work where strength is not a consideration
and where there is no likelihood of permanently damp conditions
existing. Where plywood to B.S.1455 is used, a grade could be
selected according to the purpose for which it is to be used, pro-
vided always that the bond is adequate. For boatbuilding, WBP is
recommended.
I t should be borne in mind that the foregoing applies only to
non-structural applications and where considerations of low first
cost are important. I n all cases where plywood is intended to fulfil
APPLICATION OF PLYWOOD AND LAMINATED WOOD CONSTRUCTION
a structural function, or where there is the slightest possibility of

wet or damp conditions, material complying with B.S.z088/1g5p--
Structural Pbwood for Marine Craft-should be specified, together
with adhesive WBP.
Specification B.S.1088/1g57 can be taken as a criterion and all
material to this specification has to be bonded with hot-press syn-
thetic resin adhesives, which have to be capable of withstanding
the 72-hour boil test at 212'F. and, after cooling, show no weakness
when subjected to the separation test.
Species of Timber and Construction of Plywood

Having so far dealt with the standards to which the consumer can
specify the plywood he purchases, we now come to the questions
of variety of timber from which the veneers are cut, strength and
durability of the timber, number and thickness of individual veneers
forming the board and the construction of the board, which takes
into account the direction of grain of the separate veneers.
When ordering plywood to B.S.1455, whilst it is possible to ask
for a particular species of timber and total thickness of panel, it is
not normally practicable to specify construction, as the material
will usually be already made up.
When specifying B.S. 1088, however, in cases where particular
construction is required for specific structural purposes, the pur-
chaser can arrange with the supplier the details of how this will
be done and it is a matter of mutual decision as to the best con-
struction. Alternatively, where this is not of importance, normally
constructed plywood consisting of three, five, seven, nine, etc., plies
would be available. This matter is dealt with more fully in a later
paragraph.
Turning to the question of species of timber, veneers are now
available in such diverse variety that it would be completely beyond
the scope of this chapter to attempt to list or classify them. I t is,
however, desirable to enumerate a few of the more common species
and consider their characteristics. Unfortunately, of those timbers
most suited for peeled veneers, maximum strength and maximum
durability are not normally found together in the same species. Thus
birch, which includes the sweet, white and yellow varieties, is of a
high order with regard to strength, but at the same time is one of
the least resistant of timbers to the fungi which are the cause of
dry rot. These remarks apply equally to beech. On the other hand,
timbers such as the African mahoganies (of which there are numerous
varieties), whilst having considerable resistance to the decay-
producing fungi, lack the physical strength properties of the less
resistant birches and beeches.
We have already said that the hot-press phenolic adhesives have

been established as IOO per cent impervious to water and, in ad-
dition, they are also roo per cent resistant to fungoidal or bacterio-
logical attack. Assuming, therefore, that the manufacturing process
is carried out and controlled in such a manner as to produce fully
satisfactory adhesion, and also that the plywood is previously treated
with suitable chemicals to render them toxic to the dry rot fungi,
we have a plywood which fills all reasonable requirements as regards
durability. It is possible now to obtain plywood from certain known
manufacturers which complies with these conditions.
Turning now for a moment to the construction of plywood
panels, the usual procedure adopted is to use uneven numbers of
veneers in order to produce what is known as "balance". Thus
the material will be constructed of three, five, seven, nine or eleven
veneers, and so on, in order to have a central or "core" veneer,
whilst the two outer face veneers have their grains running in a
similar direction, and the adjacent veneers, regardless of their total
number, will be at right angles with one another. This produces
the best result in obtaining a true flat panel after pressing, and one
that will keep free from warping or distortion in storage or in use,
because swelling or shrinking due to varying moisture absorption
will be equal on both sides and the stresses set up will balance one
another.
This then is the type of ply with which one will be supplied in the
absence of any special requirement being mentioned on the order.
The thickness of each veneer forming the panel will normally be
similar, although sometimes in 3-ply the centre or core veneer may
be thicker than those on either face.
The foregoing construction can be regarded as entirely suitable
for panels which can be expected to be stressed relatively equally
over their areas, and in this category the most common uses might
be for transverse or longitudinal bulkheads, deck panels, deckhouse
sides, etc. There are, however, numerous applications where the
material is likely to encounter stresses in a single direction only, and
for such cases it is desirable that the construction should be arranged
so that the majority of the veneers are disposed in such a manner
that the lines of maximum stress are in the same direction as the
grain, or longitudinal fibre, of the timber. This will be referred to
again when considering the detailed application in the craft. This
form of construction, however, is never applied to 3-ply and is
only adopted when there are five or more laminae-plywood of
five or more laminae being known as "multi-ply" regardless of the
manner of construction.
Conditions Leading to Dry Rot

The term "dry rot" is somewhat confusing to the uninitiated, as the
majority of people, being aware that wet or damp conditions lead
to dry rot, cannot reconcile the two apparently contradictory states.
Wood is composed of minute fibres of cellulose, bonded with a
complex substance called lignin; the structure is porous and in the
living tree free water rises up the spaces by capillary action. Newly-
felled timber may contain as much as roo per cent of its own oven-
dry weight of moisture. When all the free moisture has dried out,
the cell walls will still be saturated, and this is known as "fibre
saturation point". Later the cell walls begin to dry out and the
timber gets harder and stronger.
The fungi which decay wood get their nourishment by breaking
down and digesting the cell wall substance. This they cannot do
if the moisture content of the wood is below the fibre saturation
point. Saturation point is usually about 25-30 per cent of the oven-
dry weight and well-seasoned timber would be 12-18 per cent
moisture content, or even lower. Timber badly affected by rot has
had all the bonding or cementing material consumed and only a
light, friable substance remains; when this is dried out from its
damp state, the result is dry and crumbly and hence the term "dry
rot". I n other words, all the substance has been dried out of it
by the fungi.
Sound timber in dry conditions is virtually immune from attack,
but in marine craft the ideal conditions are seldom achieved. I t is,
therefore, essential to avoid as far as possible any enclosed unven-
tilated spaces where leaks or condensation may cause permanent
dampness. Close lining is to be avoided where possible but, when
fitted, maximum ventilation should be provided by louvres at top
and bottom to give free circulation of air. Timber that is alternately
wet and dry is slow to become affected, as the spores can only flourish
where permanent moisture is present.
When plywood is employed in positions where dampness may
exist, and indeed this applies equally to solid timber, it is highly
desirable to treat the material with a good coating of one of the
recognised rot-proofing compounds, as the small extra cost of doing
this will be well spent. There are a number of preparations available,
containing a toxic substance such as copper naphthenate or penta-
chlorphenol, and some oC these are capable of being painted over
after drying out. A good application and reasonable penetration
is essential for success. Common creosote is an excellent preservative,
but its dark colour and pungent smell render its use objectionable
in many cases. Whatever type is used, it is important to ensure that
all surfaces, particularly the edges, of plywood are coated, as rot
can start on the smallest unprotected area and will spread throughout
the material under the surface for an unlimited distance. Thus the
painted surface of the material may look perfectly sound, whilst
the substance within is completely rotten.
Application of Plywood in Construction

Having given a general picture of the material with which we are
to work, we will now proceed to consider the uses to which it can
be put in the construction of various types of craft. I n dealing with
this subject, we shall consider only relatively small vessels of a size
up to, say, 100-120 ft., and we shall omit reference to large vessels,
for, whilst it is appreciated that large quantities of plywood are used
on board these ships, it is confined almost entirely to internal cabin
partitioning, lining and furniture, between decks, spaces where
central heating is employed and where conditions are more akin to
buildings ashore than those to be met with on board small ships.
I n considering the uses to which the material can be put, the
subject falls naturally under two main headings, namely: (i) ply-
wood used externally and (ii) plywood used internally. Each of
these can again be sub-divided with three sub-headings: (a) structural
stressed, (b) structural unstressed and (c) furniture and fittings.
External Stressed PlJY
Taking the first category-external stressed-the main items under
this heading are decks, bottom and topside skins, transoms and, in
certain cases, deckhouses, where they may form a strength member
at a deck opening. Numerous small fast craft of all types, notably
M.T.B.s and Air/Sea Rescue Launches, were constructed during
the war period utilising plywood in all these positions, and, whilst
many have sadly deteriorated due mainly to poor grade or unsuit-
able material and/or neglect, some remain quite sound today.
Decks having normally a relatively small amount of curvature
lend themselves readily for construction in ply and large individual
panels can be used, thus minimising the number of joints and im-
proving strength. Normal construction ply should be used, &-in.
thickness, 5-ply being suitable for small craft, whilst &-in. or
+in. 7- or 9-ply is adequate for vessels up to roo ft. or over in
length.
Butts and seams are best scarphed, the length of the scarph being,
normally, under *-in. thick I in 10, over +in, thick I in 8, these
being jointed with cold setting pheno-resorcinol resin and bronze
wood screws. Birch is undoubtedly one of the best timbers for decks,
as it is hard-wearing, strong, and, being in a well-ventilated position,
is not liable to rot. Attachment to beams, carlings and gunwales
may be by screws only, but on all types of craft where maximum

strength is required the panels would be glued to the deck framing,
although this involves a tiresome job if a panel has to be renewed.
A point to consider in connection with deck panels is the thick-
ness of the surface veneer. A reasonably thick one is desirable from
a wearing and abrasion point of view, but a thin surface veneer
is the more desirable to minirnise "surface checking", which is the
cracking of the veneer on the lines of the medullary rays (these are
the thin layers of harder texture which radiate from the centre of
a tree normal to the rings of annular growth, and are readily seen
in oak and beech as hair lines on the cross-section of the log, or as
lighter-coloured flecks in the sawn board). Birch is prone to this
trouble if the veneer is thick and poorly protected, as might well be
the case with much-used decks. I t is, however, a question of com-
promise, and the service for which the craft is intended is usually
the best guide as to which course to follow.
Good plywood decks have many points in their favour and, apart
from their strength being greater than normal laid decks, they are
IOO per cent water-tight, lighter in weight and less costly in main-
tenance.
The use of ply for boat skins or planking is still looked upon
with considerable suspicion by some people. Bearing in mind the
troubles experienced in the past with plywood virtually unsuited
for marine work, this is not to be wondered at, but if care is taken
to select suitable material, which is available to the builder to-day,
there is no doubt that it will give an equally satisfactory life, as in
the case of solid timber. I t is obvious that round-bilge form hulls
do not lend themselves to plywood skins, but the smaller types are,
of course, ideally suitable to the moulded ply construction, which is
dealt with briefly in the latter part of this chapter. ,We say smaller
types with the size of existing autoclave equipment in mind, but
indeed this is the only limiting factor to size and we may expect to
see sizes continually increasing.
The hard-chine or semi-hard-chine form is the one best suited
to plywood skins, and this may be applied in a one-piece panel
covering the complete half bottom from keel to chine and, similarly,
the whole topside from chine to gunwale. This is normal practice
in the smaller types, embracing sizes up to perhaps 40 ft., although,
to go to the other extreme, topside panels in one piece were fitted
in certain Vosper-built 73-ft. Air/Sea Rescue Craft during the last
war. This, however, is generally impracticable, owing to transport
and handling difficulties, but where these difficulties are not present,
this method gives the advantage of having the scarphs made in the
factory, using phenol-resorcinol resins, where they are machine
cut and hydraulic press-jointed, giving a superior joint to any
which could be hand cut, and glued by the boatbuilder on the

actual job.
I n order to utilise plywood for skins, the designer has to arrange
his lines so as to avoid anything unduly excessive in the way of
double or compound curvature, for it is naturally impracticable to
bend a panel, other than very slightly, in two directions. This some-
what limits the latitude available to the designer as regards the hull
form, unless very small panels are employed and, in this case, much
of the object in using ply is lost. However, efficient and pleasing
hull forms can be produced quite suitable for plywood planking
and a combination of lightness, strength and water-tightness is the
result.
In smaller craft, where panels are obtained large enough to ex-
tend from stem to stern in one length, the problem of butts and
joints is not encountered, but in the larger craft a number of separate
panels must be used and methods ofjointing decided upon.
External Unstressed Ply
Turning now to the unstressed applications above decks, these
naturally vary very considerably with the type of craft involved.
I n the cases of yachts and commercial craft, plywood can be used
for such purposes as companion-ways, hatches, complete wheel-
houses and steering shelters, deck lockers, ventilator boxes, covers
for steering quadrants, etc. In all these cases, mahogany is recom-
mended for lightness, other recommended timbers being sapele and
utile. Serayah, while durable, does not provide such a good surface.
On Service craft, the uses of ply on deck are more numerous than
for yachts and commercial vessels, as they have a complexity of
lockers, stowages, seatings, gun ramps, etc., in addition to com-
panion-ways, hatches, etc., which are common to all types, and
these fitments are ideally suited to construction in ply,
Fittings
Many small deck fittings have been successfully made from inulti-
ply or from a number of thinner pieces of plywood bonded together.
Cleats and bollards as well as small masts, signal yards, lamp or
searchlight brackets made in this way save weight and expense, as
off-cuts can frequently be employed and the weight and cost of
metal saved.
, Internal Stressed P&
Having covered some of the major external uses, we will proceed
to various aspects of the uses of ply internally. A number of craft
of sizes up to a 73-ft. M.T.B. have been constructed entirely of
plywood and, after several years' service, have proved satisfactory.
210
Considering firstly the structural material which is subjected to

stress, it is true to say that virtually every internal framing component
can successfully be made of ply, although some lend themselves
more readily to this construction than others. Of the main transverse
strength members, bulkheads, beams, brackets and floor brackets
glued and fastened to the adjacent structure, impart great rigidity
to the whole. I t is desirable to secure close contact between mem-
bers for a good glue joint. This can be achieved by screwing or
nailing, which is satisfactory for most cases, but for very highly
stressed jobs, it is desirable to avoid perforating the wood with
fastenings and this is dealt with under the next heading.
It should be remembered that with a glued joint great strength
exists when the loading places a shearing stress on the joint; that is
to say, when the direction of the load is in the same plane as the
jointed surfaces and resultant stress is tending to slide one part
over the other. The least effective joint, from the strength point of
view, is when the load places the joint in direct tension normal
to the glue line; that is to say, is trying to pull the two pieces
apart. I n these circumstances, the ultimate strength is limited
by the ability of the surface fibres to remain in homogeneity with
the whole.
As previously mentioned all timber consists of bundles of cellu-
lose fibres held together by the substance known as lignin, and the
density and bond of these fibres vary considerably in various species
of timber. A light soft wood will have a looser and less compact
fibre, and therefore those on the surface will pull away more readily
than would be the case with a harder, tougher wood. The arrange-
ment of joints, therefore, needs to be studied in the light of the type
and direction of load which they are likely to be called upon to
carry.
The use of brackets made of plywood connecting beams to frames,
of plywood floors connecting frame to frame, is an ideal one, as all
joints are subjected to the shearing stress. In cases where it is
desired to joint two members to form a continuity of strength, the
ideal would be a glued overlap, or glued buttstraps, to achieve the
object. Unfortunately, in practice this is not always possible, as
for example when the design will not permit the cutting of transverse
water-tight bulkheads, and it is desired to obtain continuity of
longitudinal engine girders. In such a case the longitudinals will
have to be connected by cants or fillets to both sides of the bulkhead,
and whilst the cant connection to the longitudinal will be placed in
shear, the connection to the bulkhead will, in certain conditions of
loading, be placed in tension.
I t is recommended that the cants be fitted with larger surface
area to the bulkheads, to contend with the tensile strength and,
preferably, be reinforced with through fastenings to assist in carrying

the load (see Fig. 133).
Frames made of multi-ply have proved very successful on M.T.B.s
and M.G.B.s and also &/Sea Rescue Launches, and the strength-
to-weight ratio may be between 25 per cent and 50 per cent better
in the case of multi-ply as compared with solid timber. Multi-ply
BOLTS
CONNE
-. -. .-.-
STRESS
. ---3-
for frames is better if constructed with a preponderance of the plies

lying with the direction of the grain lengthwise with the frame
member, rather than the normal construction where half the plies
would be lengthwise and half crosswise. A rather better strength
figure is obtained from the stiffness point of view in this manner.
On small craft, this type of frame can be in one piece including
the beam as well, but it is somewhat wasteful of material. I t is
equally satisfactory to make the webs in shorter pieces of plywood
and fit buttstraps of the same material at the joints.
Internal Unstressed Ply
I n the matter of internal uses structurally in unstressed positions,
all cabin partitions and divisional bulkheads lend themselves to
construction in plywood. Material bonded with adhesive to speci-
fication AIOOis satisfactory in these positions if above the lower
deck where conditions of excessive moisture are not to be expected.
Cabin soles or flats are conveniently made of plywood panels ar-
ranged in small hatches for easy accessibility to the bilges. They
have the added advantage that they do not warp or swell, which is
a common fault with the usual pineboard hatches.
Overhead and ships' side lining can be made of thin plywood
and, if these are close-fitted, adequate ventilation louvres should be
provided to ensure a good circulation of air to all enclosed spaces.

Lack of attention to this very important point has been the cause of
most of the rot trouble experienced in vessels of wooden construction.
Furniture
There is, of course, no limit to the uses of plywood for cabin furniture
and fittings, and a good grade, to an adhesive specification of not
less than AIOO,should be used for the best results. Ply to lower
specifications is often used for furniture, but it is liable to deteriora-
tion and is not recommended as a lasting job.
-
All Glued Hull Construction
A recent development by Vosper Limited in the construction of
high-speed craft is the complete elimination of metal fastenings, the
Fig. 134:-Fast Patrol Boat "Pfeil"
whole of the assembly being held together by glue alone (see Fig.
134). One of the principal reasons underlying this development
was the desire to avoid the weaknesses caused by perforating the
timber components of the structure with numerous holes to accom-
modate the metal fastenings. Experience has shown that serious
weaknesses occur, leading to ultimate failure, where stressed com-
ponents have had a substantial proportion of their area reduced due
to these holes where, of course, the grain fibres are cut. A good
example of this is bottom planking failure in way of the fastenings
to transverse frames.
A series of test pieces of various configurations have shown that
using identical scantling material, the specimens which were glued
only showed superior strength up to failure as compared with speci-
mens which were glued and screwed.
For these craft, resorcinol resin glue is used throughout for its
high strength and durability. A number of reliable makes are
Fig. r35:--g2-Jrtt. Fast Patrol Boat: fore end showing stem, keel, longitudinal
stringers and girders all of which are laminated components
available and the one selected by Vosper for all high-speed craft is
Cascophen RS.216-M. In these craft the main longitudinals, hog,
Chines, gunwales and stringers are all constructed of laminations of
Canadian rock elm, as is also the stem (see Fig. 135). The bottom
girders which carry the main machinery, fuel tanks, etc., are built
with birch plywood vertical webs and laminated Canadian rock
elm double booms at their upper and lower edges.
They are fitted intercostally between transverse bulkheads, and
the connection at these points, for continuity of longitudinal strength
is by means of steel angle cleats bolted to the girders and through
the bulkheads to their corresponding members on the opposite side.
These are the only metal fastenings in the constructional assembly
of the hull.
Transverse frames are of African mahogany, constructed of a
large number of thin laminations (see Fig. 136). This enables the
frames to be continuous from the centreline to the gunwale, the thin
laminations being bent cold round the angle of the chine during
fabrication. Deck beams are also of laminated African mahogany

and the complete transverse frame assembly is fitted with double
birch plywood glued brackets at keel, chines and gunwales. Trans-
verse bulkheads are of plywood with mahogany stiffeners and are
fitted with doublers in way of stressed areas.
Planking, both bottom and topside, is double diagonaI African
Fig. 136:-A pair of transverse frames formed of thin laminations bent

round the chine making frame continuousfrom keel to gunwale
mahogany and both skins and plank edges are secured entirely by
glue, no metal fastenings of any kind being used.
The inner skin presents no difficulty from the gluing point of
view, as the planks can be clamped to the frames and stringers as
the work proceeds. The outer skin, however, is more complicated
as there is no ready means of clamping or applying pressure during
the gluing process. In order to overcome this problem, a number
of heavy external frames are erected transversely round the hull,
from which the exterior planking can be shored and wedged tightly
against the inner skin. Standard g in. x 3 in. deals are employed
for this framework and are used over again for subsequent craft (see
Fig. 137).
Several fast patrol boats built with this form of construction are
now in service and are giving a very good account of themselves.
Laminated Components
Quite apart from the plywood used in ship and boat construction
today, and which is purchased from the manufacturers ready
Tor use, there is another application of bonded components which is
Fig. 137:-Aft and topside planking showing method of applying pressure

to outer skin during gluing
done entirely at the boatbuilder's yard. This is known as laminated

construction and has almost taken the place of the older grown oak
crooks which were previausly used for stems, aprons, stern knees,
quarter knees, lodging and hanging knees, breasthooks, etc. The
technique used in this connection is to form the component required
by means of a number of laminations bent to the required shape
over a former, these laminations being bonded with one of the
several good cold-setting phenolic resins now obtainable and
clamped securely in position and in close contact during setting time.
This work requires to be done in as warm and dry conditions as
practicable, to ensure correct setting of the adhesive, and in no
case should the temperature be below about 50°F. Where necessary,
1oc;al heating by electric heaters for a few hours after gluing can
meet the need.
There is no particular thickness to which these laminations should
be worked and the usual practice is to cut and plane them to such
216
a thickness as will allow of bending cold and dry to the desired

curvature. If the laminae are too thick and will not bend cold,
resort to steam-bending will be necessary; in this event, the material
must be thoroughly dried again before gluing, as a low moisture
content is a condition of really satisfactory gluing. For this reason,
and to avoid the extra cost involved in steaming and drying, laminae
of a thickness to bend cold is the general order for this work.
Spruce and mahogany take the cold setting phenolics and
resorcinol well, but care is needed when dealing with oak and
Canadian rock elm, as these latter timbers are found in either an
acid or alkaline condition and a suitable hardener must be employed
with the resin for each condition. With these timbers, therefore, it is
desirable to seek the advice of the adhesive makers to ensure a re-
liable result.
The advantage of the laminated method is very apparent as it
will readily be seen that it enables the builder to produce a curved
member where the grain of the laminae runs truly with the curvature
over the whole length, which is seldom the case with oak crooks
which, in any case, are difficult to procure in reasonable quantities
these days. I n addition to important structural members being
made in this manner, numerous smaller parts and fittings are con-
veniently made by the same system. Coamings and other items
can be formed of several thicknesses to curves and radii too sharp
for bending solid timber by steaming, and they have the advantage
of holding their shape when set.
Moulded Hulls
Another application of laminated wood in the marine field is the
production of what is known as moulded plywood hulls. The prac-
tical difficulties, not to say impossibility, of bending or shaping flat
sheets of plywood to compound curvature, has confined its use to
hard-chine, or "vee"-bottom craft, or to the simpler flat or barge-
like pontoons and landing-craft. The traditional boat-shape, or
round-bilge form is, however, ideally suited to the moulded form
of construction. Briefly, this consists in the first place of building a
strong and rigid structure to the shape of the inside surface of craft
to be moulded; this block mould is usually upside-down on a stout
baseplate. Assuming the final hull to be three-ply, each strip of
veneer of each of the three skins has been previously cut by means
of a pattern, to lie snugly in position, edge to edge, when placed
in situ on the mould. These may be some three or four inches in
width and tapered slightly towards the ends, like the staves of a barrel.
When assembly is to commence, the keel and stem, previously
prepared, are dropped into a recess in the mould. The first, or inner,
layer of veneer is laid piece by piece in position, and tacked at its

ends into the previously glued rebate of keel or stem, All the first
layer being in place, the second is commenced and, in this case,
the faying surface to the first skin is spread with adhesive. Each
strip is so fitted and the process repeated with the third, or outer,
skin-these skins usually being laid diagonally. This process may
take an hour or two to complete, but a specially slow-setting adhe-
sive, at shop temperature, is employed to avoid partial setting during
assembly.
The hull at this stage is covered with a stout rubber sheet, shaped
to conform with the hull, and this is clamped close all round its
lower edge to the baseplate. The whole rig is then placed in an
autoclave-a strong cylindrical vessel with a pressure-tight door at
one end-where heat and air pressure is applied for the required
time to press the plies together and heat sufficient to "cure" the
adhesive. On withdrawal, the complete skin is lifted off the mould
and the result appears like a sheet of three-ply, perfectly moulded
to shape. Transom, seats, decks, etc., are then fitted and the craft
is ready for the paint or varnish shop.
This type of hull has great inherent strength in its skin, partIy
by virtue of its one-piece construction and partly due to the element
of self-stabilisation or stressed skin resulting from the compound
curvature of its form, and needs only a fraction of the internal
framing and strengthening members required by the normal hull
with its separate planks. Hulls built in this manner are proving
very robust in service and possess great strength and light weight.
Bonded with synthetic resin, they are unaffected by water and have
been subjected to tests involving continuous exposure in the open,
in an entirely unprotected condition as regards paint or varnish for
a number of years without deterioration other than normal greying
and weathering of the unprotected surface of the timber.
[R.E.L.L.]
CHAPTER XIV
PROPELLING MACHINERY
BEARING IN mind the fact that our subject is high-speed small craft,
it is perhaps of interest to consider broadly the power requirements of
these types of craft together with some of the special problems facing
the designer.
When we consider naval craft in the attackina categories, such
as might be used for the purpose of engaging and sinking high-speed
enemy craft which are endeavouring to lay mines in our coastal
shipping lanes, a speed as near as possible to 50 knots seems called
for. This speed will, of course, have to be achieved with an accept-
able degree of seaworthiness, range and armament loading sufficient
for its purpose.
To be reasonably certain of 50 knots seems to call for about one
brake horsepower for every 15 lb. weight of the boat in the loaded
condition, This figure allows some margin for various factors.
I t can readily be understood, therefore, that installed weight
available for machinery cannot be much more than, say, 1.5-2.0
1b.Ib.h.p. unless weight allowed for fuel, armament, etc., is to be
unduly curtailed.
As will become clear hereafter, the addition of fuel weight to that of
machinery is the all-important parameter, especially where range is
of overriding importance. I t still remains a fact, however, that to
succeed in obtaining high speed a high power-to-weight ratio is all-
important for the machinery.
Petrol Engines
I n the case of the smaller craft such as were used by the British and
American navies during War World I1 these requirements were
met by petrol machinery, developed for the most part originally for
aviation purposes and suitably converted for marine purposes.
Examples of such engines which were in use a decade or more ago
are :
b.h.p. weight 1b.lb.h.p.
Napier " Sea Lion " 500 1,652 lb. 3-31
Isotta Fraschini marine(C.R.M.) 1,100 2,699 ,, 2'45
also 1,500 and 1,800 b.h.p.
Rolls-Royce " Merlin " marine I , I oo 2,240 ,, 2.0
Packard 1,500 3,017 ,, 2.0
219
I n production today to meet this particular demand, which is by

no means non-existent, is the Rolls-Royce "Griffon" giving a
maximum b.h.p. of about 1,500 and weighing 3,500 lb. (see Plate
26).
There is also a new petrol-injection version of the Isotta Fraschini
(C.R.M.), also rated at 1,500 b.h.p. (max.) for a weight of 3,400 Ib.
The petrol-injection system as opposed to the carburetter arrange-
ment improves performance as far as specific consumption is con-
cerned, more especially at partial power ratings (see Plate 27).
Diesel Engines
I t is probable that the diesel engine cycle, provided power output,
weight and reliability were acceptable, would undoubtedly represent
the optimum for marine purposes.
The specific consumption in terms of lb./b.h.p./hour will be in the
neighbourhood of 0.35-0.38 throughout a wide range of output. The
fuel is also of relatively low volatility and therefore to that extent
immune from fire risk, which is a well-known drawback to the use of
petrol machinery.
There has recently been developed by Napier an interesting diesel
engine rated at 2,500 b.h.p. (max.) and weighing I 0,500 lb., including
rhe reverse gear, which should help to make up for the lack of a
suitable engine for the purposes under consideration in Great Britain.
This engine is of the twostroke type, arranged on the opposed-piston
layout with three crankshafts in triangular or delta form. Hence
the name-Napier ".
"Deltic The illustration (see Plate 28) will
show that complete with reverse gear it will install neatly.
I n Plate 29 is depicted the Mercedes-Benz diesel engine which
formed the basis on which the famous German E-boat relied for its
power during the war.
This engine delivers 2,500-3,000 b.h.p. and weighs about
I ~ , o o oIb. I t is of the direct reversing type, whereas the Napier
"Deltic" turns constantly in the same direction, the reverse being
carried out by means of suitable gearing and clutching arrangements.
If it was not for the fact that specific weight figures much less than,
say, 4 1b.lb.h.p. seem difficult to achieve, this type of engine would
command universal attention in the high-speed craft of the fast
patrol boat and similar types.
There are now quite a number of light high-powered diesels under
development with approximately the same characteristics so far as
power to weight ratio is concerned, but this is hardly the place to
describe them in detail.
Important firms developing and marketing such engines include
Maybach, Fiat and Mitsubishi.
Hf GH-SPEED SMALL CRAFT
Internal-combustion Turbine
Where really high powers for lowest weight are a requirement-
such, for instance, as for record breakers or for craft in the go-knot
category previously mentioned-it seems likely that the internal-
combustion turbine of the type which has been developed in recent
years for aircraft will find much to recommend it. As always, there are
drawbacks, chief of which is the relatively high specific consumption,
which in broad terms today (1963) is nearly double that for a
good diesel, though there are indications that the turbine specific
fuel consumption will improve greatly.
The line of development finding much favour in the air world
today for the turbine-cum-propeller arrangement envisages, say, two
axial compressors in series (sometimes called two-spooled), com-
bined with a power turbine driving an output shaft and one of the
compressors, while the other compressor is driven by a separate free
POWER PER CENT
Fig. 139
222
turbine. The relative performance of various types can be gathered

from a study of Fig. 139.
This arrangement is not ideal for marine purposes because the
complete flexibility obtained where the power turbine is completely
free of the compressor turbine is compromised, unless one or more
separate power rows of blading are added. This, however, may not
be unduly difficult.
The simple free-power turbine arrangement can be exemplified in
the case of the Metropolitan-Vickers G.2 (see Fig. 138),fitted in the
Bold class of F.P.B., and also the Bristol "Proteus" and "Olympus"
(see Figs. rqo and 141). The Rolls-Royce R.M.60, which will be referred
to shortly, has also the characteristics of the free-power turbine
arrangement, although somewhat different in other ways.
Just to touch briefly on the possibilities resulting from making use
of the units developed primarily for aircraft use in the form of "jet"
propulsion, it may be of interest to consider the performance which
might be anticipated if these units were converted to the propeller
turbine configuration.
Mr. Holmes-Fletcher,l in a paper read before the Institute of
Marine Engineers on January 25, 1952, puts forward the idea
that, for instance, a Rolls-Royce "Nene" with power turbine
added could produce 6,000 s.h.p. on an installed weight of less than
2 1b.Ib.h.p. I t is not difficultto estimate on this basis that the "Avon"
from the same stable might produce maximum power in the neigh-
bourhood of 19,000 s.h.p. for 1,000 hours overhaul life.
These units, as described above, while offering very satisfactory
performance as far as power-to-weight ratio is concerned, suffer from
rather high specific consumption, so that for use in high-speed craft it
must be anticipated that endurance (or range) at high continuous
speeds may suffer in the interests of full speed.
Comparatively, the weight of these units is so low that much extra
fuel can be carried without exceeding total machinery weights for
other types of prime mover. Furthermore, developments are in
progress today with the propeller turbine layout which envisage
specific consumptions down to 0.4 lb./b.h.p./hour or even less in the
relatively near future.
To improve matters in this direction a cycle of operations somewhat
as shown in Fig. 142 will have to be considered. Rolls-Royce have
taken the matter a stage further by developing a compounded engine
arrangement designated the R.M.60.
The cycle and general arrangement are shown in Fig. 143(page227)
from which it can be gathered that while specific consumption is
likely to be greatly improved, there will be-even more important
-a substantial improvement in consumption at partial power.
STARTING MOTOR POWER

COMPRESSOR TURBINE REDUCTION GEAR
- lt
-I I(-! 11.400 R.P.M.
I i
t
-f,346" F 6,000 R.P.M.
E 900. F \
ROTOR BLADES
GAS
DISCHARGE
\
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
roHEAT
I
EXCHANGE
\
GAS
-
I
I r HEAT EXCHANGER I
I
900° F
Fig. rp:-Diagrammatic layout showing Ruston arrangement of internal-

combustion turbine unit using heat exchanger. Appropriate temperatures at
various stages are shown
This is a matter of great importance to the general run of naval

vessels, for the vast majority of their running is carried out at or
below one-third full power. The weight is, of course, somewhat
increased as compared with the simple turbines mentioned above,
so that the probability is that this configuration will be most likely
to prove suitable for the higher-speed patrolling types rather than
for the all-out attackers.
I t is considered that the qualities of flexibility inherent in the
free-power turbine are extremely important as far as output
revolutions are concerned, certainly so long as it is desired to use
a fixed-pitch propeller in conjunction therewith.
In making use of the turbines discussed above for marine purposes
it is necessary to take into account certain limitations. Reversing and
manceuvring have to be made into a practical proposition, while the
disposal of exhaust gases presents quite a problem. If at all possible,
the funnel should be avoided as it occupies some of the most useful
part of the deck and constitutes furthermore a rather conspicuous
target.
I n an effort to provoke thought on the subject of what may become
practical layouts in the future, Figs. 144 (a), (b) and (c) are offered.
In each case the concept of the free-power turbine is used, although
226
differing ideas on the subject of reversing and manmuvring are put

forward.
By arranging the turbine output shaft to drive forward and to
return through "vee" or transfer-type gearing it may be possible to
lead the exhaust away aft, thereby eliminating the funnel. Some
increment in thrust may be anticipated by virtue of discharging the
residual gases aft.
Case (a) involves "vee" drive and reduction to propeller shaft. At
a suitable point a drive from an auxiliary diesel engine of relatively
low power is coupled in so that low-speed silent cruising and
manoeuvring can thereby be effected.
The necessary protection against over-speeding the auxiliary
engine in the event of the main turbine being started up while the
auxiliary engine is clutched in should be provided; or, alternatively,
/INTAKE
,
AIR
COMBUSTION
PARALLEL
TRANSFER
I I DRIVE I
Figs. I# (a), (b) and (c)

228
interlocking safeguards might be fitted to the fuel control of the main
turbines.
For case (b) the same turbine layout has been put forward; but
instead of making use of an auxiliary engine for reversing, a dutch
and reverse gear is fitted at a suitable point in the output train
between turbine and propeller shafts.
I n case (c) either of the above methods of manoeuvring or auxiliary
drive could be employed, but instead of making use of the "vee"
drive the so-called transfer drive is put forward in order to simplify
gear-cutting problems. This will envisage the turbine axis lying
parallel to that of the propeller shaft as shown.
I n each case where an auxiliary engine is envisaged it is quite
practicable that as an alternative an electric motor could be em-
ployed, driven from one or more auxiliary electric generating sets as
fitted aboard for ships' purposes.
I t is probable that the speed on electric motor alone will be some-
what limited and power available for manoeuvring may not be all
that could be desired for practical purposes. None the less it is
an alternative worth consideration.
I t will be gathered that the main problem involved in the use of
gas turbines of high output for marine purposes is that of reversing.
As a matter of academic interest a diagrammatic layout of a reversing
gearbox, including reduction, is shown in Fig. 145. This shows a
proposal for transferring no less than 10,ooo b.h.p. as a main pro-
pulsion unit reverselreduction gear. This was projected by Pame-
trada under the direction of Dr. T. W. F. Brown.
A controllable pitch propeller constitutes an alternative method
I FEET
*.
0
- -
I 2 3
1
Fig. 145:-ro,ooo h.p. main pro$ulsion reverse reduction gear:

4,500-120 r.p.m, ahead and I I O r.p.m. astern
of achieving this result, at least as far as reversing is concerned,

and is referred to in a separate chapter (XXII).
Turbo-compounded Diesel Engine

The reader will have gathered from the foregoing that the forms of
prime mover so far discussed have limitations when high powers for
light weight are called for in high-speed marine craft.
The petrol engine, while light and powerful, uses an unduly
volatile fuel.
The diesel engine is on the heavy side for the faster types, while
the turbine can produce favourable total power-to-weight ratios, but
falls down somewhat in the matter of specific consumption.
A paper1 read by Mr. E. E. Chatterton (Chief Engineer, Piston
Engine Division, D. Napier Ltd.) before the Royal Aeronautical
Society in April 1954 puts forward a strong case for the compound
diesel engine, which seems to be applicable to the marine field.
Points of general interest to the marine engineer are-made in this
paper. If the basic thermodynamic cycles are examined for the
various engine types hitherto discussed we find that the spark-
ignition (petrol) engine consumes nearly all the air supplied to it.
Power output in this case depends largely upon the "breathing"
capacity of the engine.
The indicator (PV) diagram (see Fig. 146(a)) shows that the
combustion takes place at constant volume, the peak temperature
reached being in the neighbourhood of 2,500' C.
Thermal efficiency is governed basically by the ratio Vlv (com-
pression ratio) which in turn is limited by the onset of detonation.
The very spectacular increase in power made available during and
since the last war in the case of piston engines was only made
possible by such expedients as charge cooling, water (methanol)
injection and very special fuels.
he compression~ignition(diesel) engine, on the other hand, is
handicapped by the amount of air used through the necessity +o
complete all the fuel mixing within a crank angle of at the most 40°,
resulting in only about 80 per cent of the air entering the com-
bustion chamber being usefully employed. A two-stroke diesel
loses a bit more due to the necessity for, and in the process of,
scavenging.
T~~-P V
diagram (6) shows that combustion takes place partly at
constant pressure and partly at constant volume. As detonation is
not a worry to contend with here, the amount of combustion in this
type of engine leads to relatively high structural weight.
Compound Diesel Engines for Aircraft.
230
v
DIESEL ENGINE ;= 8'5
P
NOMINAL COMP, RATIO 711 NOMINAL COMP. RATIO 1611
I GAS TURBINE :
L J
6 2 4 '6 .8 10 12 14
VOLUME'
(4
COMPOUND ENGINE X - 24
NOMINAL OVERALL COMP R A ~ O

4911
! I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 75
VOLUME
Figs. 146 ( a ) , ( b ) , (c) and ( d )

231
The internal-combustion turbine as used to drive a propeller
turbine effects its combustion at constant pressure.
As the maximum temperature acceptable in a reciprocating engine
(circa 2,500' C.) is too high for the turbine blading, a considerable
excess of air over that needed for combustion of the fuel injected
has to be passed through in order to keep the maximum tempera-
ture within reasonable limits (perhaps r,oooOK). PV diagram (c)
gives indication of the conditions operating in this case.
DIESEL ENGINE
TURBlN E
URBlNE P I N I O N
EXHAUST
EN.GlNE SHAFT
PROPELLER SHAFT
C O M P O U N D ENGINE
pig. I47
However, it is not difficult to visualise the situation arising if

combustion and expansion first takes place in a two-stroke piston
engine and is followed by exhaust to a turbine at the point where the
blades can accept the temperature after reduction by useful work in
the cylinder. Diagrammatic layout will show this cycle in a very
simplified form (see Fig. 147).
The compound cycle envisaged is as in Fig. 146 (d). The line
ABC represents the division between the piston engine and the
turbine. I t will be realised that compression takes place initially in an
axial compressor driven from the turbine. This air is then blown into
the cylinder, where it is further compressed by the upward stroke of
the piston. Following the uncovering of the exhaust port the gases
will be led to and will expand to atmospheric pressure across the
turbine.
The available torque from the turbine which is left over after
driving the axial compressor will drive a separate output shaft or
assist the piston engine output through suitable gearing.
The above-mentioned high-compression or expansion ratios are not
substantially affected by the position of the line ABC; however, the

sub-division of the work as between the piston engine and turbine can
have an important effect upon the dimensions and weight of the
engine as a whole,
Cylinder pressure and turbine inlet temperatures are limiting
factors in preparing the design. However, by suitably controlling air
supply and port design a considerable flow of "excess" air can be
supplied through the piston engine which will have the effect of
ENGINE
AIR AT AIR AFTFP AIR AFTER EXHAUST
INTAKE PRESSURE AX\AL COMPRESSION PISTON COMPRESSION GAS
IZJ m k3ssssl
Fig. I@-The Napier "Nomad" compound aircraft engine
reducing the exhaust temperature and so raising the turbine inlet

from C to F. DEF then represents what may be termed a new
division of work. What in fact happens here is that supercharger
pressure is raised, more air is supplied, more fuel burnt, resulting in
greater mean effective pressure as represented by the dotted ex-
pansion line.
It seems probable that unless some measures to increase output per
cylinder such as are envisaged above are adopted the weight of the
diesel engine unit will not show much reduction on that normally
to be anticipated.
However, due to the excess airflow, effective cooling permits more
fuel to be burnt and the surplus heat energy released in the exhaust
is used up in the turbine.
Whereas the best so far anticipated from a high-speed marine
diesel is perhaps 4.2 1b.Ib.h.p. specific weight, a comparable figure of
2.5 lb./b.h.p. might be anticipated from a compounded unit based
upon the principles as set out for the "Nomad" but suitably adapted
for marine purposes.
233
There is more than one way in which the compounding can be

carried out, but the configuration set out in Fig. I 48 seems a practical
layout for marine purposes.
I t is impossible to ignore the promise inherent in the high power-to-
weight ratios offered combined with low specific fuel consumption.
To obtain optimum results from such an engine the use of a
controllable pitch propeller or its equivalent would seem to be an
essential feature so as to ensure that hull power requirements at any
speed can be matched to engine output at optimum revolutions.
[P.D.C.]
CHAPTER XV
I N S T A L L A T I O N OF M A I N M A C H I N E R Y
UNDERTHIS heading can be discussed the steps which have to be taken

when installing an engine or engines into a high-speed craft to
ensure that the resulting conditions are such that the machinery can
be expected to carry out its function of driving the ship at high speed
with reliability and efficiency.
For the moment we will relegate the problems of transmission to
another chapter and confine ourselves to considektion of how best
to ensure the development of full power at the o u k u t coupling of the
engine unit.
(I) It will be necessary to provide the engine with fuel in the
requisite quantities from suitable storage tanks and through
a system of pipe lines and filters.
(2) Lubricating oil will similarly have to be provided for, as
most engines of the type envisaged are of the dry sump type
which involves a lubricating oil tank separate from, though
adjacent to, the engine.
(3) A cooling medium, or coolant as it is sometimes termed,
has to be provided in the requisite quantity and a t the right
temperature.
(4) The engine-room compartment will have to be supplied
with the necessary amount of air to supply the engine's
main and auxiliary aspiration system, as well as to provide
sufficient air to render the compartment reasonably
habitable to the engine-room crew.
J) The exhaust gases from main machinery must be led through
suitably insulated and cooled piping systems to the outside
of the boat while at the same time muffling them to an
acceptable degree.
( 6 ) Arrangements must be made to make it possible to extin-
guish a petrol or other fire caused by accident or enemy
action.
(7) An adequate supply of compressed air or electricity must
be provided to start an engine from rest.
(8) The necessary pumps and associated piping system must be
provided to keep the engine-room free from bilge water
and any reasonable amount of hull or gland leakage from
the sea.
(9)Artificial lighting and heating must be provided for.
(10) Means for controlling the machinery from the bridge or
other control position have to be provided, including the
necessary telegraphs, telephones, bells, buzzers and re-
motely operated controls where considered desirable and
practical.
(I I) Recording instruments must be provided for, arranged in
such a manner that those in direct charge of running the
machinery can keep themselves informed of the con-
ditions under which the machinery is operating.
I t is also desirable to keep those on the bridge in com-
mand of the vessel informed of the operating conditions in
certain classes of vessel, more especially where there is a
possibility that engine-room crew may not always
be available, and controls can be operated from the
bridge.
Fuel System
High-powered machinery as fitted nowadays in M.T.B.s and
similar craft calls for the stowage of very large quantities of fuel.
'Where long range is a requirement, as it is in most cases, the total
fuel load may represent anything up to 30 per cent of the total
displacement.
For this reason it is usual to stow the majority of the fuel in the
neighbourhood of the longitudinal centre of gravity, that is to say,
in the middle of the ship.
I n some cases where too much fuel is carried to make it a practical
proposition to concentrate the whole amidships, tanks are arranged
both forward and abaft the engine-room in two or more compart-
ments. '
Tanks can be manufactured of copper, sheet steel or aluminium

alloy, dependent upon how important is the saving of weight, also
the type of fuel to be carried.
I n recent years a type of container or tank has been produced
which is of flexible material combining the qualities of water-tight-
ness with leak-proofing material. The advantage of this material
is that it can be made to fit closer to the actual space available,
thereby enabling more fuel to be carried in a given portion of the
ship than would be the case with metal tanks.
During World War I1 it became standard practice to fit a pro-
tective leak-proof coating to all tanks, which had the effect of
sealing a tank automatically in the event of it being punctured by a
bullet or cannon shell. The advantage was twofold and substantial,
in that the boat could continue in action unimpeded by loss of fuel,
and fire hazard due to leakage of fuel in bilges was avoided.
236
BODY
SHUT GFF COCKS
Fig. 150:-Fuel collector and distribution manifold

INSTALLATION OF MAIN MACHINERY
By virtue of its self-sealing properties it was very unusual for even

a n incendiary bullet to cause a fire, as on passing out of the tank on
the opposite side to entry the exit hole was immediately sealed,
thereby preventing the entry of the oxygen necessary to combustion.
There were a number of types of self-sealing material, one of the
better known of which was, and still is, supplied by Wilkinsons
Rubber Linatex. Marston Excelsior Ltd. also supplied a flexible bag
tank with self-sealing properties.
Whatever the type of storage container employed, means must
be provided for collecting the water which inevitably enters the
system with the fuel and subsequently separates and settles. This
is usually effected by arranging for a collector (see Fig. r50) to be
fitted at the lowest part of the tank so that a drain plug or pipe will
allow of the water and other impurities being drawn off. Alter-
natively, if the drain plug proves to be very inaccessible an internal
pipe connected to a pump externally to the tank can be arranged.
There are a number of systems which may be used successfully
for the piping arrangements to convey fuel from the tanks to the
engine required.
In the case of a number of tanks being fitted the arrangement
favoured is to fit a common collecting box or rail at a convenient
position, preferably within the engine-room, such that each tank
can supply this rail by means of a direct supply pipe of adequate
dimensions.
Each supply pipe should have a shut-off valve fitted, and the height
Fig. r5~:--Saunders-@fie valve

239
of the collector*box should be such that fuel can run from the bottom
of a tank by gravity.
There is a school of thought which has preferred an arrangement
where the fuel is drawn from the bottom of the t a d through the
top and down outside to the collector box.
The reason for this is that in the event of any accident or leak
happening to the pipe between the lower part of the tank and the
collector box there would be no means of preventing the tank
emptying itself out into the bilge.
FELT WASHER HANDWHEEL
Fig. 152:-Arrangement of Saunders-type diaplragm valve
With the arrangement described above, where the fuel comes

from the top of the tank, the pipe connection to the tank, for instance,
is not continuously under pressure.
The disadvantage of taking all supplies via the top of the tanks
consists in the vastly increased length and complexity of the piping
involved.
Furthermore, the duty of the engine-fuel supply pump is vastly
simplified where the fuel can reach the collector box, and in fact
the engine itself, by gravity.
Isolating cocks will be fitted a t the collector box to serve each
tank supply line as well as for each engine.
" Booster " pumps can be fitted in such a system to advantage
to assist in the avoidance of " vapour locking " which is liable to

arise when ambient temperatures are high.
It is true that if damage occurs to the connection at the tank while

a tank is full there is practically nothing to be done about it, but
it is a remote likelihood and the other advantages outweigh this
risk.
For piping it is popular these days to use one of the number of
flexible pipes originally developed mainly for use in aircraft.
Flexatex, for instance, is lighter than metal and has the great
advantage that it can take up the shape it wants to, also it can be
supplied in bullet- or leak-proof form.
Fig. 153:--Float-typs capacity gauge
Lubricating Oil System

This usually consists in a high-powered installation in a lubricating
oil supply tank situated adjacent to the engine which holds the
oil required to maintain an adequate circulation through the
system.
A pipe of adequate dimensions will connect this tank to the suction
side of the engine lubricating oil pump, whence it will be pumped
through a cooler or heat exchanger, then a filter to the engine
bearings, etc.
After circulation has been completed the oil will fall to the sump
under the crankshaft, whence it will be pumped by the scavenge
RE BROKEN OR DISCONNECTED
Fig. 154:-Hydrostatic contents gauge
pump through another cooler and/or coarse filter and back to the
oil supply tank.
I t will be desirable in most cases to arrange for a reserve of oil to be
stored reasonably adjacent to the machinery so that "make up"
oil can be pumped by a transfer system to each of the supply tanks.
I t will be appreciated that where a considerable stowage of fuel is
carried sufficient for, say, 1,000 nautical miles, it will be essential to
carry enough lubricating oil to last out the petrol.
Various types of filter can be used here, examples of which are
shown, but the practical problem which presents-itself is to ensure
free flow under conditions when oil is cold and thick, as also when it
is thin.
I n extremely cold weather there may even be some difficulty in
ensuring a flow from the tank to the suction pump so that various
internal arrangements 'are or can be made to warm up the oil in the
supply tank prior to starting. This can be done by heating the
general atmosphere of the engine-room or by means of a heating
element within the oil tank.
Alternatively, there is a system which can be employed to advan-
tage where a small quantity of oil only is circulatedin the first instance.
This is effected by means of an internal tube or hotwell, which, when
turned through half a turn, uncovers some hitherto blanked holes
and opens up to the tank as a whole. Before this the oil return has
been arranged to squirt direct into the hotwell or internal pipe, so
Plate 20. "Blue Moppie"
Plate 2I. Hovercraft

Plate 22. Grumman Hydrofoil "Denison"
Plate 23. Subramar Hydrofoil Tyke P.T.50

that the total of oil in circulation amounts to that contained in the

system and in the hotwell.
Most systems arrange for the cooler to be by-passed automatically
by means of a thermostatic control, which only allows a flow through
the cooler when the temperature has reached a certain amount,
Sometimes a positive and manually operated control is used
to fulfil this function, which is good enough provided the engine-
room crew remember to shut off the by-pass when the temperature
rises.
A by-pass is frequently fitted to the filter controlled by a pressure-
loaded relief valve, so that in the event of excessive pressure becoming
built up when the oil is thick damage will not occur, such as to joints
or filter elements.
DISCHARGE
Fig. 155:- Typical lubricating oil system.

R 243
HOT
OIL
OUTLET
Fig. 156:-Lubricating oil service tankJitted with heating coil
WARMING UP NORMAL RUNNING
LOWER PO&S
CLOSED
Fig. 157:-Lubricating oil service tank incorporating hotwell

'LOCK NUT
SPINDLE JOINT
\ / 'THERMOSTATCOIL
COVER
Fig. 158:-
Oil thermostat
I
VALVE LOCKING BUSH
BODY
Cooling Circuit
The most popular arrangement for any but the smaller engine units
consists in circulating water pumped or scooped from the sea through
heat exchangers, one provided to cool a fresh-water closed circuit
which actually circulates through the cylinder jackets and the other
to cool the lubricating oil after circulating through the engine.
A relatively large volume of water will have to circulate in the
case of high-powered engines, so that design of inlets must be such
that scooping action is the maximum consistent with low external
and inlet drag. This also applies to the pump itself.
I t has frequently been tried to eliminate the salt-water pump
altogether by making use of the scooping action generated as the
boat is forced through the water, but there are practical drawbacks
to this scheme, one of the more obvious being the fact that no
scooping action is available at rest or when the boat goes astern.
While towing, for instance, a high power may induce high tempera-
tures, but, associated with low speeds, will result in insufficientcooling-
water flow.
For this reason it is now almost universally found necessary to have
Fig. 15g:-Serck combined oil and water cooler

245
Fig. IGo:-Serck conzbincd cooler
a salt-water pump provided, of ample proportions, to fulfil the duty

of maintaining adequate circulation through the coolers at all speeds.
The pumps used for this purpose are usually of the centrifugal or
some variant of the displacement type.
A centrifugal pump is a simple solution of the problem, as it is
efficient and relatively simple, but has the drawback that it is
virtually unable to draw water from a level substantially lower than
itself. There are various ways of improving this quality, but on the
whole they do not render the centrifugal pump proof from this
drawback, I t is mainly for this reason that the displacement pump
in its various forms is found more suitable for this job.
Displacement pumps can be said to embrace types varying from
the simple reciprocating pump to "gear" pumps and such principles
SIGHT GLASS
NP OVERFLOW
F.W. EXPANSION AN ' PIPE
MAKE fEED TANK
OUTLET SCOOP S.W. INLET
Fig. 16r:- Typical cooling water circulating system

246
as that on which the SIHI pump works. This latter, although of

the Vane type, works, in truth, on the displacement principle if its
operation is studied.
The gear pump can be used to advantage for the duty of cir-
culating water around a marine installation, and it can take its
suction from a fair height above the inlet provided excessive wear
has not taken place.
Short of actually employing a plunger-type pump or pumps,
however, the SIHI type is probably the best for this particular
job, as it has a remarkable all-round performance and reliability,
both from the point of view of suction and delivery. Having con-
Fig. 163:- Water

thermostat
COIL ASSEMBLY
siderable clearances in the normal state, these pumps are not so

liable to a fall off in performance with wear.
The only inherent disadvantage possessed by this particular type
is the fact that it takes a relatively high power to drive it; in other
words, it has a poor overall efficiency.
As the sea-water circuit will have to supply coolant for both the
jacket-cooling water and for the oil coolers, there will have to be a
means provided for controlling the flow through the heat exchangers.
This can be by means of manual operation after observation of
the temperatures. I n this case a by-pass to the cooler will probably
be provided so that just as much liquid is allowed to pass through the
cooler as is necessary to maintain the required temperature at inlet
to engine respectively of water and oil. I n the alternative a thermo-
stat can be employed.
Besides the operating condition under which the engine is working,
which factor in itself will influence the amount of heat to be disposed
of, there will, of course, be another variable in the temperature of
the actual sea water at entry to the ship which depends upon the
season of the year and the part of the world.
248
To ensure that it is possible to employ the machinery under any

conditions in any part of the world, it is necessary to work out the
capacities of the heat exchangers and the amount of water flowing
to cope with tropical as well as arctic conditions. These two
requirements, for many reasons not immediately obvious, are not
too easy to meet in full.
Where it is possible, a thermostatic control should be inserted in
the circuit which will have the effect of releasing a man for other
duties, or at least lightening his burden, while a t the same time
protecting the machinery from the effects of excessive temperatures
in either direction.
Fig. 164:-Sketch showing

princ$les o f water trap for
weather deck ventilation
Engine Ventilation System

It is important to work this system out correctly, because the very
high-powered engines employed in an M.T.B. radiate a good deal
of heat under certain circumstances and also require more air than is
generally imagined to use in the process of combustion.
A calculation must be made to estimate the consumption of air
in cubic feet per minute at or near atmospheric pressure to ascertain
the requirement of each engine at full power. Alternatively, the
engine-makers should be consulted.
The scheming of the air inlets and exhausts from the engine-room
must be on the basis that the machinery shall run without becoming
starved of air under full power conditions, with the engine-room
hatches shut down, as would be necessary in action at night to
prevent light being seen from outboard or in heavy weather. The
amount of air supplied should be sufficient to ensure adequate air
for the crew to breathe and avoid drowsiness or impaired efficiency.
HIGH-SPEED SMALL. CRAFT
The cowl ventilators have to be so designed that the rather con-

siderable amounts of spray which are apt to sweep the decks in wet
or rough weather do not find their way down into the engine-room.
A form of water trap is usually employed, the working principle
of which can be seen from Fig. 164.
The cowls are assisted by powerful fans, the general arrangement
of which, with their ducts, is shown in a typical engine-room
ventilating arrangement. I t is frequently necessary to 'duct supply
air direct to the engine intake.
Exhaust System
The problem in scheming a suitable exhaust system for a high-
powered vessel consists in handling the exhaust gases in such a
manner that the absolute minimum of back pressure is imposed upon
the engine, while at the same time involving as little as possible
in the way of additional weight, complication, and space occupied.
At the same time some degree of silencing is necessary, varying
in degree from the case of a vessel required for military purposes
where absolute silence is desirable, to the case where, for instance, a
high-speed rescue vessel is under consideration. I n this latter case, at
least, some fairly considerable silencing arrangements are called for
in the interests of the comfort and welfare of the personnel employed
or carried aboard.
The simplest method of disposing of the exhaust from a high-
powered engine, whether it be run on petrol or diesel, will be to lead
it in suitably sized pipes directly to the ship's side adjacent to the
engine in question.
Due to the great heat involved it will be necessary to form a jacket
around the exhaust piping through which is circulated cooling
water.
I n the event that other considerations will allow of this arrange-
ment, it will be found necessary to permit a certain amount of
expansion in the piping. This may be due simply to the effect of
difference in temperature between the running and stopped con-
ditions, but can also be necessary to allow a differential movement
between the engine itself or the point to which the exhaust piping
is attached and the ship's side.
A certain amount of relative movement is inevitable in a light
high-speed craft when running fast in a seaway due to "panting"
and general flexibility which is necessary throughout the structure.
One of the simplest means of permitting relative movement
between exhaust piping and hull is to connect the pipe to the hull
by means of a leather expansion joint (or composition with similar
qualities), clipping the material to the pipe and sealing to the hull
by means of a bolted ring. This system was used in the early

Isotta Fraschini installations, where silencing was not considered
to be a requirement owing to the provision of an auxiliary engine
which was very thoroughly silenced.
Later this arrangement was found to possess shortcomings owing
to the limited speed available with the auxiliary engines.
When improved main-engine silencing became necessary various
alternatives were essayed. The most practical all-round arrangement
turned out to be as shown in Fig. 165. Here the use of a silencing
arrangement called the "Dumbflow " was employed. This apparatus
consisted essentially in an expansion and water-mixing chamber
and was rigidly secured next to the ship's skin. Expansion in the
piping was made feasible by arranging for a form of expansion joint
at entry to the silencer.
The silencing was achieved
by a combination of expan-
sion and water injection-
mainly the latter. I t was,
however, necessary in most
cases to provide a by-pass so
that excessive back pressure
could be avoided at the !
highest speeds.
The silencer was, in fact, ' H.D. JOLTS
in these cases, capable of
efficient operation up to
a b o u t two-thirds power,
w h i c h was acceptable
operationally.
Another method of silenc-
ing the main engines which VALVE LEVER^ '
was found to be effective
consisted in leading the ex- Fig. 165:- Typical "Dumbjow " silencer
haust gases right through the
ship to the transom aft and passing them thence to atmosphere
through a silencer fitted on' or adjacent to the transom.
~ h arrangement
& was undoubtedly efficient, but, as can well be
imagined, it was comparatively heavy. The reason for this is not
difficult to visualise when it is realised that the long exhaust piping
leading to the transom from the engine-room is jacketed and there-
fore carries the additional weight of cooling water as well as that of
the additional length of piping involved.
Finally, the method of disposing of exhaust gases and silencing
them which held out the greatest promise of all consisted in under-
water discharge. This is extremely efficient from the viewpoint of
noise, but has so far presented a problem to avoid back pressure to an

excessive extent.
There are certain other subsidiary problems involved which have
not proved very easy to solve. Large volumes of gas discharged under
water ahead of the propeller and rudder have had the effect of
causing cavitation leading to propeller slip, inefficiency, etc. The
same effect has caused rudders to become ineffective under certain
conditions.
Unless care is taken in the design and scheming of exhaust piping
where the discharge takes place under water it can become possible
to syphon water from overboard back into the machinery.
Fig. 166:- Transom

of "Brave" class Fast
Patrol Boat showing
exhaust outlets and
shelf
From military considerations there are unquestionably advantages

attaching to under-water exhaust from the point of view of detection
above the surface of the water. I t should be borne in mind, however,
that radar will in all probability be used primarily to1detect the
presence and location of surface craft within the predictable future:
also infra-red rays which detect hot gases with considerable
effectiveness.
As is well known by now, radar does not in any way rely on sonic
waves for its functioning, so that whether or not a boat is making
a noise is immaterial from the point of view of detection.
On the other hand, under-water detection by means of hydro-
phones will become much facilitated by the use of under-water
discharge for exhausts.
Starting
Large engines require the application of considerable power over
a relatively short period to start them. This is especially the case
when the engine has been standing for some time and when the
external temperatures are low.
The most commonly employed means of starting large engines
are compressed air or some form of electrical starter.
I n the case of compressed air some or all the cylinders are
arranged to have air admitted to them by means of a distributing
valve system, in such a manner that the correct firing sequence
is followed. For petrol engines it is usual that only a proportion
of the cylinders have air admitted, leaving the remainder free to
fire on their normal carburation or injection system when the
plugs fire.
With a diesel engine the effort to turn a cold engine against
compression may be reduced temporarily by decompressor valves,
which are, of course, shut as the engine starts to function on its
normal cycle.
For compressed-air starting the high-pressure air will have to be
stored in suitable bottles, which will be employed in the actual start
or sometimes for manmuvring in the case of a direct reversing diesel
engine.
These bottles will be charged by air-compressor units, one of which
will be separate from the main engine. One or more compressors
will be driven by the main engine unit, but the auxiliary com-
pressor will have to be used when or if the position arises that a start
is required with no air available in the bottles.
For this reason the auxiliary air compressor will have to be driven
by a prime mover such as a petrol or diesel engine or possibly by an
electric motor. I n the case of the latter, this would not be recom-
mended for small high-powered ships of the M.T.B. type, as the
electrical load involved will in turn require excessive generating and
battery capacity. Where, however, there are a minimum of, say,
two generators available it might be considered more convenient
to drive the compressor electrically.
Electric starting involves the use of a battery capable of sustaining
a very heavy discharge over a short period. I n England 24 volts is
usually employed for this purpose, although in the U.S.A. the voltage
can be as low as six where an automotive engine is being converted
for marine use.
Usually the type of starter employed is similar to that used in the
case of motor cars or lorries. I n these cases the toothed flywheel
and "Bendix " drive will be used.
There is, however, an alternative method of electric starting
which can be used where very heavy torques are required combined
with light weight.
This is termed a n impulse starter. I t consists in making use of the
energy stored in a relatively small flywheel running at high revolu-
tions by connecting it through suitable clutch and reduction gear
at the moment maximum rotative energy has been stored in the
flywheel.
The method of operation consists in closing the circuit switch to
a motor which puts the flywheel in motion. After some seconds,
when the revolutions of the flywheel have reached a peak, a control
operating a clutch will connect the flywheel to the engine crank-
shaft through suitable reduction medium, resulting in sufficient turns
of the main engine crankshaft to get it away.
This method is more frequently used in aircraft than boats, but
is none the less a practical possibility.
The same remarks could apply to what is termed the "Coffman "
type of starter. Here the energy in a charge similar to cordite is
released and expanded in a high-pressure cylinder which applies
torque to the crankshaft through the medium of suitable threads
and gearing.
This method is much used in naval aviation, as it is light and
effective while avoiding the use of heavy-starting battery trolleys.
A revolving chamber such as is used in the case of a revolver
is used to place another charge in position in the event of another
start becoming necessary. The charges are contained in cartridges
similar to those used by gun-makers.
Gas turbines can be started by using an air motor geared to
the compresso; rotor and supplied with low pressure air with a
high flow rate, This air can be obtained by using conventional
high-pressure air receivers fitted with a suitable pressure-reducing
valve. A more convenient method is to bleed low-pressure air from
a small gas turbine. When not required for starting, this small gas
turbine can be used as the ship's generating plant.
Lighting and Heating

Lighting will nowadays, of course, always be electrical. This also
applies to heating if sufficient generating power is available. The
great advantage of electric heating is that it can be carried out with-
out flame exposure, thereby minimising fire risk. (Chapter XXVIII
discusses at some length the electrical arrangements in high-speed
craft.)
For high-speed craft of the type under consideration a heating
system of some type is a necessity when operating in cold climates
because if the lubricating oil becomes too thick it will not be able to
flow through the system properly on starting up the machinery.

Some makers actually stipulate that their engines shall not be started
unless the oil in the system has been brought to a minimum of,
say, I o O - I ~ O C.
For this purpose either the engine-room temperature as a whole
should be brought to this level, which is the best arrangement, or
else the oil tank will have to have a heating element inserted.
Alternative types of heater for the living compartments are those
of the Primus type, which are effective and clean, and the Calor gas
type, which also possess these advantages provided care is taken in
installation and use.
I n recent years air heaters based upon those commonly employed
in coaches, trains and aircraft have been used to an increasing
extent for small craft. Diesel or similar fuel is used. Examples are
produced by Smiths, Dragonair and Key Leather Go.
Control of Machinery
*
I n theory and for certain purposes, more especially where there is
likely to be a shortage of crew, it is most desirable to be able to
operate the machinery from the bridge. It is, however, a little
doubtful whether the operating conditions existent in an M.T.B.
or other small fast craft which may have to fight at night or in
Fig. 167:-Controls on Bridge of Fast Patrol Boat

255
Fig. 168:-Typical Machinery Control Panel in Turbine

Engine Fast Patrol Boat
bad weather really call for full bridge control and operation of
machinery.
I t is very convenient to be able to control the engine speed from
the bridge by means of throttle controls. For close formation or
station keeping much improved precision and safety can be achieved
by these means.
I n the less complicated and lower-powered craft it is reasonable
to manage without a n engineer in the engine-room to watch over
the machinery. When, however, it comes to a matter of several
thousand horsepower it is virtually impossible to avoid having at
least one man on duty at all times when the machinery is running.
256
If this is accepted, he might as well be entrusted with the general

operation of the machinery, especially where the clutch and reverse
gear is concerned.
Whether the engineer is actually stationed in the engine-room or
in a separate control cabin, the point is that he, rather than the man
in charge of the ship as a whole on the bridge, will operate the
machinery, generally speaking, with the possible exception of the
throttle control passing to the bridge. Even then the engineer will
have overriding control of the throttles in the event of his consider-
ing damage likely to occur to an engine due to overheating, lack of
oil pressure or some similar anxiety, or any accident.
I n this matter he will, of course, be in a good position to judge, as
he will have before him suitably arranged instruments showing all
the most important temperatures, pressures, etc., to indicate the
running conditions under which the engine is being operated.
The design and layout of instrument panels is worth much study.
Apart from aesthetic considerations, which are by no means un-
important, an instrument panel can be laid out in such a manner
that when all is well the needles of the various dials lie in one parallel
plane. This, of course, cannot be applicable to revolution in-
dicators, but for oil and water pressures and temperatures it is quite
practicable.
Another good practice is that of painting sectors on the dials
covering normal running ranges and indicating safe maxima and
minima.
Where full bridge control is adopted it is, of course, very desirable
tfiat all possible information should be available to ascertain the
welfare of the machinery. A closed circuit T.V. installation is
valuable here.
Most instrument panels reveal the necessary temperatures and
pressures of oil, cooling water and even fuel. What is not so often
indicated at a remote position is the flow of sea water to the heat
exchangers. Any shortcoming here will, of course, eventually be
shown by a rise in temperature of the fresh-water circuit actually
passing through the jackets.
If, however, sea-water flow is inadequate much damage can be
done in the first few minutes of shortage to pumps, etc., especially
if the rubber type of gear unit is employed.
Some remote reading indicator is very desirable in order to assure
those in charge that actual flow of water is taking place through the
circuit.
So often we have to content ourselves with starting a piece of
machinery whether it be main or auxiliary, then rushing up on deck
to see whether there is*a satisfactory flow overboard or mixed with
the exhaust.
As mentioned previously, this problem is not quite so easy of

solution'as it may appear at first sight. A temperature gauge, for
instance, will usually read zero, or rather the atmospheric tempera-
ture, if no flow takes place. An empty car radiator thermo-couple
will not show any particularly alarming indication if there is no
water at all, but the cylinders and jackets will, none the less, be well
and truly overheated. By the time steam from the residue of the
water in the jackets has reached the thermo-couple the conditions
obtaining in the jackets are just those which will cause a contraction
fracture if or when the proper flow is suddenly restored.
Fig. 169:-Ideal arrange-

ment where it is desired
to measure pressure at a
point in system where
velocity might otherwise
afect correctness of gauge
reading
A pressure gauge is not of necessity a really satisfactory solution,

as there may well be little if any pressure at any given point in the
circuit.
I t is probably appreciated by those who are constantly dealing
with this problem, but, none the less, it is surprising how many
otherwise knowledgeable and experienced installation engineers
will fit up a pressure gauge by taking a lead of the circuit at right
angles.
I t can very easily happen that in the event that there exists a high
yelocity flow in the circuit under consideration the reading in the
pressure gauge may well read a vacuum, yet the flow is all the time
quite satisfactory.
T o overcome this effect the velocity head can be converted into
a pressure head by inserting a small lip internally, but it is still a
little unreliable as a measure of flow. A better arrangement, where
practical, for indicating local pressure would be somewhat as shown
in Fig. I 69, where a small reservoir or "collector " will have the effect
of converting velocity head into pressure at the point where the
connection to the gauge is tapped off.
A flow meter would probably be satisfactory, but this is a relatively
complicated instrument compared to a pressure or temperature
gauge. Much depends, however, upon the overall value of the
machinery installed, as obviously a little extra expense is justified in
the interests of safety where thousands of pounds are involved.
Plate 24. 68$. High-speed Launch oJ'aLuminium construction in frame
Plate 25. 68-ft. High-Speed Launch of welded aluminium construction complete
I n the case of high-speed craft, where instrumentation is needed in

two positions, or where fairly frequent engine changes are needed, ,
electrical instrumentation can be used to advantage. The constant

bending of capillaries and small-gauge pipes when changing
engines will almost certainly cause fractures.
With the advent of gas turbine propulsion it is necessary to use
electrical pyrometry in indicating such things as bearing and exhaust
temperatures, Because of the distance of the control position from
the instrument panel tachometers are invariably electrical.
Engine-room telegraphs are usually best arranged to work on a
positive-manual basis. Sprocket and chain transmission is probably
the widest used, and more than one well-known maker employs this
means. Shafting can be employed, but efforts to reduce weight
result in excessive elasticity due to torque, which leads to
inaccuracies.
More especially where the larger types of vessel are concerned
engine-room telegraphs can be of the electric type, but on the whole
for the small high-speed type of craft the sprocket-and-chain type
suitably designed is best, though for order indicators electricity is
very suitable.
For throttle controls the author has a considerable preference fox
the rod and lever types of installation, even though it is appreciated
that considerably more trouble is involved in the first instance.
[P.D.C.]
CHAPTER XVI
TRANSMISSION
THECHAPTER on installation could perhaps have included descrip-

tion and discussion on transmission of power, but this was felt to be
worthy of a separate chapter.
Up to now we have considered the actual power plant; it is now
proposed to describe the means available for converting the torque
energy available at the output coupling into useful work from the
point of view of driving the ship through the water.
For the moment only propulsion by propeller will be con-
sidered, because by and large all really fast types of vessel use this
means.
The problem of transmission then resolves itself into a question
of ensuring that the necessary torque reaches the propeller shaft at
the correct revolutions and at the correct line.
To take first of all the simplest form of transmission, this will
consist in placing and aligning the engine unit so that it can drive
the propeller shaft directly &om the output coupling. This will
either involve an assumption that the correct alignment can always
be maintained, otherwise some form of flexibility will have to be
allowed for in the shafting.
The necessity or otherwise for this flexibility will be decided by
the degree of movement which can be allowed as between hull and
engine without involving undue friction in the shaft bearings.
A long and not too large shaft will be able to absorb a certain
amount of relative movement, whereas a short, rather stiff shaft
may need some form of flexible coupling. - -
Flexible couplings suitable for the purpose may function on the
principle of the Hookeysjoint or the toothed coupling or may use
rubber or some synthetic material with similar properties to achieve
flexibility.
Illustrations of typical examples are shown, Fig. I 72 depicting an
example in which rubber is used as the flexible medium and the
trunnion blocks are of the same material.
Whether one or two flexible couplings are fitted in a shaft line will
depend on the amount of relative movement between the units
concerned.
Propeller thrust may be taken in thrust bearings incorporated in
gearboxes or "vee" drives or in thrust blocks mounted separately in
the tail shaft line.
If it is necessary to include a flexible coupling abaft the point where
4
'HOUSING COVER SEALING RING -K
"TECALEMIT "
APTOR COUPLING
NlPPL
' FELT RING

COUPLING
INPUT COUPLING O N
REDUCTION GEAR
BRASS SE
PIS
Fig. 171:-Section through gear tooth flexible coupling
Fig, 172:-Apart from the use o f shock-absorbing flexible cotrplings where

excessive relative movements or vibrations are likely to arise they are necessary
whenfor any reason the engine is mounted on rubber or resilient pads
TRANSMISSION
propeller thrust is taken, a type of coupling designed to transmit

thrust must be used, or it is possible to incorporate the thrust in
the stern tube casting.
Bearings are necessary to locate the shaft and take its weight at
positions governed by the weight of the shaft and the speeds in-
volved.
One of the most important considerations here is to avoid the
incidence of "whirling " of the shaft.
/ For this reason the deflection under static conditions will have
to be calculated. From this the deflection likely to be experienced
Fig. 173:-Diagrammatic sketch showing phenomenon known as

"whirling" of shaft for first mode
when the shaft is revolving at speed can be calculated taking into

account the centrifugal effect. Should the out-of-balance forces set
up by a combination of the deflection due to its own unsupported
weight and the number of revolutions per minute, coincide with
the natural period of vibration of the shaft supported as it is, or some
harmonic thereof, then the phenomenon known as "whirling" will
take place.
I t is when this natural period of vibration coincides with the
number of cycles made by m per minute or a "harmonic" thereof
that whirling resulting in danger of fracture will result.
I n the simplest forms of boat there is a bearing at the aft end of
the gearbox, and, provided the length is not excessive, the next
263
bearing will be at the point where the shaft goes out through the
bottom.
The bearing is, in fact, incorporated into the shaft log. After this
the shaft will be running clear of the hull in the water until it reaches
the propeller bracket. Here again the unsupported length of the
shaft must not be excessive, otherwise an intermediate or steady
bearing will have to be inserted between the point of emergence of
the shaft from the hull and the propeller bracket.
It will be appreciated that to ensure a good "run" of shafting
Fig. 174
in the normally shaped boat the engine will have to be placed fairly
far forward.
If we attempt to place the engine further aft in this particular
hull the result as shown in Fig. 174(c) will be an angle of shafting
which is unacceptable as well as causing the engine to be inclined
at a n excessive angle.
It is for this reason and others, which will be subsequently ex-
plained, that, other things being equal, it can be very advantageous to
install an engine right aft in the boat driving forward to a gearbox
arranged to transfer the line of drive to aft from forward and at an
angle to the original engine drive.
This angle will depend upon the layout proposed and, subject to
the exigencies of manufacture, can be more or less as convenient.
Apart altogether from the question of the angle of shafting in-
volved or that of the engine, it is a very good thing to avoid placing
264
the engine or engines in the middle of the boat if a large quantity

of fuel is to be carried.
Suppose, for instance, that some 10 tons of fuel have to be stowed
in a 70-ft. M.T.B. whose fully loaded displacement is nearing 50 tons.
The difference in displacement between tanks full and empty will
be of the order of 2 0 per cent of the total displacement.
Now if the machinery has to occupy the middle lengths of the
ship in order to obtain a reasonable angle of shafting, then the fuel
will have to be stowed either forward of or abaft the machinery
space. The result of this will be a very considerable change of
fore-and-afi trim between tanks full and empty. I n any craft this
is a serious matter, but for the planing types this is even more the
case.
I t is, of course, possible to sub-divide the fuel into two different
tank spaces forward as well as aft of the engines, but this practice
is not very desirable except in the case of the larger types.
A subsidiary advantage of the "vee" drive arrangement is that
by placing the engine-room right aft in the boat the noise of the
machinery can be confined to this part, leaving, in the case of a
pleasure craft, the whole of the rest of the boat free for the living
accommodation.
I n this way there is no need to have the accommodation sub-
divided up between forward and aft as is usually the case.
When accommodation, whether in the form of sleeping cabins or
saloons, has to be situated abaft the engine-room, it is always apt to
be a bit noisy while the ship is under way.
With the machinery placed right, aft exhaust piping between
engines and transom can be very short and light and exhaust can be
discharged into silencers or water-mixing arrangements actually
fixed on to the transom. This has the dual feature of being very
effective from the silencing point of view, combined with great
saving in weight, which will be involved in running pipes from
amidships to aft.
A further indirect advantage gained by the use of a "vce" drive is
the fact that a reduction of speed as between the engine and pro-
peller shafting can be incorporated without involving the use of
additional gear wheels. The same, of course, applies to the case
where the propeller shaft is increased in speed.
If, therefore, a reduction gear has to be incorporated, in any case
it will be understood that very careful consideration should be given
to the advantages of the "vee" drive arrangement, as with no
additional weight penalty and little extra cost the two can be
incorporated into one. The reason for the increased cost will be
due to the fact that a spiral bevel-toothed wheel is more difficult
to cut than is the more normal parallel wheel.
266
TRANSMISSION
One fairly considerable disadvantage involved in the use of the

66
vee " drive is the fact that it is apt to be noisy in itself, which
may possibly not matter for military purposes, but which is very
detrimental where passenger carrying or yachts are concerned.
The straight-cut type of tooth is much worse from the point of
view of noise. On the other hand, the noise emanating from a gear-
box of this type is by the nature of the function to be fulfilled likely
to be of very high frequency, which is comparatively easy to attenuate
by insulation, absorbtion, etc.
The "vee" drive, especially where powers of any considerable
magnitude have to be transmitted, is best lubricated by its own
forced lubrication pump. A sump of suitable dimensions can be
incorporated into the base of the casting or can be separate as in the
case of a dry sump engine. I t is also quite usual to supply a sep-
arate oil cooler and filter which will be located externally.
Figures I 76 and 177 show typical "vee" drive installations as
suited to various types of high-speed craft.
In recent years with the adaptation of the Bristol Siddeley "Pro-
teus" internal combustion turbine for marine purposes it has be-
come necessary to develop a combined reverse and reduction gear
to enable these very high-powered, high-speed ( I 1,000 power tur-
bine r.p.m.) units to be installed to best advantage. This involves
additionally a "vee" drive because the configuration of the
"Proteus" is such that the only really practical layout in a
relatively small fast craft envisages the exhaust gases emerging
through the transom right aft. The general layout will be as (b) in
Fig. 144, but in detail it is shown in Fig. I 8 I.
The alternative arrangement will be along the general lines as
shown in (a) of Fig. 144 and has been developed by Vosper for use
in conjunction with an auxiliary engine which incorporates a clutch
and reverse gear (see Fig. 182). I n this case no reverse gear
is required for the main turbine which represents a considerable
saving in weight and complication, but to quite some extent limits
the power available for manmuvring. This, however, is generally
found to be adequate provided the auxiliary engines are of sufficient
power (circa 250 b.h.p. each for go-100-ft. boat).
A variant of these arrangements Eas been developed by Messrs.
Zahnradfabrik of Friedrichshafen, usually referred to as ZF, where
the necessary change in angle between crankshaft and propeller
shaft is accomplished by means of four changes of 4" each in a series
of flexible couplings of the Hooke's joint type. This has the effect
of permitting the use of a parallel axis reduction and reverse gear-
box of normally compact configuration (see Fig. 178).
Although at the moment only used in conjunction with somewhat
smaller power units, what may be termed the inboard-outboard drive,
267
ZAHNRADFABRIK GEARBOX
TYPE B.Wm c I
\ I c
.
A
', ,
ORD. 101 \w7 9 11 1'3 li , BASE LINE .

W.T.B. 17 19 21 23
W.T.B
Fig. 178:-High-Speed Diesel Installation in conjunction wifh <F gearbox

TRANSMISSION
of which the "Penta Aquamatic" (Fig, r 79) is a good example,

is receiving much attention and a deserved popularity. This arrange-
ment eliminates shafting, < < vee" drive and rudder in the ordinary
sense and concentrates all the necessary functions in one package.
Many advantages are claimed, including the elimination of the
appendage drag arising from rudder, propeller strut, shafting, etc.
Against this is the fact that a pod of fairly substantial dimensions
is involved under water where the driving shaft is turned through a
right-angle by means of a bevel drive. This probably represents
the most serious problem when higher powers are considered as it
is vital to keep the dimensions of these wheels low. This problem
also arises in the case of the large hydrofoils at present (1963)under
development in the U.S.A.
A popular example of the integrated propulsion system is repre-
sented by the Mercruiser developed in the U.S.A., where this arrange-
ment is combined with the Mercury engine unit.
Finally, what is termed the "hydromatic" drive has been deve-
loped in recent years in this and other countries. Here propulsion
Fig. 179:-Penta Aquamatic Marine Transmission

Fig. 180:-Dowty Propulsion System
6 -6 I
Fig. r81:-Allen gearbox wed in conjunction with "Proteus" turbine

for Fast Patrol Boat
TRANSMISSION
Fig. 182:-Vosper 22' ''Vee' '-drive reduction gearbox showing the

port gearbox with Idler gear
is effected by accelerating the mass of water in a duct lead from an

orifice some distance forward of the transom to an outlet right aft.
The engine, in this case, is used to drive a centrifugal pump impeller
in the duct. I n this way thrust is generated by momentum change,
as indeed it is in the case of the conventional propeller,
The advantage is that no external appendages or protuberances
are situated under the boat to cause damage in the event of stranding.
For water skiing, for instance, it is a great safety factor to have
no propeller under the bottom to cause injury to those in the water.
As for the efficiency of propulsion this is not entirely a clear-cut
issue, but there is no reason to doubt it is quite sufficiently effective
to result in a very attractive boat much used for pleasure purposes
(see Fig. 180).
Reversing is carried out by means of an arrangement not dis-
similar to the old Kitchen rudder where a pair of suitable shaft
plates or cups divert the slipstream through 180°, thereby resulting
in reverse thrust. [P.D.C.]
2 73
CHAPTER XVII
REVERSE GEAR
THEABILITY to manmuvre ahead and astern is normally a necessity

in any craft, the only exception being special craft such as those
designed for speed only and some designed for particular operations
in war. Normally, therefore, this requirement must be satisfied by
one of the following :
(a) Reversible engines.
(6) Reversible-pitch propellers.
(6) Reverse gears.
I n high-speed craft, with reciprocating internal-combustion engines

installed as so far constructed, by far the majority have had reverse
gears incorporated.
Reversible Mercedes-Benz diesel engines were used by the Ger-
mans in E-boats, and variable (controllable) reversible-pitch
propellers have so far been fitted in relatively few experimental craft
built in Great Britain and the U.S.A.
I t is proposed, therefore, to discuss the various methods of reversing
a shaft.
I n the case of an engine running in one rotation an inherent
requirement is the necessity for clutching a shaft to the engine in a
manner which is both definite in effect and gradual in operation in
order that shock of engagement is avoided. Practical methods of
achieving this are by means of hydraulic or frictional clutches.
Although the former have been used in certain special applications
where more than one engine had to be connected to one shaft and
rigid connection was undesirable, their size, weight and complica-
tion, as compared with the latter, are excessive in the range of powers
transmitted. I n the type of craft under review, where saving of weight
and size is of great importance, the frictional clutch has been in
general use for the purpose and will be considered here.
I n the case of frictional clutches to accomplish definite clutch
effect is a matter of the provision of sufficient frictional surface
area of suitable materials combined with a maintained force of
contact which is sufficient by a good margin to maintain frictional
resistance to the maximum torque effect under all conditions of
running.
The achievement of gradual engagement is a matter of the
provision of suitable frictional surfaces combined with a suitably
progressive application of the force of contact. The frictional
REVERSE GEAR
rr A \ BRAKE
DISENGAGED
CLUTCH PLATES
Fig. 183a:-Planetary-type reverse gear, aheadposition
BRAKE
ENGAGED
DISENGAGED
Fig. 1836:-Planetary-typs gearbox, reverse position

Ahead Drive: A engaged to D by ahead clutch rotating shaft by direct drive and rotating
the drum carrying reverse pinions as a complete unit.
Reverse Drive: Drum held by brake. A rotates B and C. C rotates D in opposite rotation.
Neutral: Clutches released alloreis drum to be rotated by B and C running free around
A and D . (Cf.Planets revolving round a sun, hence term "planetary".)
surfaces in ahead clutches, used in association with the engines used

in high-speed craft have usually been multi-plate assemblies of steel
and brass plates or large-area lined cones compressed by toggle levers of
high mechanical advantage. Reverse-clutch surfaces are usually lined
bands, which perform the function of brake bands in the usual planet-
ary method of reversing. Immersion of the surfaces in oil assists gradual
engagement and reduces wear of surfaces during this operation.
I n order to achieve simplicity, clutches and reversing gears are
combined in one assembly operated by one control.
T 275
CONE CLUTCH REVERSE

FOR AHEAD DRIVE BRAKE BAND
KE'I'ED
AFT
Fig. 184:-Marine gearbox with cone ahead clutch in lieu of multi-plate

shown in ahead position
The planetary principle employing either plain or bevel pinions

lends itself well to this requirement and possesses the advantage, in
the case of a direct drive, in that the unit when running ahead
revolves, as a whole, without wear of pinions or bearings except
the end supporting bearings.
Typical examples of direct-drive planetary gears, as used in
conjunction with Rolls-Royce and Packard engines in M.T.B.s
during the late war, are shown diagrammatically in Figures I 83-1 85.
The requirement of a reduction ratio between engine speed and
propeller speed can be satisfied if the above types of drive are used
by installing a reduction-gearbox abaft the reverse gearbox. Other
types of boxes are used in which clutch, reverse gear and reduction
gear are combined in one box. An example of such a gear is the
Twin Disc type, which is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 186. Men-
tion has so far only been made of actuation of clutches by mechanical
i REVERSE BRAKE
HEAD CLUTCH
DISENGAGED
Fig. 185:-Bevel pinion type gearbox in reverse position

REVERSE GEAR
Fig. 186:- Twin

Disc tyie gearbox
in neutral position
means. I t is now becoming more usual, however, to actuate clutches

by oil pressure from a pump driving within the gearboxes. This
method has the substantial advantage that control is achieved merely
by operation of a valve which directs pressure either to ahead or
astern clutches or releases pressure for the neutral position. The
actuation of a valve may very conveniently be done remotely and
by a small, easily worked control, and this is, therefore, a very
suitable method for bridge operation. Examples of this type are
shown diagrammatically in Figures 187 and 188.
A further refinement in control is arranged by some manufacturers
to enable the engine throttle and reverse gear to be controlled by one
lever. With this lever in its central position the engine throttle is at the
idling position and the gear is in the neutral position. Movement in
one direction or the other first engages the ahead or astern clutch
and further movement progressively opens the engine throttle.
This arrangement, besides avoiding duplication of control runs
from bridge to engine-room, has an advantage in ensuring that
engine speed is reduced to idling before shaft reversals are made, thus
FLOATING CLUT
Fig.187:-'0 il- TOOTHED COUPLlN

operated reverse ON ENGINE DRIVE
gear
AHEAD CLUTCH P U T
~ L I N E D TO SHAFT
CARRIER
m
w.
II
Fig,188:-S.L.M. IDLER BEHIND

oil-operated marine UTCH DISENGAGED
gearbox. (According SERRATED CLUTCH
BY OIL PRESSURE LN
to whether ahead or
astern running is
required so wheels
"A" or "B" res-
pectively
- will be
made
' the
reducing the clutch wear and stressing of gears which can readily be
caused by inexperienced operators with separate controls.
An example of this arrangement as applied to high-speed craft
is in a unit now in its prototype stage, where a Rolls-Royce "Griffon "
engine is fitted with a Mathway gearbox (see Plate 26), having the
same principle as shown in Fig. 185 and incorporating one-lever
control by hydraulic actuation. [B.H.C.]
CHAPTER XVIII
CRUISING ENGINES
INCERTAIN types of M.T.B. or high-speed rescue craft of the larger

variety it has at times been found convenient to make use of cruising
or auxiliary engines.
If, for instance, the full speed requirement calls for, say, 5 0 0 b.h.p.,
or even in the higher-powered types for up to 20,000 s.h.p,, per
unit, it can be assumed that such engines will have been designed to
produce optimum specific fuel consumption at or near full power.
For reasons explained in chapter XIV, in the case of petrol
engines of the aircraft type enrichment of the mixture may be
arranged at fullest power ratings to afford an additional measure
of cooling within the cylinders during take-off or maximum power
conditions. However, generally speaking these high-powered engines
are very expensive in fuel consumed when operated at low speeds.
Hull performance characteristics are such that a minute fraction
of the total horsepower is required to drive a hull capable of 5 0
knots at full speed at the modest yet serviceable speed of say 10 knots.
Under many circumstances it may be very convenient to cruise
for long periods at 10 knots, so that it is found to be well worth while
fitting two smaller-powered engines suitably coupled to, say, the wing
shafts in such a manner that these engines can drive the hull at the
desired cruising speed, while absorbing a relatively high proportion
of the maximum power of the cruising engine resulting in a good
value for specific fuel consumption,
This combination of main and cruising engines can, of course,
apply to a high-powered petrol engine used in conjunction with a
low-powered unit of the petrol or diesel type such as are developed
from the commercial units, good examples being a marine version
of the famous Ford "V 8" industrial unit, or, in the case of the
diesel engine, the Perkins or Gray (General Motors) units.
Equally, this combination could apply where the larger unit was
of the diesel type or might be even more applicable where internal-
combustion turbine units of high power are employed.
A further advantage inherent in the use of the cruising-engine
principle consists in the provision of a clutch and reverse-gear unit
in the cruising unit which may be of sufficient power to effect all
maneuvring with these engines coupled up to the main shafts,
thereby eliminating the necessity for providing an expensive
and complicated clutch and reverse gear integral with the larger
units.
279
W.T 8.
Fig. 189:-Arrangement of shafting for main and cruising engines in AirlSea Rescue craft
CRUISING ENGINES
It must, of course, be clear that in this case, where the cruising

engine is relied upon entirely for manceuvring, the power available
must be sufficient to enable the ship to be maneuvred in safety
under adverse conditions, such as in a seaway or in high winds.
It can be, and usually is, a considerable embarrassment to provide
really satisfactory silencing a t high powers when the large units are
in operation. Provided, however, the power available in the cruis-
ing engine is sufficient to produce a reasonable speed, it can more
easily be silenced effectively and will obviate the complication and
weight involved in silencing the main engines.
It is admitted that in certain operational cases a measure of
silence will be required of the main engines. Examples of this which
come to mind are the Gay Vikings which had to crass the North Sea
to enter the Baltic and so break the German blockade. Here silence
would obviously be called for at high cruising speeds.
Equally, although patrolling in the case of M.T.B.s could be
carried out at the slow speed offered by a cruising engine while
searching for a n enemy by radar, yet once the quarry was located
it was likely that a fairly high proportion of full speed might be
required in the process of interception and in the manceuvring for
a suitable attacking position, bearing in mind the fact that in the
luck of the game a location of the enemy might well not take place
until after they had already passed the area of search.
Against these arguments in favour of silencing the higher-powered
engines must be appreciated the fact that proper silencing of a gas
turbine will unquestionably be very difficult for some time to come
and the developing use and range of radar for detection will render
silence of less importance.
The answer here, of course, is to provide a cruising engine of
sufficient power even if in the case of a gas turbine-engined craft the
cruising engines are rated at as much as one-third or one-half of the
main engines. I n such a case it might even be desirable that the
cruising engine drives a separate shaft. In this case a four-shaft job
would be envisaged where, say, the two outer shafts are driven by
the cruising engines with the two inners by the main internal-com-
bustion turbine units.
Other factors being fkvourable, however, the optimum arrange-
ment would consist in a two-shaft job arranged so that the cruising
engine and main propelling units share a shaft each side. I n this
case a coupling of the fluid type will be found effective in clutching
the auxiliary to the main propelling shaft. Besides acting as a clutch,
this will have the effect of damping any exciting forces tending to
set up torsional oscillations.
It will, however, be necessary to provide a change-speed gear
between cruising engine and main shaft to cater for the situation
28 I
which arises when the cruising engine is working in conjunction with

the main engine as well as when it is working on its own. As the
propeller will presumably be of the fixed-pitch type it will, of course,
be impossible for the cruising engine to drive the same propeller at
full-speed condition as well as at cruising condition without the
insertion of a different ratio of gearing for propeller shaft to engine
shaft. This problem has been explained in chapter XIV.
An additional advantage incorporated in the arrangement,
whereby the cruising engine drives on to the same shaft as the main
engine through a suitable coupling, consists in the ability of the
power of the cruising engine to be applied through the clutching
arrangements to act as a starter for the main engine.
As it is probable the cruising engine will have to drive through
a reduction-gear train of high ratio, there would be a danger that when
the h a i n engine started off it would drive the auxiliary engine back
through the train of gearing, resulting in excessive revolutions for
the auxiliary engine and perhaps resulting in damage.
I t is, therefore, desirable to have some safety device such as an
overriding free wheel or a form of centrifugal throw-out mechanism.
I n the case of the larger scheme, previously mentioned, where,
for instance, a fairly high-powered diesel engine unit might be used
in conjunction with a high-powered gas turbine unit, the same
problem might arise if the diesel engine was coupled to the propeller-
shaft system through its reduction gear and was being used to start
the main turbine.
Here the powers involved, being large, would probably not be
amenable to override or throw-out gears. A suggested line of investi-
gation would be to control the fluid content in the hydraulic coupling
in some manner, such that beyond certain revolutions of the
auxiliary engine a pressure-relief valve is triggered, resulting in the
emptying of the fluid couplings until such time as the valve is re-set,
A hydraulic pump possessing the characteristic such that increase
in revolutions resulted in increasing pressure of delivery would have
this effect.
I t may be thought that in the case of fitting cruising engines of
relatively low power, such that no assistance to propulsion at high
powers would be worth while, this arrangement would tend to
involve unnecessary weight, I n this case, of course, the cruising
engines would be cruising engines alone and would not be able to
add to the total available horsepower for full-speed conditions.
By suitable adaptation, however, any further auxiliary engines
for driving dynamos, hydraulic pumps, etc., can be eliminated.
Properly designed suitable take-off drives can be arranged to be
driven perhaps from the opposite end of the engine to that which is
being employed in the main drive.
282
O n the whole, it will be seen that the cruising engine has a lot to
recommend it, whether merely used for relatively low-powered
cruising or for assistance to the main propulsion units.
More especially in the case of the very high-powered units being
developed a t the present day will it be desirable to eliminate the
complication and expense of providing a friction clutch and reverse
gear.
I t can be claimed, of course, that the principle of the controllable-
pitch propeller can do much towards fulfilling the function of clutch
and reverse gear. While this may be the case, considerable
mechanical complication, and therefore expense, is involved, and
as far as development has progressed today this complication is
accompanied by a loss of overall propulsion efficiencyand therefore
of speed for a given power.
Nevertheless, the controllable pitch propeller is being used at sea
in fast craft to a much greater extent in recent months and is referred
to in Chapter XXII. I t can be said with some confidence that the
combination of high-powered diesels and gas turbines can only be
effectively accomplished using controllable pitch propellers.
It will be noticed above that emphasis has been laid upon the use
or elimination of a friction clutch in conjunction with a reverse gear.
This, of course, is because it is necessary to be able to accelerate
from rest or reverse the direction of a propeller and shaft with such
a clutch.
Here some form of friction absorption will be a necessity. The
more usual method has been to make use of friction plates of a
suitable total surface area, but fok the larger powers involved a
hydraulic clutch of the Vulcan-Sinclair type may prove very suitable
if not advantageous.
One outstanding advantage possessed by the hydraulic coupling
of this type is its inherent capability of damping torsional oscillations
which might otherwise be transmitted from the reciprocating masses
in the motor to the shafting and propeller system, causing "criticals"
of dangerous magnitude.
The above considerations may establish the principle of the
cruising engine as being worthy of close study by those responsible
for the policy of development of British high-speed craft. In this
way we may keep well in the forefront of progress instead of, as
happened during the last war, having virtually nothing really suitable
at the commencement and having to spend the years of the war in
experiment and adaptation in the hope of catching up before the
conclusion of hostilities.
One word of warning is offered here, to the effectthat the necessary
design and development work in connection with the transmission
system presents a problem in mechanical engineering requiring the
284
EXHAUST OUTLET
OLYMPUS GAS TURBINE
\ l,I,t,w- , /
P,OW h.p. CRUISING
ka
a
01
Fig. 191:-Machinery arrangemnt for high-speed Comette making use of 0lymPu.sgac. turbim in conjunction with high-speed diesel as azxiliary
efforts of a first-class team of engineers. The problem, and therefore

the time required to develop successfully, is only slightly less in
complexity than that involved in producing the main propelling unit,
whether it be of the high-speed diesel or internal-combustion type.
I t is a dangerous policy, and one liable to lead to disappointment
and half measures, to leave the study of this problem till all others
are well on the way to solution. The position can be likened to
developing the steam turbine without at the same time solving the
problems connected with the reduction gearing.
To permit the gas turbines to be isolated from the propeller shaft
system when cruising or maneuvring on the diesel engines, an S.S.S.
(Synchro-Self-Shifting)clutch is interposed between gas turbine and
its "vee" drive gearbox. An oil operated friction-type clutch is also
fitted between the diesel engine and the "vee" drive gearb0x.l
The S.S.S. clutch can occupy any one of three different positions,
namely, clutch disengaged, pawls engaged and clutch engaged. The
engaging sequence starts from the clutch disengaged position which
the clutch occupies when cruising or manceuvring on the diesel
engines. When it is required to clutch in the gas turbines, a linear
actuator is energised, which brings the S.S.S. clutch to the pawls
engaged position.
If the propeller shaft system is rotating in the ahead direction,
the pawls will ratchet until the S.S.S. unit reaches the speed at
which the clutch ring is running. A further slight increase in turbine
speed will result in the S.S.S. unit being drawn along its helical
splines, so that its teeth engage with the clutch-ring teeth, and full
torque can be transmitted.
As the gas turbine throttle opening is increased, an interlock in
the control system shuts off the oil supply to the diesel engine clutch
so that this is disengaged to prevent over-speeding the diesel engine.
This gear also fulfils the function of protecting the turbine from being turned in the
reverse direction by the auxiliary engine. This is not permitted by the engine makers.
[P.D.C.]
CHAPTER XIX
S T E E R I N G GEAR
INTHESE DAYS where relatively large and fast craft are under con-
sideration it is essential to provide power assistance in operating
the rudders. Of course it is possible to avoid this by fitting hand-
operated gear with sufficient reduction between steering wheel and
the helm, but for a number of reasons there are overriding advan-
tages in providing a rapid and sensitive response to the helmsman's
hand. Not least of these advantages is the fact that better control
seems to result in this class of boat from a relatively unbalanced
rudder. As a corollary, a rudder with considerable balance (i.e.
area forward of the neutral axis) is apt to behave rather uncertainly,
which is another way of saying that it is most difficult to predict the
behaviour of the centre of pressure in this type of rudder and that
it is all too easy to find the overbalanced condition which can be
most awkward if not actually dangerous,
There are various types of electro-hydraulically operated steering
gear, most of which consist essentially in the provision of a double-
acting operating cylinder to which fluid is supplied from a spool
valve which controls the flow and direction. The spool valve is
operated by the hand wheel either directly, involving rods and levers
or torque tubes, or else electrically, involving relays, amplifiers, etc.
A differential cross bar operated at one end from the wheel and at
the other from the tiller head provides the necessary "feed back"
ensuring precision of control. In this way if the wheel is moved to
2 0 degrees the valve will, in the first instance, open the ports in the
spool valve which will be closed by the "feed back" action when the
rudders actually reach this angle. The exception to this is the A.E.G.
gear which operates the rudder stock through a coaxial vane type of
motor and pump assembly. A subsidiary advantage of this gear is
the use of electric cables from the steering position.
The Vosper type of electro-hydraulic gear is used in the Braue
class and has proved remarkably effective. This is shown in Fig.
I 9% The cylinders and five-port valve are of Keelavite manufacture
and the pump is Lucas variable delivery constant pressure type. The
operation of the hydraulic control valve is by shafting from wheel.
The A.E.G. steering gear was fitted to the Mercury, a fast yacht
based on the Brave configuration. Here there are three separate
units mounted vertically on the rudder stock and the vane motor is
integral therewith. The pump units are mounted above and are
of the variable delivery type, the angle of helm being controlled
287
$ FORT RUDDER STOCK
BOTTLE SCREW,
ADJUSTMENT
TORQUE TUBES AND BEVEL BOXES

EMERGENCY STEERING POSITION
WORM REDUCTION GEAR 40:l RAT

3\ (FOR USE WHEN STEERING BY HAND 1
- \
REMOVE PIN WHEN ' S ~ E R I N G
FROM EMERGENCY POSITION
FROM EMERGENCY STEERING P
CLUTCH ' OUT ' LEVER WHEN' IN PO

CONTROL. CLUTCH ' I N ' LEVER WH
STEERING BY HAND
NOTE
MAXIMUM TOTAL TORQUE4 RUDDERS =15.000 Ibjft.
RUDDER ANGLE =700
TIME TAKEN FROM H/O TO H/O =6 SECS TORQUE TUBES AND BEVEL BOXES FROM
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM PRESSURE = 1 . lb/sq
~ h. BRIDGE STEERING POSITION. 4 TURNS
FROM HARD OVER TO HARD OVER
Fig. 192:-Vosper steering gear asfitted in "Brave" class F.P.B. 3

PORT RUDDER
$. CENTRE
RUDDER
a
HELM INDICATOR
STEERING GEAR
4 STARBOARD RUDDER
Fig. 193:-A.E.G. electric hydraulic steering gear asjfitted in M. 2". "Mercury"

289
MAX. TOTAL TORQUE-2 RUDDERS =7,000 Ib,ft,
RUDDER ANGLE =70"
TIME TAKEN FROM HARD OVER TO HARD OVER =8 SECS. (Approx.)
9 PORT RUDDER
CONNECTING LINKAGE
44" BORE DOUBLE ACTING

TILLER KEYED TO STARBOARD HYDRAULIC CYLINDER
RUDDER STOCK , /
RAM ANCHOR POINT
TO SHIPS STRUCTURE
MAIN REDUCTION GEAR.

RATIO APPROX. 20:1
(THIS GEARBOX CONTAINS THE
AND CUT-OFF VALVE, AND ALSO

"\
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM CONTROL VALVE
TORQUE TUBES AND BEVEL
BOXES FROM STEERING POSITION
FORMS THE OIL RESERVOIR. THE
CONTROL VALVE IS SPRING
LOADED AND MOVES TO A
POSITION DETERMINED BY THE
INTENSITY OF THE TURNING
EFFORT)
HYDRAULIC CONNECTIONS
NOTE STEERING WHEEL IS PROVIDED TO ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN
WITH A TWO-SPEED GEARBOX GIVING- HYDRAULIC PUMP
(1) 10 TURNS FROM HARD OVER TO HARD OVER
WHEN I N MANUAL CONTROL
(2) 34 TURNS FROM HARD OVER TO HARD OVER
WHEN I N POWER CONTROL
Fig. 194:-Mathwoy power-assisted gear asfitted in "Ferocity"

t PORT RUDDER
SPOOL TYPE
4ALVE CONTROL .
TEERING GEAR.
,OOSTER, AS
:ITTED TO HEAVY
LOAD VEHICLE
;TEERING WHEEL OR SPECTACLE

LEVER AS FOR AIRCRAFT
ANCHOR POINT ' _ A - --
WORM REDUCTION
GEAR-RATIO 29:l
STARBOARD RUDDER
Fig. 195:-Vosper power-assisted steering gear as used in " Tramontana" et a1

u 291
by the tilting of the swash plate. Here there will also be a feed back
incorporated into the control mechanism (see Fig.193).A most advan-
tageous feature is that the link between steering wheel and steering
compartment right aft is by electric wiring only.
The Mathway gear (see Fig. 194)is simple and effective and is fitted
to the FerocitJy amongst others. I n this case the control valve is ar-
ranged so that the first movement of the steering gear operates a short
travel spool valve against a spring. Provided pressure is available this
should have the effect of moving the rudder by hydrodynamic power.
If, however, the pressure has failed or is insufficient to break out and
overcome the rudder loading, frictional and hydrodynamic, then the
valve will complete its stroke and with its spring fully compressed
the wheel will continue to turn the gear, admittedly rather slowly,
through a considerable reduction gear. I t is not of importance that
the reduction is high because it is only necessary to move the valve
a fraction of an inch against the spring to operate the helm on
hydraulics.
For the smaller craft it is felt that even as small as 40 feet will justify
a hydraulic boost for the steering gear, certainly if the craft is in
or above the 20-knot range. We have, therefore, developed in con-
junction with Vickers-Sperry-Rand, an installation making use of a
standard unit commonly used for lorries, coaches, buses, etc., where
power steering is required (see Fig.195). Here the control valve is in-
corporated in the jack body in such a manner that the first movement
of the wheel compresses a spring while moving the spool. Here the
same desirable feature is gained that in the event of pressure failure
the gear will be operatedfrom the hand-wheel directly. As the control
valve moves with the jack casing, which is attached to the tiller arm,
the feed back is, so to speak, built in. This gear, which is remarkably
sensitive and positive, was fitted to the 40-ft. Tramontana, winner of
the 1962 International Offshore Powerboat Race sponsored by the
Daily Express. I n this case the hydraulic pump is driven from one
of:the "vee " drive boxes and is, therefore, not active until running
in ahead, but this is no drawback in practice because the rudder
loading is negligible at rest or low speed. I n this case, incidentally,
the operation of the throttles manually was unacceptably heavy so
that a hydraulic booster was fitted of the rotary vane Hobson type.
[P.D.C.]
CHAPTER XX
T H E D E S I G N O F SCRE,W P R O P E L L E R S
Introduction
ITIS THE PURPOSE of this chapter to give a general outline of what,
so far, is still the most practical and most efficient means of pro-
pulsion for high-speed small craft. Although a number of 'other
devices exist, which are capable of transmitting the available power
into the surrounding medium and so generate the required reaction
force for propulsion, these are undoubtedly of minor importance
in the field of high-speed small craft. Their application is usually
connected with certain special requirements, such as high manceu-
vrability or operation in shallow water, which are often solved by
making use of vertical axis propellers or paddle-wheels.
On the other hand, it is necessary to realise that together with the
more sophisticated application of the screw propeller as a propulsion
device, a number of design problems have arisen in course of recent
years which cannot be solved on a mere empirical basis but require
a good deal of theoretical as well as experimental research. Such
investigations, for instance, have clearly indicated that the upper
speed limit for the efficient application of screw propulsion can well
be extended up to 80-100 knots by making use of the fully cavitating
type of propeller, whereas not long ago speeds around 40 knots
seemed to represent a general barrier due to the problems associated
with the presence of cavitation.
So far the most difficult application of the screw propeller occurs
in the design of hydrofoil boats, which are powered to achieve a
maximum performance of 60-80 knots. In these craft the required
propeller thrust can be the same for both the take-off condition in
a medium-speed range and the maximum foil-borne performance.
Only by means of highly sophisticated installations, such as, for
instance, the combination of gas turbines of the free power turbine
type and fully cavitating propellers made of high-tensile stainless
steel, is it possible to solve these design problems satisfactorily.
Together with the development of fully cavitating screws another
aspect in the design of high-speed propellers has proved worth while
investigating. This is associated with the propeller loading condi-
tion, which will be explained in detail further on. In non-cavitating
high-speed propellers the loading condition of the screw must be kept
as low as possible, resulting in large diameters and low propeller
revolutions. On the other hand, the application of fully cavitating
screws permits an increase in the loading condition, thus leading to
293
smaller screw diameters and higher revolutions. Such a step usually

causes a propeller efficiencyreduction, but does not necessarily lead
to lower overall propulsive coefficients (based on the effective power
of the hull without appendages), since smaller appendages and
the effect of reduced shaft inclination might well balance this out,
apart from the reduction in effective power due to saving weight by
using smaller reduction gears, propellers, shafts and shaft brackets
as well as rudders. Exactly where the optimum lies is difficult to
say and has, of course, to be assessed for each individual design
problem. But even then, during such detailed design studies the
lack of systematic experimental investigations for a number of vari-
able components will still leave quite an amount of uncertainty.
An alternative to the screw propeller exists in various forms of
pump jets. The principle of these systems is based on the same law
of generating forward thrust by impressing a momentum change
on the fluid which applies in the case of screw propellers and will
be derived below in the relevant section on momentum theory.
However, in spite of the same ideal efficiency, pump jets have failed
to be competitive with screw propellers in the past, due to their
lower overall efficiencies caused by high entrance, duct and pump
losses. I t may well be that modern systems, taking advantage of the
experience gained in aircraft design, will be more attractive from
the overall efficiency point of view. I n this case one outstanding
feature of pump jet systems, which is the elimination of hull appen-
dages, will certainly be used in showing possible advantages over
comparable screw propeller configurations.
Following a section on screw propeller geometry the general
equations governing ideal propeller efficiencies will then be derived.
This forms the basis for the understanding of what is known as
propeller lifting line theory; so far the only theoretical approach
to the design of screw propellers which can be handled within
reasonable limits of work and time. I t is not within the scope of
this book to deal with all the problems involved in detail. Therefore
references will be given, wherever required. As regards methodical
propeller series, their results will only be presented in graphical form
to such an extent that basic features can be explained, and sufficient
data are available so that one can follow the examples on propeller
design at the end of this chapter.
Geometry, Strength and Manufacture of Screw Propellers

The geometrical shape of a screw propeller is determined by two
projections-preferably the transverse and the longitudinal are
chosen-and the form of its cylindrical sections at a sufficientnumber
of radii r. It is convenient to start a propeller drawing by plotting
the expanded sections at each tenth of the propeller radius R, from

which the expanded area of the propeller can be obtained (Fig.
196(c).Relating the expanded area of all blades AE to the disc area
of the screw AO=nR2 defines the expanded blade-area ratio
AE/Ao.
The position of maximum thickness t , of the section with
respect to the generator line is usually indicated by a faired curve,
which also determines the amount of skew back. The section offsets
are normally measured from the pitch line, which can either be the
nose-tail line of each individual section or any other reference line.
The so-called projected blade outline, which is the blade contour
as seen from aft, can be obtained as schematically indicated in Fig,
1g6(b). For this the pitch angles @ of the above mentioned reference
line have to be used, where pitch is defined as follows:
P = nxD tan di (in.) (1)
r
with x=-- - non-dimensional radius
R
D =diameter of propeller (in.).
The pitch can either be constant over the radius or vary from pro-
peller hub to tip. I n the case of constant pitch propellers only one
reference point on the propeller axis is needed in a distance P / n n
from the generator line, in order to obtain the projected lengths
of the blade sections and their parts fore and aft of the generator
line by a graphical method as shown in Fig. 1g6(c). Turning the
cylindrical sections in Fig. 1g6(b) about the pitch angle di into a
plane normal to the propeller axis gives the so-called developed
blade outline. I n this case the reference lines of the cylindrical
sections are visible as elliptic curves and can be constructed suffici-
ently accurately by the method indicated in Fig. 196(b). For high
pitch-diameter and blade-area ratios the developed area can be-
come noticeably smaller than the expanded one.
The method of drawing the longitudinal projection, which is also
used for showing the propeller boss dimensions and root fillet radii,
is schematically shown in Fig. 1g6(a). The propeller hub diameter
d for fixed pitch propellers is usually of the order d/D=oer5-
0.20. If the propeller is designed to have rake the measure of
this is given by the angle Y between generator line and vertical
axis. It is standard practice to show in this projection also the
maximum section thickness distribution over the radius by plotting
t , along the generator line and indicating the virtual thickness to
at the propeller axis. The thickness distribution is frequently chosen
-
to be linear from the propeller axis to the blade tip, where a value
of t,/D o-ooI -0.004 is usually maintained, depending on the
service condition of the propeller,
296
THE DESIGN OF SCREW PROPELLERS
From the strength point of view extreme rake and skew should be
avoided in propellers where the rotational speeds reach high values,
as in many high-speed craft. This is to keep the stresses in the sections
near the boss as low as possible and avoid unnecessary stress com-
ponents due to centrifugal moments.
As a first approximation the virtual thickness at the propeller axis

t o can be calculated from the following formula:
where P D = developed
power at the propeller (h.p.)
C1=coefficient from Fig. I 97
Z =number of blades
n =rate of propeller revolutions (r.p.m.)
S p=maximurn permissible tensile stress of the pro-
peller material (lb./sq.in.).
Using this formula one would normally start with a linear thick-
ness distribution between to and t, and check the actual stresses by
a detailed strength calculation afterwards, if this is regarded as
necessary. Such a strength calculation can either be based on
simple beam theory as described for instance in A Propeller Design
Method by Eckhardt and Morgan (Trans. S.N.A.M.E., 1955) or
otherwise on more sophisticated methods as the one derived by
Conolly in Strength of Propellers (Trans. R.I.N.A., I 960).
I n this connection it should be pointed out that the cantilever
beam is certainly not an adequate model to represent wide-bladed
297
marine propellers. However, the more appropriate theory of

twisted shells for load conditions as complicated as in screw propellers
is quite a difficult problem to tackle, and in spite of many efforts in
this direction only limited information is available which might be of
practical value in actual design work. Therefore the view is often
taken that as long as the application of beam theory is founded on
practical experience and the S,-values for certain materials are
used adequately, beam theory could be as good as any other theory.
This is certainly true and applies to many engineering subjects in
general.
ow eve;, if the requirement, as in the design of high-speed pro-
pellers, is for the utmost efficiency, no surplus material can be
tolerated in places where it reduces the quality of the propeller.
Only by making use of sophisticated theories or complicated experi-
mental investigations can one find out where these places are likely
to be without weakening critical areas.
The maximum permissible tensile strength S p is dependent, of
course, on the basic material selected together with the service con-
ditions and expected life of the individual propeller taken into
consideration. If safety factors are introduced, these should pre-
ferably be related to the proof strength rather than the ultimate
tensile strength. The proof strength in this connection is to be
understood as the one where a plastic deformation of no more
than 0.1 per cent is assured (for Manganese Bronze So., =pj,ooo
[lb./sq.in,], for High Tensile Nickel-Aluminium Bronze S = ,.,
45,000 [lb./sq.in]). For commercial boats, in which the design
condition of the propeller is close to the normal service con-
dition, safety factors of S,.,/Sp = 5 are justified. O n the other
hand safety factors of So.,/Sp= 2 have proved successful for highly
sophisticated applications, where the maximum load is only seldom
achieved and the life of the propeller is a secondary factor, In
such a case, however, detailed strength calculations have to
be carried out for evaluating thc usually non-linear thickness
distribution. At the same time the propeller casting has to be
of high quality and its machining must be carried out with great
care.
As regards machining methods in general, these vary from manu-
facturer to manufacturer and are mainly dependant on the required
tolerances. If the propeller has flat faces and constant pitch, helical
shaping machines can be employed for producing the pressure sides
of the propeller blades. The suction sides or backs as well as leading
and trailing edges are then often machined by hand according to
templates. Copying machines have also been constructed which
require the existence of wooden, plastic or aluminium single bladed
patterns of high accuracy. The milling head of the machine is then
298
controlled by a pantograph gear palpating the pattern surface. The

effective application of such a device, however, requires a sufficient
number to be machined from the same pattern.
High accuracy can be obtained by point drilling methods, for
which special offset tables have to be produced, giving the distance
from a reference plane-such as the forward face of the propeller
boss-for a sufficient number of points on the propeller surface
(principle shown in Fig. 196). This procedure, where the surplus
material is finally removed by hand, is rather laborious and certainly
not the least expensive.
Nowadays all propellers are required to be statically balanced,
the accuracy of which, however, varies with the quality. Dynamic
balancing-even if regarded as necessary in propellers of high
rotational speeds-is seldom carried out, because of the lack of
adequate facilities. However, it is most important in the case of
two-bladed propellers.
Momentum Theory of the Screw

In its simplest form as developed originally by Rankine and Froude
this theory is based on the following assumptions:
Ideal fluid, hence viscosity effects neglected (density e
constant in both ideal and viscous flow).
Screw operating in undisturbed parallel flow, hence no
interference between hull and screw.
Screw represented by an actuator disc, which is positioned
perpendicular to the direction of flow and generates a
pressure augmentation in the disc area, hence screw with
infinite number of blades and no axial extension.
Homogeneous screw race or wake with negligible radial
and no tangential induced velocity components.
Thus only the axial induced velocities are taken into account, result-
ing in a streamline pattern, which together with the corresponding
axial velocity and pressure distribution in the disc race is schematic-
ally shown in Fig. 198. Expressions can be derived for this velocity
field which give first indications upon which factor the efficiency
of a screw is mainly dependent. These will also show what limitations
with respect to efficiency are inherent in all types of propelling
devices, which generate thrust by means of a local pressure discon-
tinuity.
Disregarding for the time being how the pressure augmentation
A$ in the disc area AO is generated and assuming that this is con-
stant over the disc area, it will produce a force on the fluid resulting
in an equal reaction force, the thrust, which is:
Fig. 198
This must be equal to the momentum change forced on the liquid

passing through the disc, hence :
where m =mass of liquid passing through the disc per unit time
VA =advance velocity of propeller (or velocity of undisturbed
flow)
u ,= axial induced velocity far downstream of the disc (or
axial change of velocity)
u ,' =axial induced velocity in the disc plane.
Applying Bernoulli's theorem separately to streamlines extending
from the disc to the right and to the left and using the designations
as indicated in Fig. 198 the following pair of equations can be
obtained :
Combining equations ($), (4) and (5) and using
~p =p -pry
it follows that
i.e, exactly half of the axial induced velocity far downstream exists
in the plane of the disc itself. Hence the thrust becomes
Since the useful power developed by a propeller is equal to the

product of thrust and advance velocity, i,e.
P T ~ , = T ~ ~ V A = Q A(OVVAA+ U ~u,,
/~)
the efficiency can be calculated, if the slipstream losses represented
by its kinetic energy are taken into account. The latter being
the actuator disc efficiency or so-called ideal efficiency of a screw

becomes
The result indicates that the best possible efficiency is obtained, if

u, becomes very small and negligible as compared with VA. I n
order to fulfil this condition the acceleration of the fluid has to
be kept as low as possible, which results in a very small slip-
stream contraction. Such a propeller is usually caued lightly loaded.
If, however, us cannot be neglected but its square is small and
negligible as compared with VA,the relevant propeller is normally
classified as moderately loaded. As will be shown later, many
theorems derived for lightly loaded propellers can be regarded as
permissible approximations for moderately loaded ones and are
frequently used with sufficient accuracy.
Defining now a non-dimensional thrust loading coefficient
e VA=stagnation pressure,
where q =-
2
3'31
the ideal screw efficiency (7) can be expressed as a function of (8)

using equation ( 6 ) , namely
From this it can be seen that a high ideal efficiency requires a

small thrust loading coefficient; in other words, the best propeller
efficiency for a certain required thrust and a given advance velocity
is obtained with the largest possible disc or screw diameter, This
theoretical result, however, cannot be verified by experiments, where
a restricted optimum diameter can be found, This is due to neglect-
ing viscosity effects in the momentum theory.
I t should be noted that the screw momentum theory is not neces-
sarily restricted to the above assumption (d), but has also been
developed to allow for rotational losses in the slipstream. In this
case the ideal efficiency is also depcndent on the non-dimensional
advancc coefficient
where co =angular velocity of disc or screw.
According to the law of constant angular momentum no tangential

induced velocities can exist in front of the actuator disc. Being fully
developed just aft of the disc (ut) their axial distribution must be
discontinuous at the disc. I t can be shown that again just half of
the tangential induced velocity is effective where the torque is
applied (utlz). Owing to slipstream contraction a small continuous
increase of this induced velocity component must exist in the wake
aft of the disc to fulfil the law of constant angular momentum. Be-
cause of the required equilibrium the existence of tangential induced
velocities is always accompanied by a radial pressure gradient. This
results in a reduction of the disc pressure augmentation and hence
of the thrust.
Although by means of the momentum theory of the screw, and
hence by equation (g), it can easily be assessed that no propeller
designed for a thrust loading coefficient of, for instance, C T ~=, 3 can
operate with an efficiency exceeding q = 67 per cent-in fact a much
smaller efficiency has to be expected due to various factors, such as
viscosity and rotational slipstream losses, being neglected in deriving
equation (9)-it does not indicate anything about the design of
such a screw. I t merely describes what effect this propeller is likely
to have on the flow, i,e. the race of the screw.
I n the so-called blade-element theory of the screw, the develop-

ment of which took place simultaneously with the momentum theory,
an effort has been made to avoid these shortcomings. However,
basing the expressions of the forces on the screw blades on observed
facts rather than on mathematical principles, the effect of the pro-
peller on the flow has not been taken into consideration, Therefore,
neglecting the induced velocities completely this has in fact led to
such wrong conclusions as to the possibility of I oo per cent efficiency,
if friction is neglected.
Combining the correct assumptions of both theories, a propeller
design method has been developed in the course of this century
which is known as the vortex or circulation theory. I n its lifting
line version, this is the only theory which enables the designer to
arrive, with sufficient accuracy and within reasonable time, at screw
dimensions which meet the design conditions if tested as a model
in open water or in a variable pressure tunnel.
Two-dimensional Theory of Wing Sections

Before particulars of this propeller vortex theory are dealt with, some
basic results of two-dimensional as well as finite aspect ratio airfoil
theory should be quoted. I t is from here that the circulation theory
has been adapted and applied to the obviously much more compli-
cated flow around the screw propeller.
If an airfoil of infinite span is moving with a uniform velocity
V under an angle of attack a in an ideal fluid or is otherwise posi-
tioned in a parallel flow of the same velocity, a force perpendicular
to the direction flow will be experienced, which is known as lift L
(see Fig. 199). This force is generated by an increased pressure
a t the lower or pressure side of the foil and a reduced pressure at the
upper or suction side. According to Bernoulli's law these pressures
are caused by a velocity distribution over the foil which is larger
than V at the suction and smaller than V at the pressure side.
Calling the difference in the resulting velocity between suction
and pressure side Avr(y)and applying Bernoulli's law to both sides
Fig. 199
303
of the foil the following expression can be derived for the lift per
unit span:
C C
where Ap(y) =pressure difference between lower and upper side

of foil
c =chord length of foil.
Fig. 200
I' is called the circulation, because it is a measure of the flow

around the foil. Equation ( I I ) is known as the Kutta-Joukowsky
theorem, which is universal, because moving in a fluid all bodies
will create lift as long as circulation exists around them. In the case
of normal wing sections with sharp trailing edges the amount of
circulation is governed by the Kutta-Joukowsky condition of
smooth flow at the tail, meaning that the velocities remain finite
at this point and no flow takes place around the trailing edge. It
should be noted that in spite of the lift no force in the direction of
flow (drag) will exist on a two-dimensional foil as long as friction
is neglected.
On the basis of equation ( I I ) it is possible to substitute a two-
dimensional foil by a so-called bound vortex filament or lifting
line of infinite length, which creates a pure circulation flow around
its axis as shown in Fig. 200. The fluid particles in such a flow are
moving on circles with a velocity v t an which is inversely proportional
to the distance from the origin r. The latter itself is usually called
a singularity due to its infinite velocities. If an arbitrary closed
curve is drawn around the origin, the line integral of the velocity
Fig. 201
for that curve will be independent of its path and represents the
circulation
.l'=,$bg(r) 0% (12)
If therefore a bound vortex filament is put in a parallel flow a lift

force will be created according to equation ( 1 1 ) (see Fig. 201).
Obviously this lifting line theory does not give any indication of
how to design a foil for a certain lift L and which angle of attack a
to choose. A practical approach to the solution of this problem is
given in a combination of what is known as "Theory of Thin Airfoils "
and "Theory of Airfoils of Finite Thickness". A brief outline of
this design method will be given below. For details, however, one
should refer for instance to the book Theov of Wing Sections by Abbott
and von Doenhoff (Dover Publications, 1959).
Theory of Thin Airfoils

One assumption of this theory besides ideal flow is that the foil
is represented by its skeleton or mean line. I t thus consists of a cam-
bered plate with no finite thickness (see Fig. 202). Hydrodynamic-
ally this thin foil is substituted by a continuous vortex filament
distribution of infinite span, which, for reasons of simplification, is
not positioned at the cambered line itself but along its nose-tail line
Fig. 202
305
and has the local strength y (y). This leads to a velocity increment
of A u ( y ) at the upper and - Au(y) at the lower side of the thin wing
section, with
If now a certain load distribution AvQ) appears desirable-this

can for instance be constant over the chord or constant over a cer-
tain length a=y/c of the chord from the leading edge and conse-
quently reduced linearly to zero at the trailing edge-it is possible to
calculate the shape of the corresponding thin foil by superimposing
a parallel flow V under an angle of attack ct, keeping in mind that
the foil has to be a streamline. For this reason the resulting velocity
vector composed of the inclined parallel flow and the flow induced
by the vortex distribution y(y) must not have a component normal
to this line. I t is also possible by this method to determine the
specific angle of attack a=aia, for which the desired load distri-
bution is achieved. This angle is called the ideal angle of attack
or angle of shockfree inflow, because for this inclination both stag-
nation points are situated at the edges of the cambered plate. I t
can easily be understood that for any additional angle of attack the
velocities at the leading edge become infinite, if for the trailing
edge the Kutta-Joukowsky condition of smooth flow is fulfilled. A
typical load distribution for a thin foil is given in Fig. 203, for the
AV
ideal angle of attack as well as for an additional one -
(V 1- The
Fig. 203
306
additional load distribution has to be superimposed on the basic

one to the amount that a is larger than aid. It should be mentioned
that in the case of thin foils the non-dimensional lift coefficient GL,
defined as
where S =hi1 area (chord c times span b ) ,

is always the following function of the angle of attack K:
C ~ = 2 n( a - ao),
where a, =zero lift angle ( a , < o for positive camber) [rad.].
The whole theory being a linear one only holds for small camber-
chord ratios and small additional angles of attack. For these con-
ditions, however, it can be shown that ideal angle of attack and lift
coefficient are a linear function of the camber.
I n Theory of Wing Sections numerical results are given for various
basic mean lines, which have been developed by the N.A.C.A. and
are specified by the value a =y/c, which is explained above.
Theor~yof Foils o f Finite Thickness

Velocity and pressure distribution about an arbitrary wing section
can be obtained by making use of tlie method of conformal mapping.
A practical way of carrying out the relevant numerical calculations
is described in Theory of Wing Sections. I t is possible by this method
to correlate each point on the surface of a wing section to a point
on a corresponding circle, for which the velocity and pressure dis-
tribution can easily be calculated, if the flow around the circle is
composed of a freestream velocity V and a circulation I'. From
this, one can obtain velocity and pressure distribution around the
wing section itself by applying the transformation laws. The stream-
line pattern for an uncambered wing section, often called basic \
thickness form, and for the corresponding circle are schematically

shown in Fig. 204.
The theoretical lift curve for foils of finite thickness can be
written as
C L = ~ (Z1 f 0 ' 7 7 tic) sin ( % - a o ) , . (14)
where t =maximum thickness of foil.
The velocity distribution around an uncambered foil of finite thick-
U AU ,
ness consists of two components, - and - where v represents
v V'
the absolute velocity at any point of the foil surface at zero angle
of attack and A v . is the qdditional velocity due to a certain angle of
Fig. 204
attack a or else a lift coefficient CL, a and CL being related to each

other by equation (14), with a , = o for all uncambered sections.
These two velocity components have been calculated for many
N.A.C.A. basic thickness distributions and thickness-chord ratios,
numerous results of which are presented in Theory o f Wing Sections.
I n order to avoid applying this rigorous, but rather laborious
method in the calculations for cambered sections of finite thickness,
a procedure has been developed which combines both theories and
is sufficiently accurate for engineering purposes. In this case cam-
bered foils are designed by superimposing a certain basic thickness
distribution on a suitable mean line, which is cambered for a so-
called design lift coefficient CLld (see Fig. 205). For such a foil
the resulting velocity distribution v,(y) is composed of the following

three components :
where the positive sign applies to the upper surface of the foil and
the negative values to the lower one. v represents the velocity dis-
tribution over the basic thickness form at zero angle of attack, Av
SYMMETRICAL WING SECTION

AT ZERO ANGLE OF ATTACK
MEAN LINE AT IDEAL

ANGLE OF ATTACK
v+Av
CAMBERED WING S T I O N AT
IDEAL ANGLE OF ATTACK
FROM ANGLE OF ATTACK FOR

SYMMETRICAL WlNG SECTION .
AT ANGLE OF ATTACK
Fig. 206 t
the velocity increment of the mean line at its ideal angle of attack,
and A v a the additional load distribution of the basic thickness
%
form due to any angles of attack, which are different from aid,
Fig. 206 shows how the resulting velocity distribution v,(y) is
progressively obtained. From this the lift coefficient per unit span
( b = I ) can be derived by integration as follows:
As will be shown below special diagrams are required for the

design of propellers on the basis of circulation theory, which can
be provided by applying the technique of superimposing a basic
thickness distribution to a mean line. These diagrams show
C, t
--, f
- and -,
t/c C G
where f~=maximum camber of mean line,

as functions of the so-called critical cavitatioli number, which is
This critical cavitation number is nothing else than a measure of

the maximum pressure drop p , --hi, on the foil, where P, is the
pressure of the flow far upstream, I t is therefore related to the
maximum resulting velocity on the foil vrm,, according to Bernoulli's
equation.
Based on the N.A.C.A. 16 section combined with the a = 1.0
mean line (constant load distribution from nose to tail in ideal
flow) such a diagram is given in Fig. 207. I t should be noted that
these diagrams are valid for two-dimensional, ideal flow and shock-
free entrance conditions only. Thus an angle of attack has to be
%RIT
Fig. 207
3 10
applied, which is a = aid. However, for the N.A.C.A. a = 1.0 mean

line and other mean lines, which also have a load distribution
symmetrical to the half-chord point, as for instance the circular arc
mean line, one obtains aid = o,
If the influence of additional angles of attack on the critical
cavitation number is of intcrest, more detailed calculations are re-
quired, for which the above described method can successfully be
used.
The effect of viscous flow on the characteristics of two-dimensional
foil sections is such that a force in the direction of flow will be ex-
perienced called viscous drag D. For sufficiently large Reynolds
numbers
where v =kinematic viscosity,

the non-dimensional drag coefficients for thin foil sections at shock-
free entrance conditions are found to be approximately
the larger values corresponding to sections with higher thickness-

chord ratios t/c. For Reynolds numbers encountered in full scale
propellers and drag coefficients as above the boundary layer is
expected to be turbulent and unseparated over most of the foil
surface.
Fig. 208
311
A second effect caused by viscosity consists of a shift of the zero

lift angle from the theoretical value a 0 to micro, where m, is ob-
tained from experiments (Fig. 208). For the N.A.C.A. a = 1-0mean
line, for instance, it has been found that m,=oa74. On the other
hand the lift curve slope for thin foil sections in viscous flow will
still be near enough dCn/d~=nn. Therefore the required lift
coefficient in viscous flow can simply be obtained by altering the
angle of attack from c r i d to orid+ % =aid - a. ( I -m,), where
a, = - ( C L ~ + ~ aid).
/ ~ ~Thus
Z for the N.A.C.A. a = I *omean line the
design angle of attack in viscous flow will be:
'0'26
cc=ccl= - a o (I -m,) = C L ~ ~ - = O ~ IGid[rad.]
2n
. (16)
The drag-lift ratio of two-dimensional foil sections should also be

referred to
This is a characteristic quantity which is frequently used to describe

airfoil qualities and which will later be introduced in the propeller
efficiency as an allowance for frictional losses.
Whenever the load condition for a wing section is such that the
static minimum pressure at any point of the foil surface reaches the
vapour pressure of the fluid, this will result in a cavity being gene-
rated at this point. Depending on the pressure distribution around
the foil, the cavity can extend over any portion of the chord length
and even well beyond the trailing edge. The cavitation pattern will
either be stable or of unsteady character, leading, in the latter case,
to the possibility of heavy vibration.
The effect of cavitation on the lift is usually a reduction in lift
curve slope. A value in the region of HC~lda= 4 2 will be ex-
perienced in the case of one side of the section being fully covered
by a cavity. At the same time the drag-lift ratios will increase
considerably, especially in the case of sections with little or no
camber.
Apart from the problems arising in connection with erosion due
to cavitation, the poor results with normal subcavitating foils, under
conditions where cavitation cannot be avoided, has initiated the
development of so-called fully or supercavitating sections. The main
purpose of introducing such sections is to arrive at a more stable
cavitation pattern and to achieve -better drag-lift ratios. Since the
cavity is supposed to generate from the leading edge and extend
beyond the trailing edge in fully cavitating foils (Fig. 209), the form
of the section is defined by its pressure face and the cavity shape.
The section thickness distribution, of course, has to be chosen in

such a way that the cavity thickness will not be exceeded.
Contrary to the case of fully wetted sections under non-cavitating
conditions, fully cavitating sections will experience a so-called form
drag in ideal flow, which increases with angle of attack. I t is there-
fore necessary to keep the angle of attack in fully cavitating sections
Fig. zog
as low as possible, the lower limit of which is governed by the

required foil section modulus associated with cavity thickness.
Wedge-shaped thickness distributions are often adapted, where this
is required by strength considerations.
Fully cavitating sections which have a minimum form drag and
are to be regarded as optimum solutions within a family of section
shapes have been theoretically developed, for instance, by Tulin
and Johnson. They are known as Tulin two-term sections and
Johnson three- and five-term sections.
Three-dimensional Theory of Wing Sections

As soon as one considers foils of finite span the flow from section to
section is likely to vary, because of a flow around the ends of the
wing, which results in a pressure loss at the lower side and a pressure
increase at the suction side of the foil. Hence it can easily be under-
stood that the circulation will no longer be constant over the span.
If therefore the strength of the bound vortex varies spanwise, so-
called free vortices must form in the wake of the wing, since accord-
ing to Helmholtz's law no eddy can start or end in a fluid. These
free vortices will eventually be connected in the initial take-off point
of the wing by means of the starting vortex. If the bound vortex
strength r(x) varies continuously over the span 6, the distribution
of the free vortices must also be continuous, thus forming a free
vortex sheet with the local strength d- W (see Fig. 210).
dx
I t can be shown that such a vortex system as a whole induces
velocities which are perpendicular to the direction of motion or the
r (x) (ELLIPTIC~L)
parallel flow and are therefore called downwash. This downwash

being u far behind the wing will again be just ulrz at the wing
itself. Especially if the spanwise circulation distribution is elliptical
it will be constant over the span. Superimposing the parallel flow '
V and the induced velocity at the wing u/a, results in a change of the
U
effective angle of attack of the foil, reducing the latter by ai r -
2 v
(Fig. 21 I ) and inducing a force, which acts in the direction of
motion and is called the induced drag Di.
As in the case of two-dimensional foils this lifting-line theory for
wings of finite span cannot be used as a design method for the shape
of, for instance, a thin foil with an elliptical circulation distribution
over the span. To achieve this, it is necessary to substitute the wing
by a so-called lifting surface, consisting of a chordwise distribution
of vortex filaments, the strength of which can now vary over the
chord as well as over the span. However, the calculations for
lifting surfaces are fairly complicated, which is the reason why
for higher aspect ratios
Fig. 211
314
aFtechnique is successfully used which has to be regarded as a

compromise. In this technique the downwash u / 2 is calculated
from the lifting-line model with a spanwise varying circulation
and assumed not to vary chordwise. Two-dimensional foil data
are then adapted for each section of the wing taking the inflow
direction as a - ai and using
dLi
C L=~
? v %dx
2 r
with dLi = QV*T d x according to equations ( I 3) and ( I I ) .
Reasonable experimental agreement, of course, can only be
attained if the span is sufficiently large as compared with the chord,
i.e. for relatively large aspect ratios AR.
As regards viscosity effects two-dimensional drag coefficients are
often used for three-dimensional flow conditions also, resulting in
an additional force dD in the direction of VT (Fig. 21 I). Whereas
this is certainly permissible for large aspect ratio wings, the procedure
appears doubtful in case of small aspect ratios as well as wide-bladed
propellers. The lack of three-dimensional viscous drag data, how-
ever, makes this a standard practice in the design of screw
propellers.
Measured lift curve on angle of attack diagrams (see Fig. I I ~ ) ,
where the aspect ratio is plotted as parameter, will always show the
tendency of reduced slope but increased angle of stall for smaller
aspect ratios.
Lifting Line Theory of the Screw Propeller

Dealing with screw propellers for high-speed craft one can assume
that the propeller is operating clear of the ship's hull in an undis-
turbed flow. Such propellers are usually called free-running, which
certainly applies to wing propellers in general and also with suffi-
cient accuracy to centre propellers in planing craft. The only severe
deviation from this assumption is caused by the fact that most
high-speed craft propellers are fitted to inclined shafts. However,
for the time being this effect will be neglected.
I n the theory described in the following, the screw propeller is
replaced by the so-called lifting line model, where the propeller
blades are substituted by lifting lines with radially varying circula-
tion distribution. Neglecting the effect of the propeller hub the
circulation distribution l' ( ) =( ) is zero at the axis of the
propeller (x =o) as well as at the tip (x = I ) , the latter corresponding
to the ends of a finite aspect ratio wing. The radial variation of the
bound circulation-so far undetermined-produces free vortex sheets

the velocity of which must coincide with the relative velocity in the
screw race, since no forces can act on free vortices. Thus the free
vortex sheets will form arbitrary helical surfaces, which relatively to
the undisturbed flow are pushed astern by the axial local induced
velocities and rotated around the slip-stream axis by the tangential
local induced velocities.
As regards the forces acting on the bound vortices these are
dependent on the induced velocities generated at each radius r.
In this connection it should be noted that the induced velocities at
one blade generated by the other blades are zero for symmetrical
screws, if lifting line theory is adopted. Hence only the induced
velocities generated by the free vortex sheets have to be known.
Unfortunately, no general prediction can be made for the induced
velocities at the bound vortex, since the pitch of the free vortex sheets
depending on the induced velocities at the bound vortex and the
radial circulation distribution of the free vortices depending on the
bound circulation are undetermined. Thus an explicit solution of
the problem cannot be given as far as screws with arbitrary circu-
lation distribution are concerned. However, for so-called optimum
screws, which are defined so as to have a minimum of slipstream
losses in ideal fluid, an explicit solution has been derived by Betz,
which will now be described.
Betz's theory is generally based on the assumption of lightly loaded
screws. However, it can be used also for moderately loaded propellers
with sufficient approximation. Hence the radial induced velocities
due to slipstream contraction are neglected as well as the radial
pressure gradient caused by centrifugal forces due to slipstream
rotation. This seems permissible insofar as these two influences have
opposite effects on the thrust-producing axial induced velocities and
are likely to cancel out each other as long as the condition of moderate
screw loading is fulfilled.
Betz has derived a number of basic theorems for this optimum
propeller lifting line model, which can be summarized as follows:
(a) The axial and tangential induced velocities generated at
the bound vortices by the free vortex sheets are again just
half of the induced velocities far downstream (u.12 and
utl4,
(b) The free vortex sheets are helical surfaces with constant
pitch,
(c) The induced yelocities generated at the bound vortices are
perpendicular to the resulting inflow velocity.
Defining the induced efficiency of a blade element according to
Fig. 2 I 2 as
3 16
where @ =advance angle

pi =hydrodynamic pitch angle
A =x tan 9, =non-dimensional advance coefficient (Io)
Ai = x tan 181 = non-dimensional induced advance co-
efficient
d F i , = axial component of induced lift d L i developed by
blade element dr
,
dFi = tangential component of induced lift dLi developed
by blade element dr,
Betz has shown that the condition of minimum slipstream losses re-
quires ' i ( x ) to be constant for all radii. Hence also represents
the induced efficiency of the whole screw:
1i
where C T=~ =induced thrust loading coefficient
2 V:AO
n
Pi
Cpi = =induced power loading coefficient,
e- V 3Ao
2 A
--
317
,HIGH-SPEED SMALL CRAFT
with Ti =induced thrust or thrust in ideal fluid

Pi =induced power or power in ideal fluid.
From the velocity diagram for a lifting line element (Fig. 21 2)
induced thrust and power loading coefficients of a propeller can now
be obtained by integrating the axial and tangential components of
the induced lift over all Z blades, using the Kutta-Joukowsky
theorem according to equation ( I I ) :
where Vr=resulting inflow velocity at blade element dr.

From this it follows that
where the integration is in fact only taken from the non-dimensional

hub radius x h and the non-dimensional circulation G is defined as
For an optimum screw it is possible to derive the induced velocities

explicitly from Fig. z I 2, namely:
For a given induced pitch-diameter ratio

(P/D)i = nx tan pi,
advance coefficient A and number of blades 2, CTi and Cpi can be
numerically calculated as soon as the non-dimensional circulation
is known. For this it is convenient to go back to a propeller lifting
line model with an infinite number of blades. In this special case
the vortex sheets in the wake would be so close together that the
whole slipstream is rotating as a solid column, with a velocity which
is ut far behind the screw. According to the definition of circulation
318
given as a line integral in equation ( I 2) one obtains for a certain

radius r of the rotating wake far downstream
I n this case u t is uniformly distributed over the circumference due

to the assumed infinite number of blades.
Fig. 213
Applying the laws of vortex flow, as described above for the case of a
finite aspect ratio wing, to the flow around the propeller model it
can be shown that the circulation of the free vortex column between
the radii r and R must be equal to the bound circulation at the radius
r. However, as soon as the number of blades becomes finite the
tangential component of the induced velocity will no longer be
constant over the circumference. Having its maximum value only
at the singularities themselves it will be reduced between the vortex
319
sheets. This leads to a reduction of the circulation around the edges

of the vortex sheets, which now becomes
where x = x (x, A,Z) allows for the finite number of blades

and is known as Goldstein factor.
For a three-bladed propeller the Goldstein factors are given in
Fig. 213. It can be seen that the reduction of circulation increases
rapidly towards the blade tip of an optimum screw.
With equation (20) the non-dimensional circulation is thus found
to be
Using equations (21), (22) and (23) the induced thrust loading
coefficient C Thas
~ been calculated by Kramer according to equation
(19). For a three-bladed propeller Kramer's results are plotted
as a function of the advance coefficient 1 with as parameter in
Fig. 214. It can be seen that the best induced efficiencies are ob-
Fig. 214
tained if the induced thrust loading coefficient as well as the advance

coefficient are small. This result is in agreement with screw momen-
tum theory, since for A+ o no rotational losses will occur in the
slipstream. For zero advance coefficient qi is therefore identical with
v i a defined in equation(7).
At this stage the condition of moderate screw loading should be
defined more precisely. Since it is related to moderate slipstream
losses this condition can be expressed in terms of the induced
efficiency, namely :
qi> 0'5.
Thus the theory described is only applicable for the range of induced
thrust loading coefficients under the upper curve in Fig. 2 14. Fairly
high CT,-values are therefore compatible with the assumption of
moderate screw loading as long as A --t o, For usual advance co-
efficients, however, which in high-speed craft are mainly of the
order A=o-2 - 0.4, CTi< I represents a suitable criterion to
describe moderate screw loading.
The fact that for practical design purposes one does not go for
a n unlimited high rate of propeller revolutions (A+o) as well
<
as to very low loading conditions (CT, I ) is entirely due to the
so far neglected influence of viscosity, which will be discussed in
the following paragraphs.
As described above for two-dimensional wing sections the effect
of viscosity will result in a force which in case of a propeller blade
element acts in the direction of the resulting inflow velocity Vr.
This force dD will lead to an increase of the tangential force com-
ponent and will reduce the axial one, as can b& understood from
Fig. 215. Adopting two-dimensional drag-lift ratios according
to equation (17) for each blade element it can be shown that. thrust
and power loading coefficient in real flow now read:
~CT,
CT=
-( I - E tan
dx
pi) dx . (24)
Fig. 215
321
dCp E
tan B i (25)
Hence the propeller efficiency in viscous fluid will be:

CT
In order to evaluate the integrals in (24) and (25) it is necessary

to design the propeller blade outline and assess the lift coefficients
at each radius, from which by means of equations ( I 7) and (15) the
local drag-lift ratios 6 can be derived. This can be avoided for
first estimates of the propeller efficiency by making use of the
following approximation
which splits the propeller efficiency in the induced term and the
so-called blade-element eficiency qE. The latter can fairly accur-
ately be approximated by
where 2 -- E,., =local drag-lift ratio at non-dimensional radius
Thus the efficiency of the whole screw is approximately equal to

the efficiency of the blade-element at the non-dimensional radius
x = 0.7, which is therefore often called the equivalent blade section
with Z as equivalent drag-lift ratio.
For the design point of a non-cavitating screw it can be found
that equivalent drag-lift ratios Z vary normally between 0.03 and
0.08, where the higher values would be experienced in wide-bladed
propellers. Still higher values can occur under cavitating con-
ditions.
Equation (26) has been plotted in Fig. 2 16. This diagram shows
that the blade-element efficiency is rapidly decreasing with reduced
&-values, which is the reason why A+ o will not lead to the best
overall efficiency 7 for a certain thrust loading coefficientCT. Keep-
ing also in mind that qi reduces with increasing advance coefficient
it can now be understood why for a certain thrust loading co-
efficient always an optimum A-value and hence an optimum rate
of propeller revolutions n can be found.
Fig. 216
On the other hand there will also be a general limitation due to

viscosity effects as regards the ideal flow result giving best possible
efficiency with lowest propeller loading. The optimum propeller
loading, however, is associated with such large propeller diameters
D and low rate of propeller revolutions n that this condition is not
of practical value for actual propeller design due to the usual re-
strictions in propeller diameter and certain requirements governing
the practical range of propeller shaft revolutions.
As regards the actual design procedure for optimum free-running
propellers on the basis of lifting line theory, one starts with given
A- and either CT- or CP-values. I t is necessary to have already
decided on propeller diameter D and rate of propeller revolutions
n, which is usually done by adopting methodical series data. The
problems connected herewith are discussed under the relevant
section of this chapter below. The next step is to estimate the
equivalent drag-lift ratio and transform the loading coefficients
into induced loading- coefficients by means of the following approxi-
mation formulae :
Since ;Ei = A/vi is not known, qi has to be estimated and later on

checked by means of the Kramer type of diagram. By trial and
error this procedure will finally lead to an induced efficiency, which

satisfies both the Kramer diagram and equation (27) or (28). For
a number of blades other than Z = 3 a more detailed type of Kramer
diagram is published, for instance, in A Propeller Design Method re-
ferred to above, giving Z as a second parameter. If the design is
based on a certain CP-value a Cri-A-diagram can be used as well,
keeping in mind that
Having found the correct induced efficiency qi for the corresponding

design condition the hydrodynamic pitch angles can be calculated
from equation (18)
For the design of the propeller blade sections the radial propeller
loading distribution must be known, which is represented by the
two-dimensional lift coefficients CL to be generated at each radius.
The local induced lift coefficient C Lcan
~ be obtained if the induced
lift dLi per blade section dr is expressed by the Kutta-Joukowsky
theorem (r I) as well as by equation (13) :
eVrI'dr=CLi -eV a cdr.

2 "
Introducing equations (20) and (23) and substituting the induced
lift coefficient by a CL-value representing two-dimensional
data, the so-called characteristic product C L can
~ be written as
CLc=-=
2r 8nxxR
sin Pi tan (pi - P),
vr z
because
according to Fig. 2 I 2.
Dividing equation (29) by the local maximum blade section
thickness t,, which is chosen in accordance with strength considera-
tions (see above), it can now be seen why the type of diagram
shown in Fig. 207 is of special value in the design of non-cavitating
propellers. Keeping in mind that a c r i t in Fig. 207 is a measure of
the maximum pressure drop occurring in the flow over a two-
324
dimensional wing section the theoretical condition of non-cavitating

operation of a propeller blade section can now be given as
O'crit < Gx,
where pst=absolute static pressure at each blade section in the

vertical position of a propeller blade, depending on
depth of propeller shaft immersion and atmospheric
pressure
pv =vapour pressure of water, depending on tempera-
ture.
The given criterion means nothing more than that the static
pressure over any part of the propeller-surface must not drop below
the vapour pressure of the fluid. Hence a diagram of the type in
Fig. 207 indicates which maximum thickness-chord ratios t / c are
C LC
permissible for a certain pair of design values -and ox, if cavita;
tx
tion is to be avoided.
I t is common practice to allow for inflow irregularities by re-
ducing the critical cavitation number of the blade sections 10 ...
30 per cent and hence select the thickness-chord ratio for the con-
dition
For this condition the expanded blade outline can be determined.

I t will be found in this connection that for a linear radial thickness
distribution tx the expanded blade outline will be rather wide at
the propeller tip and narrow towards the hub for optimum pro-
pellers. Therefore the blade element lengths have to be increased
in the neighbourhood of the hub, thus leading virtually to higher
safety factors a x / a c r i t in this region. From the faired blade outline
the local lift coefficients CL(x) can now be calculated keeping the
characteristic product C L as ~ required by equation (29).
By means of equations (15) and (17) the drag-lift ratios 8 have
thence to be found for each radius and the loading coefficient CT
or CP to be calculated from equation (24) or (25). If the latter
should not meet the design condition, it is necessary to repeat the
described procedure. Since two variables are involved, i.e. the
hydrodynamic pitch and the effect of viscous flow, some experience
is required to choose the right modification, in order to arrive at
the design condition by repeating the calculation only once. In this
connection it might be of some assistance to point out that the thrust

loading coefficient is by nature less dependent on the correct assessing
of the equivalent drag-lift ratio E than the power loading coefficient.
Therefore the design case based on the thrust loading is likely to
produce the required results within a smaller number of steps.
Once the correct hydrodynamic pitch has been assessed only a
few corrections have to be applied before the drawing of the pro-
peller can be produced. There is at first a camber correction factor
k, by which the camber obtained from a diagram of the type in
Fig. 207 has to be multiplied. This correction allows for the fact
that the propeller blades operate in a curved flow, which of course
has no effect on the lifting line with no chordwise dimension. If,
however, the bound vortices are replaced by foil sections with finite
chord length, which are designed for two-dimensional parallel flow,
the geometrical camber must be larger than in parallel flow, if
the same lift coefficient is to be produced:
Camber correction factors vary from radius to radius and depend

mainly on the blade outline and blade area, the number of blades,
the induced advance coefficient. Based, to a certain extent, on the
original method of Ludwieg and Ginzel, detailed results for k have
been produced by Cox in Trans. R.I.N.A., 1962, Corrections to the
Camber of Constant Pitch Propellers, which apply to optimum propellers
and constant chordwise load distribution (a = I mean line).
40
Further corrections are necessary with respect to the pitch. These

result from the fact that the blade sections selected from the Fig. 207
type of diagram are supposed to operate under shockfree entrance
conditions and in viscous flow. Thus the final pitch diameter ratio
referring to the nose-tail line of the blade sections must be
where aid is a function of the mean line as described in the section

on two-dimensional wing sections. The friction correction a, is
defined by equation ( I 6).
At this stage a few remarks should be made about non-optimum
screws. These can rigorously be calculated for arbitrary circulation
distribution by means of Lerbs' induction factor method described
in Moderately Loaded Propellers with a Finite Rumber of Blades and an
Arbitray Distribution of Circulation (Trans. S.N.A.M.E., I 952). An
approximation method is given in the above-mentioned paper by
Eckhardt and Morgan, which appears to give satisfactory results for
engineering purposes, in spite of using Goldstein factors for non-
optimum circulation distribution;
326
The reason why non-optimunl load distributions are often adopted,

especially in high-speed non-cavitating propellers, can be found in
the fact that the outer part of a propeller blade is very liable to
the onset of cavitation due to the high resulting inflow velocities
Vr. This tendency can be reduced by a circulation or load distri-
bution which is more concentrated towards the propeller hub and
leads to more equally distributed safety factors ~ x l ~ o r for
i t reason-
able blade outlines. The pitch-diameter ratio for such non-optimum
propellers at the equivalent blade section x =og7 will be approxi-
mately the same as for a corresponding optimum propeller, but the
pitch will be reduced towards the tip and increased towards the
hub of the propeller.
The case of fully cavitating propellers, which is of special interest
i n high-speed craft, has theoretically and experimentally been treated
i n a paper by Tachmindji and Morgan, The Design and Estimated
Performance of a Series of Supercavitating Propellers (Second Symposium
on Naval Hydrodynamics, 1958), and more recently in a slightly
modified version by Venning and Haberman, Supercavitating Propeller
, Performance (Trans. S.N.A.M.E., I 962). However, this design method
based on lifting line theory appears to be far from having solved all
the problems which occur in fully cavitating propellers, and some
experiments with propellers designed on the basis of this method
have not shown the expected results. A number of the problems
occurring in fully cavitating propeller flow will be basically described
under a special paragraph on methodical series results with high-
speed propellers.
Finally it would be as well to mention what one can expect
from future research work and what theoretical and practical
problems concerning propeller design have still to be solved. This
mainly concerns the so-called lifting surface theories, of which
quite a number exist. However, most of these theories are too
laborious for the day-to-day propeller designer and require digital
computers if numerical results are to be produced in reasonable
time.
In the case of lifting surface propeller theories the propeller blades
are replaced by a distribution of vortices, the strength of which can
now vary radially and chordwise. I t can be seen that in this case
the problem of calculating the induced velocities at each point of the
blade surface is rather complex. However, this method has been
used successfully in showing to what extent the present assumption
of, for instance, constant chordwise load distribution associated with
the use of the a = I *omean line is verified in case of the flow around
wide-bladed propellers. The results are in general not discouraging
for those who are forced to produce results in reasonable time and
therefore have to adopt lifting line theory.
Model Tests, Non-dimensional Presentation of Results and

Methodical Series
I n screw propellers the law of kinematic similarity requires the
non-dimensional advance ratio
to be the same for both full-scale and model propeller. For this
condition the non-dimensional thrust and power loading coefficients
as used above,
rn
will be independent of the scale for all geometrically identical

screws. The same applies to the non-dimensional thrust and torque
coefficients
rn
I
because they are related to the loading coefficients as follows: I
I
The efficiency of model and full-scale propeller is given by
So far the physical properties of the fluid, i.e. such effects as

viscosity, gravity and vapour pressure, have not been taken into
account. However, these must also be allowed for in model tests,
fulfilling the laws of so-called dynamic similarity.
Dealing with viscous flow effects first, it is obvious that, stricl~ Z Y

speaking, the Reynolds number of the propeller sections should be
the same for model and full-scale screw. However, the extreme
advance velocities required and the interference with the law govern-
ing the cavitation characteristics make this very unpractical. I t is
therefore usually regarded as sufficient to assure a Reynolds number
at the non-dimensional radius x =oe7 which at least guarantees the
boundary layer over most of the blade surface to be turbulent. This
amounts to
If turbulent boundary layer is achieved the extrapolation to full-

scale propeller characteristics can always be carried out by means
of correction factors as long as the surfaces of both model and
full-scale screw are hydraulically smooth. The extrapolation will
mainly result in a torque reduction and hence in an efficiency
increase,
The effect of gravity or free water surface is known to be governed
by Froude's law of similarity. Fortunately, this influence on model
test techniques can be overcome by keeping the model propeller
sufficiently immersed when testing it in open water (towing tank
test). Free surface disturbances caused by the pressure field around
the screw will then be sufficiently eliminated.
Finally the effect of vapour pressure has to be taken into con-
sideration. The corresponding law of similarity requires the pro-
peller cavitation number
where p,to =absolute static pressure at the propeller axis,

to be the same for model and full-scale conditions. As compared
with the local cavitation number ox (30), the propeller cavitation
number is based on the advance speed rather than the resulting
section inflow velocity VI-. However, by fulfilling the law of kine-
matic similarity at the same time, it can be shown that apart from
the difference in static pressure head due to depth of immersion
(effect of Froude number) the local cavitation numbers will also be
adequately reproduced.
I t can easily be seen that the full-scale propeller cavitation number
can only be obtained in open water tests if tank carriage and ship
speed are of the same order. To overcome this problem water
PRESSURE COAMING
VACUUM PUMP 2. ALTERNATIVE POSITION FOR SHAFT
AND DYNAMOMETERS
TORQUE DYNAMOMETE 500 mm. x500 mm.
ODEL PROPELLER
AND DYNAM
MANOMETERS
18 H.P.
IMPELLER MOTOR
Fig. 217
tunnels have been constructed, in which the static pressure can be

reduced to such an extent that the required water speed for a certain
propeller cavitation number can still be kept within reasonable
limits (Fig. 21 7).
Most cavitation tunnels are designed these days to achieve a
cavitation number of go= 0.2 ...
0.3. This corresponds to advance
Fig. 218
speeds of about VA=55 [knots] as can be seen from Fig. 2 I 8, where

the propeller cavitation number has been plotted against speed of
advance taking the static pressure fis t o = f i a t m and neglecting static
patm
water head and vapour pressure
Both in open water and in a variable pressure tunnel thrust and

torque of the model propeller are measured together with speed
of advance and rate of revolutions. The results are then plotted
in form of KT- (34), KQ- (35) and q-values (38) on the basis
of J (31). Cavitation tunnel results show in addition the propeller
cavitation number cr, (40) as parameter (see for example Figs, 220
to 222).
I n order to enable the propeller designer to select the optimum
propeller for certain design conditions it is convenient to convert
KT- and K e-results as measured for a methodical propeller series
into a type of diagram, which gives
- 4JK(37)
- ;E
2/ CT=- - (36)-or
-
respective+--as well as y as a function of J

2/Cp=5-5-
(see ,fir example Fig. 228).
By means of these diagrams it is easily
possible to solve both design problems, i.e. selecting for a given
thrust T-or power P-and speed of advance VAeither the optimum

diameter as a function of a given rate of propeller revolutions or
the optimum rate of revolutions for a given diameter. The same
design problem can of course be solved by means of KT- and KQ-
diagrams but this requires more time.
As regards methodical propeller series it is usually understood
that only a limited number of variables determining the relevant
type of propeller are altered systematically within the series. These
variables are preferably the two following parameters :
P/D =pitch-diameter ratio ( I ) and
AEIAo=expanded blade-area ratio (Fig. I 96).
All the other parameters, such as
Z =number of propeller blades
x h =non-dimensional hub radius.
t , =section thickness distribution over the radius,

as well as character of blade contour, type of blade section, skew,
rake and radial pitch distribution are normally kept constant.
Unfortunately, the available methodical propeller series results for
high-speed small craft are very limited, since the cavitation character-
istics of a propeller have to be regarded as an important factor in
this field of application. However, together with the Gawn-Burrill
cavitation tests on constant pitch propellers with segmental sections
(Efect o f Cavitation on the Performance of a Series of 16-in. Model Pro-
pellers, Trans. R.I.N.A., 1957) the very comprehensive methodical
series results presented by Gawn for a similar type of propeller
(E$ect ofpitch and Blade Widthon Propeller Performance, Trans. R.I.N.A.,
1953) can be extremely useful, although the latter tests have only
been carried out in open water (ao= ~ a t m ) . The combined use of
both results permits one to evaluate from the Gawn-Burrill tests
the required blade-area ratio for which cavitation does not affect
the propeller performance to any significant extent and consequently
to select the correct propeller dimensions from the open water
tests.
Although apart from certain differences in the blade section
thickness distribution t , both model propeller series are basically
of the same type, it is not surprising that the open water as com-
pared to the cavitation tunnel tests for oatm do not, in fact, yield
exactly the same results. This can be partly explained by scale
effects, but also results from cavitation tunnel wall effects, which it
is difficult to correct for. The open water tests have therefore to be
regarded as more reliable, if it is ensured that the actual cavitation
number will have no effect on propeller thrust and torque.
The Gawn series propellers cover a range of developed blade-
area ratios from AD/Ao =0.2 to I 10 in equal intervals of o*I 5

and pitch-diameter ratios from P/D =og4 to 2.0 in equal intervals
of 0.2. The developed blade outlines are of elliptical shape for all
propellers, having its hub-near vertex at the non-dimensional
radius X = O - I , The section thicknesses t x show a linear distribution
between the virtual value of t6/D=0.06 at the propeller axis and
t,/D = o * o o ~at the tip. Since all the sections are of the segmental
type (flat faces and circular arc backs)," they consequently only
depend on the section chord length. The latter, however, is not
only a function of the blade-area ratio but also of the pitch-diameter
ratio, as can be understood from Fig. 1g6(b), since for varying
pitch-diameter ratios the developed blade outline has been kept
constant rather than the expanded one.
For four different blade-area ratios the Gawn series results
are shown in Fig. 219 (a) to (d). I t can be seen that the best
efficiencies are obtainable with the smallest possible blade-area
ratio and highest possible pitch-diameter ratio, at an advance
ratio of about J = 1-7. The corresponding thrust coefficient is of
the order KT =o-I 75, which relates to a thrust loading coefficient of
- KT 0.15, For still higher pitch-diameter ratios the maxi-
CT--V
ZJ
mum efficiency will not increase any more. This is due to the fact
that in spite of a further reduction in the induced thrust loading
coefficient (27) the increase in advance coefficient -J will result
L -
n
in a lower blade element efficiency q, as can be seen from Fig. 2 16.
I n other words, depending on the blade-area ratio the optimum
thrust loading condition will be found in the region of CT=O*I
-0'2.
Unfortunately, it is practically impossible to make use of these
optimum conditions due to the very low rate of propeller revolutions
required and the high torque to be transmitted, the latter govern-
ing the dimensions and weights of shafts and reduction gear. I t
will also be found extremely difficult to install such an optimum
screw with respect to the large diameter, since this would require
high angles of shaft inclination, which especially in case of high
advance ratios will result in certain disadvantages from the cavita-
tion point of view, which will be explained further on. Therefore
the best overall propulsive coefficient for a certain hull
where PE =effective power of the hull without appendages

PBT=total installed brake power (determined on test bed),
Fig. 219 (a)
Fig. 219 ( 6 )
Fig. 219 ( c )
Fig. 219 ( d )
335
would probably also not be achieved with such a lightly loaded

propeller, although systematic experimental investigations into this
problem are very rare and in the majority of the design cases either
a maximum permissible propeller diameter or a fixed rate of pro-
peller shaft revolutions are given to start with.
Although the blade outlines of the Gawn-Burrill propellers do not
coincide with the ones tested by Gawn in open water and the blade-
336
area ratio referred to is the expanded one, the results can be com-
pared for rough estimates into the effect of cavitation, since the type
of section is also segmental, only with slightly reduced thicknesses
near the propeller hub (t,/D = 0.045, ti/D =0.001 25). The blade-
area ratios tested vary from AE/Ao = 0.5 to I. I o in equal intervals
of 0.15, the range of pitch-diameter ratios covered extends in many
cases from P/D =o-6 to 2.0. All the propellers have been tested at
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2

3
Fig. 221 (a)
0.5 0.6 0.7

0.4
."., 0 . 8 0:9 1a 0 1 .I 1.2
Fig. 221 (b)
the following cavitation numbers aO=aatm, 2.0, 1.5, 1.0, 0.75 and
0.50. The results therefore cover the speed range up to about
VA=38 [knots],as can be seen from Fig. 2 I 8.
For the atmospheric cavitation number as well as a,= 1.5 and
a,= 1.0 the Gawn-Burrill results are plotted in Figs. 2 2 0 to 2 2 2
(a) to (d) for four different blade-area ratios. It will be noticed from
these graphs that for example for J =0°7, K Q=o9o3 and VA= 22
[knots] (a, r 1.5) a blade-area ratio of more than AE/Aoo.65
338
Plate 26. Rolls-Royce " Grzxon" marine engine
Plate 27. C.R.M. ASM 185, I 500 b.h.p.

Plate 28. Nubier "Deltic" engine
Plate 29. Mercedes-Benz diesel engine

- .
Fig. 221 ( 6 )
is required, if severe efficiency"1osses due to cavitation are to be

avoided. For the same desipconditionTand AB/Ao =asp it can
be seen that already at this comparativeli low speed of advance a
severe thrust and torque breakdown due to cavitation occurs and
that such a propeller selected only on the basis of Gawn's open water
tests would neither be able to absorb the available power nor give
the required thrust.
No systematic results are available for the Gawn-Burrill type of
Fig. 222 (a)
J
Fig. 222 (6)
0.7 0.8 0.9

J
Fig. 222 (d)
341
-
propeller for design speeds in excess of VA 38 [knots]. Anyhow,
such results would only indicate that even for the highest blade-area
ratios cavitation will no longer be avoidable and severe thrust and
torque breakdown accompanied by efficiency losses will occur,
spreading gradually to higher advance ratios (lighter propeller
loading conditions) with reduced propeller cavitation numbers.
As long as the local cavitation number at the non-dimensional
radius x=og7 does not drop below = 0.1 it should, in fact,
just be possible-at least theoretically under the assumption of a
uniform propeller inflow-to design a non-cavitating, non-optimum
propeller on the basis of circulation theory, utilizing N.A.C.A.
sections which are cambered for shockfree entrance conditions, as
explained above. This type of propeller would generate thrust and
torque by camber only, whereas a flat-faced propeller also uses angle
of attack, to which especially wide-bladed propellers with very small
section thickness-chord ratios are very sensitive from the cavitation
point of view.
Such a theoretically designed non-optimum propeller might well
prove to be non-cavitating, if tested under axial flow conditions in
a cavitation tunnel. However, in practice, shaft inclination and inflow
irregularities due to obstructions in front of the propeller, as for
instance shaft brackets, etc., will cause cyclic variations of the
hydrodynamic pitch angle ,& and the resulting section inflow velocity
V,. And for the same reason, as in the case of flat-faced propellers,
cavitation associated with additional angles of attack is likely to
occur, together with the danger of erosion.
The range of propeller cavitation numbers o, or advance speeds
VA, where cavitation even under uniform axial flow conditions can
no longer be avoided, is indicated in Fig. 223, which is taken from
Supercaa'tating Propeller Performance. The upper dotted line repre-
senting this margin refers to a local cavitation number of about
a,., = 0.1,whereas the lower dotted curve refers to a,., -- 0.045,
which is regarded as the highest local cavitation number, for which
supercavitating propellers of the Tachmindji-Morgan type can
successfully be used.
If a propeller has to be designed for conditions in between the two
dotted lines, and the presence of cavitation has therefore to be ac-
cepted, better results than achievable with flat-faced propellers can
be obtained with cambered sections, as can be seen from Fig. 224.
I t should be noted that in the critical range of advance ratios J -0.7
... 1.0, which is related to the cavitation number 0 , =0.5 (Fig. 223),
the shaded area in Fig. 224 represents the amount of efficiency to
be gained for a certain advance ratio by using the Newton-Rader
type of cambered propeller (Performance Data Q*Propellers for High-
Speed Craft, Trans. R.I.N.A., 1961), although the blade-area ratio of
the latter is only two-thirds of the corresponding one for the Gawn-
Burrill propeller.
So far eight craft built by Vosper Ltd., Portsmouth, are running
with this type of propeller, a limited methodical series of which have
been tested in the Vosper Cavitation Tunnel. With one exception
the trial performance of these craft covered the speed range of
V =48 ... 55 [knots] and the propellers had a blade-area ratio
of about ASIA0 ~ 0 . 7 . The relevant design conditions are given
in Fig. 223.
Fig. 223
As regards the H.S.L.-Rescue Launch it should be mentioned

that this was a rather exceptional case of high shaft inclination, for
which it appeared impossible to design a non-cavitating propeller
due to the pronounced cyclic variations of blade section angle of
attack. I t was therefore decided to adopt a type of propeller which
would develop as much back cavitation as possible (AE/Ao = 0.55).
The running time achieved with this propeller seems to have
proved that even for design conditions above the upper line in
Fig. 223 there can be advantages from the erosion point of view
in accepting cavitation rather than wanting the impossible in trying
to avoid it,
Within the Newton-Rader series twelve three-bladed propellers
have been tested over a range of propeller cavitation numbers
J
Fig. 224
2'5, 1-0, 0.75, 096, 0.5, 0-4, 0'3 and 0.25. The main
~ ~ = ~ a t r n ,
dimensions of the propeller are as follows :
The blade sections for the blade-area ratio of the parent propeller
(marked by box) are given in Fig. 225. For various cavitation
numbers the cavitation tunnel results obtained with three propellers
of the Newton-Rader type, which had the blade-area ratio of the
parent propeller, are given in Fig. 226 (a) to (c.)
Although the design of the Newton-Rader propellers was originally
based on an a = 1-0N.A.C.A. mean line as face camber distribution,
the final shape of the blade sections was obtained by empirical

modifications rather than theoretical. The appearance of face cavi-
tation in the early stages of the model tests with these propellers
made it necessary to modify the propeller leading edges twice. This
resulted finally in the type of blade section shown in Fig. 225.
If one compares the face camber distribution for the equivalent
blade section at x=o07 with the theoretically developed optimum
results of Tulin and Johnson, a fairly close resemblance will be
found (Fig. 227). I t is, therefore, not surprising that the axial flow
efficiencies corresponding to the design conditions marked in Fig.
2 23 are all of the order 7 = 0.65-0.68, which is not far below the
values predicted for optimum supercavitating propellers by Venning
and Haberman (seefor example Fig. 228).
I n this connection it should be noted that all the Newton-Rader
propellers actually installed in sea-going craft had blade-area ratios
which were fairly high as compared with the optimum conditions
predicted in Supercauitating Propeller Performance. However, with these
blade-area ratios of about Am/Ao =om7 it was possible to keep the
tensile stress level in the blades below S p=22,ooo Elb.lsq.in.1 and
therefore to manufacture the propellers in high-tensile nickel-
aluminium bronze rather than stainless steel.
Although the Newton-Rader propellers, as designed for all the
conditions between the two dotted lines in Fig. 223, develop a suction
side cavity which extends over more than 85 per cent of the blade
Fig. 225
345
Fig. 226 (a)
J
Fig. 226 (c)
surface and well beyond the trailing edge, they are usually called
'fully cavitating " rather than supercavitating ". This is because
the latter expression appears to be reserved for propellers designed
on the basis of the Tachmindji-Morgan theory, utilizing theoretically
developed blade sections of the two- to five-term type. According
to this theory supercavitating conditions could not have been
achieved in any of the design cases where Newton-Rader propellers
have so far been employed. However, this simply means that the
Tachmindji-Morgan design method is not applicable in these cases,
because fully cavitating conditions can undoubtedly be obtained
with flat-faced sections as well as with cambered sections. Therefore,
the Newton-Rader experiments present the only source of infor-
mation for a speed range where cavitation can no longer be
avoided and yet no equivalent theory exists.
A typical performance prediction chart for supercavitating pro-
pellers, as presented by Venning-Haberman for various numbers of
blades (2= 2, 3 and 4) and blade-area ratios (AE/Ao = 0.3-0.7),
JOHNSON 5 TERM SECTION
/ JOHNSON 3 TERM SECTION

NEWTON RADER SECTION
Fig. 227
is given in Fig. 228 for Z = 3 and AE/Ao=0°5. This type of graph

presents either 2/& or dC as a function of J, giving the results for
various pitch-diameter ratios with efficiency cross-curves. As
indicated above, the advantage of presenting methodical series
data in this manner can be explained by the fact that propeller
optimum dimensions can quickly be assessed. If the optimum rate
of propeller revolutions is the unknown factor, d E or z/Zaccord-
ing to (32) or (33) should be calculated for given values of T - or
P -, VA and D. The optimum advance ratio can then easily be
read off the chart at the corresponding optimum efficiency curve.
Fig. 228
J
Fig. 229
O n the other hand, it is possible for a given rate of propeller revolu-

- -
tions and
- unknown- diameter to calculate ~ / C T / J
or ~ C P / and
J to
plot ~ C T /orJ ~ / C P / Jat J = 1.0. A straight line between the origin
of the graph and the plotted spot will then give an intersection with
the corresponding maximum efficiency curve and the optimum
advance ratio can be read off.
The prediction graphs for supercavitating propeller performance
as given in the paper by Venning-Haberman are obtained on the
basis of propeller lifting line theory, utilizing the Tulin or two-term
section for local cavitation numbers ax = o. This assumption of zero
cavitation number makes it necessary to introduce correction factors
for finite cavitation numbers with respect to the lift to be generated
at each radius. O n the other hand, the finite cavitation number is

considered not to affect the optimum propeller diameter or optimum
rate of propeller revolutions. This, however, is not in accordance
with the Newton-Rader results, because from these it rather appears
that even for conditions where the supercavitating propeller design
method should be applicable (for instance 0,=oe25, ,J' < I-o), there
is still an influence of finite cavitation number on the optimum pro-
-
peller diameter for a given value of .\/Cp/J (Fig. 229).
Apart from that, it has been shown that a number of model
propellers designed on the basis of the Tachmindji-Morgan theory
did, in fact, not meet the required design conditions, neither in
respect to thrust nor efficiency. Therefore empirical modifications
Fig. 230
to this theory have been proposed by Venning-Haberman, which

incorporate such suggestions as to design for a 15 per cent higher
thrust loading coefficient than actually required. This makes it
quite clear that the problems involved in the design of supercavitat-
ing propellers are by no means solved.
So far only axial flow results obtained with methodical propeller
series have been discussed. But although in high-speed craft the
propeller operates usually in a fairly uniform flow field-as long as
the propeller tip clearance is reasonably large and the shaft brackets
are only under negligible angles of attack against the incoming flow
this condition is fulfilled-there are the phenomena associated with
inclined propeller shafts. These represent a problem which unfor-
tunately is not yet fully understood and by no means theoretically or
experimentally solved, certainly not for cavitating propellers.
On the basis of Fig. 230 the principle of inclined propeller inflow
conditions can be explained schematically. Although induced velo-
cities have not been taken into account, which, in fact, tends to over-
estimate the effects, it can be seen that for a right-hand propeller
blade in the 12 o'clock or 6 o'clock position the inflow velocity
component VAsin a, acts merely in radial direction, whereas it
virtually increases the rotational speed of the propeller blade in the
3 o'clock position and reduces it in the g o'clock position. This leads
to cyclic variations of the blade section advance angle, which are of
the order
sin 2 a, r. .-,
For a given shaft inclination as these variations are the more pro-
nounced the higher the advance coefficient A and A a has its largest
value at the root section of a propeller blade (x 1 0.2).
I t should also be noted that the local cavitation numbers cr, vary
between two extreme values, of which the lower and critical one is
associated with the highest blade section angle of attack (3 o'clock
position of the blade).
This clearly indicates the difficulties in designing non-cavitating
high-speed propellers, which due to their larger diameters as com-
pared with fully cavitating propellers usually have to operate under
higher shaft inclinations. Keeping also in mind that ibr a certain
design case the application of a non-cavitating propeller will always
be associated with a higher advance coefficient A than required for
a fully cavitating propeller, it will be understood that the influence
of fluctuations i n a n i l e of attack will be more pronounced in the
non-cavitating case, I n addition it should be pointed out that due
to the difference in lift curve slopes for nonLcavitating and fully
cavitating foils-the latter being about 114. of the fully wetted
case-the fluctuations in lift coefficient and hence the vibration-
exciting forces will be considerably less in fully cavitating
propellers.
- 1f a fully cavitating propeller is adopted from this point of view,
one has, of course, to make sure that face cavitation is avoided,
to which especially the hub-near blade sections are very liable in
the g o'clock position of a right-hand propeller blade. This can be
achieved by generating the required lift of the root sections by angle
of attack rather than camber.
For a non-cavitating propeller, in which all the blade sections
are usually designed to operate under shockfree entrance conditions
in axial flow and in which for this reason very small thickness-chord
ratios tx/c are normally chosen from the type of diagram in Fig. 207,
both face and back cavitation are likely to occur under inclined shaft
conditions. I n order to decide under these circumstances on the
optimum section configuration, it is necessary to know the optimum

thickness-chord ratio t/c for a certain local cavitation number OX.
This can be obtained from the type of diagram shown in Fig. 231,
where the cavitation-free range for a certain mean line and basic
thickness distribution is given, with the thickness-chord ratio as
parameter. It is possible to calculate this type of diagram by using
the approximation method described in the section on Two-dimen-
sional Theory of Wing Sections.
-
For the particular type of foil used in deriving Fig. 231 (a 1.0
N.A.C.A. mean line and elliptic-parabolic thickness distribution) it
CCNT
Fig. 231
can be seen that for a local cavitation number of a, =oe4 the maxi-
mum cavitation-free range of lift coefficients is obtainable with a
thickness-chord ratio of t/c =o.og. If therefore the thickness-chord
ratio had simply been chosen on the basis of a fairly high safety factor
against cavitation onset under shockfree entrance conditions in
axial flow, say oclit=o.6 a,, this would have resulted in a section
with a thickness-chord ratio of t/c=0.06, which has a reduced
cavitation-free range at ox=o.4. Thus a section with an increased
thickness-chord ratio can often be more advantageous in inclined
propeller flow.
Unfortunately, no methodical propeller series results are available
for inclined shaft conditions. The few experiments which have
actually been carried out show rather scattered results, especially

for reduced cavitation numbers. However, there does not seem to
be much doubt about a reduction in propeller efficiency on the in-
clined shaft (q,) as compared with the axial flow eficiency 7.
Therefore, further investigation into this problem is required
before one can make sufficiently reliable allowances for the influence
of shaft inclination. At the moment one can only say that for in-
clined flow the successful application of non-cavitating propellers
may well be restricted to higher cavitation numbers than indicated
by the upper line in Fig. 223.
Practical Aspects of Propeller Design

I n order to select suitable engines and, possibly, reduction gearboxes
for a certain project, it is necessary in the early design stages to make
investigations into the main propeller dimensions when only a
rough estimate of the displacement A and perhaps, at the most,
resistance calculations or model test results for the hull without
appendages (Pa) are available. At this stage the necessary total
engine power (PB,,,), to be installed in order to achieve a certain
ship speed V, is usually obtained by assuming an overall propulsive
coefficient OPC ( 4 1 ) ~the value of which can vary between 0.45
and 0.55, depending on the type of craft, its speed and size, the
appendage dimensions, etc., as well as the order of the achievable
propeller efficiency. I n order to estimate the overall propulsive
coefficient with reasonable accuracy, experience with a similar type
of craft is required, for which model resistance tests and trial results
have been systematically analysed.
Once a certain type and number of engines have been decided
upon one should critically investigate the test bed results (PB) as
to the order of losses associated with actually installing the engines
i n the ship. Such losses can be due to the ship's exhaust system, air
intakes, silencers and possibly directly driven auxiliaries as well as
ambient temperature and barometer. Allowing for these losses by
a n installation efficiency 71,~tand taking into account gearbox and
shaft losses ( 7 and
~ g,), it will be found that the actual power de-
livered at the propeller
PE
with VD=-- - propulsive efficiency
ZPD
z =number of shafts (equal power per propeller
assumed),
can easily be 10 per cent smaller than the one assessed under test
bed conditions. Still higher loss. percentages can occur if, for
instance, the ship is to operate in the tropics.
If the propeller is now selected for the estimated ship speed V
on the basis of power (PD)one should keep in mind that the achiev-
able propeller efficiency is not necessarily in accordance with the
assumed overall propulsive coefficient, the two being related to
each other by
where q o =axial (uniform flow) propeller efficiency as measured

in open water or in a cavitation tunnel
RT+d R
C, =--= model-ship correlation factor
RT
RT =total ship resistance, including appendages
AR =trial resistance allowance, depending on skin
friction correction method, hull roughness, measur-
ed mile course, wind and sea conditions during
trials, etc. (empirical allowance, in order to close
the correlation gap between model test technique
and full-scale trials, which can even be negative)
PE
q~ = -= appendage efficiency
PET
P E=~R T V=total effective power, including appendages

I -t
H - ---=hull efficiency
-1-W
T T - R T - AR
t= =thrust deduction fraction
TT
TT= total thrust of all propellers
V-VA
W= = Taylor wake fraction
v
37B = relative rotative efficiency
q~ =-
To
TV
A
V B =- =propeller efficiency behind the ship.
PD
However, in the early design stages no detailed information
about the various components of the overall propulsive coefficient will
be available and one has to rely on the assumed OPC-value.
354
Plate 30. Maybach M D . 655118 engine
Plate 3 I . Rover Gas Turbine 40-kw. generating set

Plate 32. Engine Room qj*"Ferocity" F.P.B.
Plate 33. Manned model evaluating "Ferocity" behaviour under

dynamically similar conditions
THE DESIGN OF s ~ R ' E W'PROPELLERS
-- *
The pro~eller~dimensions are therefore'selected for a given Z/CP/J-

br z/%-value, depending on whether tGe rate of propeller revolu-
tions is chosqri. in advance or the maximum possible propeller
diameter. At this stage zero ailo or
wake is usually assumed
(V =VA), which in view of the whole calculation being an approxi-
mation seems permissible in so far as high-speed craft are concerned
where the actual Taylor wake fraction seldom exceeds w = f 0.05.
In the case of smaller craft, where a set of propellers is not an
expensive item, trials with the completed boat will indicate whether
the propellers absorb the available engine power at ma,$imum'
engine revolutions and the predictid speed can be achieved. ' 1f
modifications are regarded as necessary, the trial results can be
used to give an idea of the relevant alterations.
However, for more expdnsive craft,where perhaps not only one
but several ships are under construction, it, might well pay to carry
out model self-propulsion tests, using propellers which are near
enough equal in pitch and diameter to'the ones selected in the first
estimate. These self-propulsion experiments together with ship
resistance tests at the final displacement as well as propeller open
water tests will provide all the information which is required to
break down the propulsive efficiency q~ and hence OPC into the
various components given in equation (42). I t is then permissible
to regard these components apart from 70 as not to be affected
by small modifications to the propeller dimensions and so select
the correct propeller for the particular speed for which equation
(42) will be fulfilled. Unfortunately, C co r r cannot be found with-
out relying on experience, but towing tank establishments can often
provide the necessary information, if the designer himself has not
analysed former trials in that respect.
I n order to give a general idea of the order of the various com-
ponents in equation (42) the results of model resistance and self-
propulsion tests as well as propeller open water tests obtained
for a medium-speed round-form craft are presented in the following :
V = 26-27 [knots] A = 96 [tons],
measured : q~ = 0.92 "/I=0.97 q0 = 0.65 q~ =0.96,
empirical : C o r r = I '05,
estimated : q s = 0.98 q~ = 0.96 q ~ n t s= 0.96.
~ A P P ~ H " / ~ ~ R ~ s ~ G ~ I ~ ~ ~
Hence: OPC = = 0.48.
Ccorr
Re-designing the propeller in' this case did in fact indicate that by
reducing the blade-area ratio to the "lowest possible limit from the
'
cavitation point ofi view and by small alterations to pitch and

diameter, an open water efficiency of q0=0.69 should just be

achievable for speeds in the range of V=z6-27 [knots] taking
the measured wake effect into account at this stage. Hence it was
regarded as possible to increase the overall propulsive coefficient to
0.69
OPC = 0.48 --0.51.
-
0.65
Whereas with the available engine power P B T and OPC =0.48 the
maximum performance would have been V=26 [knots], the in-
creased speed due to OPC = 0.5 I could now be expected to be of
the order of V = Z [knots],
~ the speed increase being, of course,
a function of the slope of the measured effective power curve for
the hull without appendages PE(V).
Self-propulsion test results as the ones given above should always
be handled with great care and a fair amount of criticism. It must,
for instance, be ensured that during the self-propulsion test the
model propeller has been running at sufficiently high Reynolds
numbers (39).
Self-propulsion tests with propellers which are expected to partly
or fully cavitate at full-scale conditions, are only of limited value,
since the cavitation number cannot be simulated in open water
model tests. The only information which can be obtained from
such tests is an approximate thrust curve, to which, however, the
measured propeller power and the rate of propeller revolutions bear
no direct relationship and therefore have to be assessed on the basis
of separate cavitation tunnel experiments.
One should generally be aware of the fact that although the overall
propulsive coefficient can be found by means of self-propulsion tests
fairly accurately if the correlation factor is known, the measured
propeller rate of revolutions will not represent exactly what has to
be expected under full-scale conditions with the same propeller.
This is due to various scale effects, of which the influence of propeller
Reynolds number is only one. These scale effects will mainly result
in an increase of the propeller revolutions under full-scale conditions.
As regards the vital question concerning the ship loading condition
for which the propellers should be designed, the answer depends
to a large extent on the type of main propulsion machinery. In
this connection the advantage of a gas turbine installation of the
free power turbine type over a conventional internal combustion
engine has been pointed out in Chapter XXIII (see also Fig. 240).
For the reasons already mentioned there, one should not choose a
too low displacement for the propeller design in the case of diesel
or petrol engines, at least the 2-fuel-and-water condition. This,
of course, means a speed penalty due to limitations in engine revo-
lutions at lightly loaded conditions. However, especially in case of
THE DBBT;GN OF SCREW PROPELLERS
naval craft where the variable load can be of the order of 20 .. .

30
per cent of the total weight, the reduction in ship speed at full load
can be disastrous, if the engines are locked up due to propellers
which are designed for a too light displacement. These problems
will, of course, be exaggerated if the ship's bottom shows fouling at
the end of long service periods.
Examples
The following two examples of selecting the main propeller dimen-
sions have been chosen for two reasons:
(a) T o show the effect of blade-area ratio and reduction gear
ratio in case of a non-cavitating propeller and
(b) To outline a few practical aspects which should govern
the design of fully cavitating propellers for conditions
,
where the Tachmindji-Morgan theory is not applicable.

Both examples refer to actual project stage investigations, but
should by no means be regarded as comprehensive. They are based
Qn speed assumptions which make use of estimated overall propulsive
coefficients, existing effective power curves PE(V) and the cata-
logue details for the main machinery. I n both cases the number of
propeller blades has been chosen to be Z =3, rather than carrying
out investigations into the effect of optimum conditions, mainly
because of the lack of methodical series results for high-speed pro-
pellers with number of blades other than Z = 3.
I n the examples propeller design data are used with the following
dimensions :
VA [knots]
P [h.p.] (representing PD)

T [tons]
Q [lb. sec. 2/ft.4] ( Q = I .988 will be used throughout as
seawater density).
I t was therefore thought to be useful to modify the non-dimensional
coefficients (31) to (35) in such a way that the above dimensional
quantities can be substituted directly:
P
CP=2-g13 x 10.2
QVA~D (334
Example ( a ) ' Twin Screw Cruiser ", A = g [tons].

With
Pn, = 2 x 196 =392 [h.p.] and OPC = 0.52 (estimated)
follows from (41) :
PB= 204 [h.p.].
For a calculated 1.c.g. position of 41 per cent the speed prediction
for A = g [tons] is obtained from the corresponding effective power
curve based on model test results with the bare hull:
V = 24 [knots].
Assuming zero Taylor wake the optimum diameter can be found
on the basis of the Gawn series.
For direct drive, i.e.
n = 2,800 [r.p.m.]
and
VIns t q s= 0.96 (estimated),
it follows from (43) :
From Fig. 229 the optimum diameter can now be calculated for
various blade-area ratios using (3I a) :
1.013 x 102x 24
A=/Ao=0*65 J=oa717 D= z 1'21 [ft.]
2800 x J
In order to establish the necessary blade area for which cavitation

does not significantly affect propeller thrust and torque it is neces-
358
sary to use the Gawn-Burrill results (Figs, 220 to 222), Taking the
diameter as
D = 1-18 [ft.]
it follows from (35a) and (3~ a: )
1.013 x 102 x 24
and = 0.736.
J= 2800~1.18
The propeller cavitation number for VA=24 [knots] can be read
off Fig. 218:
OOC!1.3,
Plotting the propeller design condition (KQ,J) in Fig. 2 2 I (b) to (d)

and interpolating between the cavitation numbers oo= 1.5 and 1.0
it can be seen that a blade-area ratio of about
is required, if the influence of cavitation number on torque is to

be less than 5 per cent. A still further increase in blade area would
reduce this torque loss slightly more, but the fact that with
AE/Ao=oe9 the design condition of the propeller is on the right
of the K Q - h ~ mfor
p 0,= I a5 and I .o can be regarded as sufficient.
For the evaluated blade-area ratio of Aa/Ao = 0.9 and D = I I 8
[ft.] the pitch-diameter ratio and efficiency can now be interpolated
from Fig. 2 I g (c) and (d) :
P/D = I .04 and 7, = 0.63.
Checking finally whether with a propeller efficiency of 7, =0.63

it is likely that an overall propulsive coefficient OPC=o.52 (as
estimated) can be achieved and assuming therefore on the basis of
experience :
it follows from (42) :

ob94x 0.98 x 0.63 x 0.98---
x 0.96 -
OPC = - 0.52.
I -05
This should, of course, be taken for no more than a rough approxi-

mation. O n the other hand the assumed figures will certainly
represent the order of the various efficiencies. I t will be noted that
the estimated efficiencies are fairly high, which is mainly due to the
very light appendages and the small shaft angle in case of the direct
drive configuration.
The question whether for this design condition a Gawn propeller
can actually be used from the strength point of view without modi~
fication to the section thicknesses depends, of course, on the chosen
material and should be checked by a strength calculation.
Based on circulation theory, an investigation into the possibility
of reducing the blade-area ratio by using blade sections which are
more favourable from the cavitation point of view than segmental
ones will now be carried out for the equivalent radius x=0°7.
In order to simplify this calculation it is based on thrust rather
than power. As explained in the section on circulation theory this
is because of the more rapid converging of the trial and error method
involved. Only final results will be given below. But these have
in fact been obtained by repeating the calculation only once.
Under the assumption of a propeller efficiency
and with a power loading coefficient based on the above propeller

design condition, taking the diameter as D = 1-18 [ft.], one obtains
a thrust loading coefficient (32a) with (38) and (33a)
The non-dimensional advance coefficient (I o) becomes with (3 I)

and (3 ~ a )
With an estimated equivalent drag-lift ratio according to (2 6)
and an estimated induced efficiency (18)
the induced thrust loading coefficient (27) will be
taking according to (18)
Checking this calculation as to the right assumption regarding qi

by means of the Rramer diagram (Fig. 2 14), the necessary agree-
ment will be found.
4
For A i and Z the blade-element efficiency (26) can be read off

Fig. 216:
If it could now be shown that at the equivalent blade section at

x = 0.7 a drag-lift ratio
E 0 - 7 = 0.065
can be achieved without cavitation onset, the expected propeller

efficiency will be of the order
which is in accordance with the result obtained from the Gawn

series.
I n order to calculate the equivalent drag-lift ratio the character-
istic product (29) has to be determined for x=0°7. With (18) and
Fig. 2 I 3 it follows for x = 0.7 :
sin &=o.412 tan (pi - p ) =tan 5' 50' =o*1022
hence
For the radial thickness distribution of the Gawn series propellers

it can be shown that
t0.,/D=o*o187.
Assuming the same thickness in this case it follows :
The local cavitation number (30) can be approximated by
Gx " patm
-
- patm
-- --
Go
x x2 '
(V*~+X~R%O~)
2 2 I +%
hence for the equivalent blade section
Using for this investigation a N.A.C.A. 16 section with the a = I .o

mean line (Fig. 207) and applying a safety factor against cavitation
onset of 10 per cent, i.e, entering the cavitation onset chart with
ocrit = o.ga0.,= ooI I 7 , a thickness-chord ratio of
is required for the criterion of cavitation onset under shockfree

entrance conditions.
Having decided on the thickness-chord ratio the lift coefficient
can be calculated from the characteristic product:
With a drag coefficient for shockfree entrance ( I 5)
CD= 0.008,
it follows with (17)
-E r E0.7 =--------
0.008
2 0.065.
0'122
For usual blade outlines of non-optimum propellers with uni-

formly distributed safety factors against cavitation onset it can be
shown that for a chord length at x =oo7of
a three-bladed propeller will have a blade-area ratio of about
The above calculation has confirmed that an efficiency of ~ = 0 . 6 3

can just be achieved. On the other hand it has been shown that
the propeller is very liable to cavitate, for which reason it may be
advantageous to use blade sections which are cambered for shock-
free entrance conditions, rather than the segmental type. The
marginal working condition of this propeller from the cavitation
point of view can also be seen by plotting the design point in Fig.
223, where it will be found that the propeller operates fairly close
to the upper curve determining the region where cavitation can no
longer be avoided.
I n view of the fact that under inclined shaft conditions this pro-
peller is likely to cavitate, it might be worth while considering the
use of a reduction gear, which will briefly be discussed in the
following.
I n the case of reducing the maximum rate of propeller revolutions
alternatively 2 : I or 3: I, it can be seen that-assuming for the
reason of simplicity an unchanged maximum performance of the
362
craft and no further mechanical transmission losses-the quantity

qG/~
will only be or 113 of the one for direct drive. Carrying
112
out the same investigations as in the case of the direct drive, i.e.
selecting the optimum diameter for various blade-area ratios and
determining the necessary blade-area ratio from the cavitation
point of view, the following results will be found:
n = I ,400 [r.p.m.] D = I *75[ft.] AE/Ao= 0.65 q = 0.72
933 2-24 0.50 0'77
These figures show the tremendous increase in axial flow propeller

efficiency due to reducing the rate of propeller revolutions and,
although a gearbox will increase the weight of the boat (increase
in PE), there will certainly be an increase in overall propulsive co-
efficient, which might balance this out with respect to maximum
performance. However, assessing the actual shaft inclination, re-
quired to keep a reasonable propeller tip clearance of half a pro-
peller radius for the same engine position, and determining the
quantity d a at x =oqa, which is a measure of the variation of
the blade section inflow angle near the propeller hub, the following
results have been found :
n = 2,800 [r.p.m.] as = 8 [deg.] A a = g [deg.]
1,400 II I6
933 I3 21
These figures give an indication of the problems connected with
the use of large, low rotational speed propellers, and whether it
will be possible to avoid root cavitation can only be determined by
means of experiments.
Furthermore there will also be a reduction in p, the propeller
eificiency behind the ship, in case of high shaft inclinations. Where
in this case the best solution of the design problem can be found
is difficult to say, probably in using a reduction gear ratio of about
1.5: I. On the other hand such aspects as costs, maintenance,
space and general layout of the craft might well favour a final
decision towards the direct drive system.
Example (6) "Fast Patrol Boat ", A = 75 [tons].

With
P B=~2 x 3,800 = 7,600 [h.p.] and OPC = 0.48 (estimated)
follows from (4I ) :
PE = 3,650 [h.p.],
363
For a calculated 1.c.g. position of 38.5 per cent the speed prediction
for A =75 [tons] is obtained from the corresponding effective
power curve based on model test results with the bare hull:
V =48 [knots].
For a given rate of propeller revolutions
it is intended to use a Newton-Rader type of propeller, for which

from the strength point of view a blade-area ratio of
has been envisaged.

Estimating the installation and mechanical losses with
q1ns ~ ~ G =0'92,
V S
it follows :
PD= 3,800 x 0.92 = 3,500 [h.p.].
I n order to determine the propeller dimensions on the basis of
Fig. 226, it is necessary to assume certain propeller diameters and
calculate K Q (35a) and J (3I a) :
Plotting the propeller design condition (KQ, J) in Fig. 226(b) and

drawing a faired curve through the spots, this curve will intersect
with the KQ-curvesfor a. = 0.3, which according to Fig. 218 cor-
responds to VA=48 [knots]. Transferring the intersections into
Fig. 226(c) at the corresponding J- and P/D-values the following
efficiencies can be read off:
Contrary to the case of designing non-cavitating propellers it is

necessary to select a fully cavitating propeller to operate on the left
of the KQ-humps in Fig. 226(b). This is to achieve a cavitation
pattern which keeps the suction side of the propeller blade as "dry"
as possible and also ensures that the propeller works at sufficiently
high blade section angles of attack to reduce the danger of face
cavitation under inclined shaft conditions. These aspects should
govern the selection of a fully cavitating propeller rather than the
demand for the best possible efficiency. From Fig. 226(b) it appears
that the demands for both, a good efficiency and a suitable cavita-
tion pattern, will be satisfactorily solved by choosing a pitch-diameter
ratio of
P/D = I '249 (Q = 0.65).
The final propeller dimensions will therefore be
P =45 [in.] and D = 36 [in.]
The design condition of this propeller in axial flow is demonstrated

by Fig. 232 (the photograph was taken during cavitation tests in the
Vosper Cavitation Tunnel), from which it can be seen that the
suction side cavity is extending well beyond the propeller trailing
edge covering almost the whole area of the blade.
Regarding the effect of shaft inclination there is still a fair amount
of uncertainty as to whether this will have any considerable influence
on the propeller characteristics in the case of this high rotational
Fig. 232
365
speed propeller, where the propeller diameter has been kept fairly
small, resulting in shaft angles of the order
cc,< 10 [deg.].
Plotting the design condition of this propeller in Fig. 2 2 3 it will
almost coincide with the lower border line of the region, where the
application of the Tachmindji-Morgan theory seems to be no longer
suitable. On the other hand, designing this propeller to be non-
cavitating in axial flow, an advance ratio of at least
J=1.5
would be required, as can be seen from Fig. 223. This together with
an optimum torque coefficient (Fig. 219(d)) of about
Ks=o*06
will lead to roughly the following propeller dimensions and rate of
revolutions :
D = 4.0 [ft.] n = 800 [r.p.m.] P/D - 1.8.
These figures show the expected result that, apart from the dis-
advantage of requiring a much heavier reduction gear, heavier and
more resistful appendages, etc., there is no chance to achieve a
cavitation-free propeller operation, due to the high advance ratio
and the increased shaft inclination, as demonstrated in example (a).
With these two examples an attempt has been made to give an
indication of a few problems which have to be faced in the design
of high-speed craft propellers, However, by far the most difficult
problem remains the estimate of the actual running conditions so
far as delivered power, displacement, resistance and speed are
concerned in the finished craft. Unless the propeller designer has a
reasonably accurate forecast of the above, particularly speed, he
will be faced with an accumulation of factors which can lead him
quite far astray so far as the resulting propeller suitability is
concerned. [C.K.]
CHAPTER XXI
SPEED TRIALS
THEVALUE of carefully conducted speed trials to the designer of

high-speed craft cannot be emphasised too strongly. Apart from the
necessity of satisfying the owner, whether private or Service, that his
requirements have been successfully met, such trials enable the
designer to accumulate much data which will be of considerable
assistance in the preparation of other designs and may even lead him
to improve the performance of the craft under test. In cases where
the performance has been predicted from model experiments, these
trials enable the allowances necessary when scaling up from model to
full size to be checked and perhaps modified.
I t is important that the utmost care should be taken to ensure that
the trials are conducted under the most favourable conditions, and
the speed, propeller r.p.m. and engine power, etc., are accurately
measured. The craft should have the correct trim and displacement,
and if not fully completed or carrying full crew, ballast should be
used for compensation. The bottom of the craft should be clean, any
fouling being removed if the craft has been afloat for any length of
time without being slipped, since the speed is generally predicted
for clean-bottom conditions. Fuel tanks should be sounded before
and after the trials to enable fuel consumption to be checked. Ideally,
the propeller thrust and torque on the propeller shaft should be
measured by suitable dynamometers during the trials, but such
arrangements are not practicable with the limited space available
in small high-speed craft. Wherever possible the engines should be
brake-tested over a range of powers, with varying amounts of boost,
so that the characteristics of the engine, that is, the b.h.p. at any
r.p.m., may be accurately determined for any given set of conditions.
If not already installed, reliable tachometers should be coupled to
each propeller shaft for the trials.
The remaining quantity to be measured is the speed attained by
the craft for any set r.p.m. It is seldom that sufficiently reliable
measurements can be made by using a log, if fitted; rather the
opportunity should be taken to calibrate the log from the trials. The
most general method adopted is to time the craft over one of the
measured miles around the coast and deduce the speed from these
measurements. If a measured mile course is not readily accessible
the craft can be timed between any local prominent landmarks.
Whichever method is adopted, however, the procedure is exactly
the same.
Measured miles are sited at suitable positions around the coast

where there is adequate depth of water reasonably close inshore.
It is important, particularly for trials at high speeds, for the depth
of water to be sufficient to ensure that the resistance of the craft is
not affected to any appreciable extent. A rough rule in common use
is that the minimum depth of water necessary to avoid any influence
on resistance should be at least 2 0 times the draught of the vessel.
The course should be close enough inshore to enable the mile posts
to be seen without difficulty. I t is important to remember that
geographical features sometimes necessitate the mile posts being
fixed at distances greater or less than the mile; the correct spacing can
be readily obtained from lists of measured miles. Some measured
miles are not available for high-speed craft trials because of the wash
which is set up on local beaches. The fixed course is usually marked by
buoys so that the boat can be run perpendicular to the line of sight
of the mile posts. The mile posts are arranged in pairs such as A B
and C D (see Fig. 233) in prominent positions, and the times are taken
< MEASURED'+
MILE
H
Fig. 233
when each pair of posts are in line when viewed from the craft, as
shown. A fine, calm day should be chosen for the trials, since planing
forms are particularly sensitive to sea conditions, and if a fairly
heavy swell is running the reduction in speed of the boat may be
considerable. Wind resistance also assumes importance a t high
speed, so that trials carried out in a fairly high wind may produce
less favourable results than those obtained under calmer conditions.
Pairs of runs are made over the measured mile course in opposite
directions. The first stage of a run is the approach which is started
at a point E on the fixed course sufficient distance from the measured
mile to enable steady conditions and speed to be attained. This
distance is usually of the order of two miles. I t is preferable for two
observers to time the craft over the mile, and as soon as the first two
368
SPEED TRIALS
posts are seen to be in line the stop watches are started; similarly
on passing the final pair in line the stop watches are stopped to give
the time on the mile. As soon as the end posts are passed the craft
is turned off course following the path GH, for the run in the opposite
direction at the same power and r.p.m. The craft is then turned on
to the course a t K, again at a similar distance from the mile in the
opposite direction to the previous run, and timed as before.
I t is important to make at least one run in each direction to allow
for the effect of any tide which may be running. For example, if the
tide was running in the direction F to G during the trials, speeds
deduced from runs over the mile in the direction F to G would give
higher speeds than the actual speed of the craft through the water,
whilst runs in the opposite direction G to F would give lower speeds.
By taking the mean of speeds over the mile in the two directions a
close approximation to the speed of the craft through the water is
obtained. It should be noted that only the mean of speeds should be
taken; it is not correct to mean the times for the run in each direction
and use this figure to deduce the mean speed. At speeds near the
maximum it is general practice to make two runs in each direction
in view ofthe much shorter time on the mile itself, which at 30 knots
is about two minutes, leading to possible inaccuracies in the measure-
ment of the times.
During the runs over the mile the use of helm should be kept to a
minimum consistent with maintaining a reasonably straight course.
A few degrees of rudder, either to port or to starboard, may add
appreciably to the resistance, particularly a t top speeds, and detract
from the performance of the craft.
More elaborate methods must be adopted, of course, for measur-
ing attempts on speed records, although the principles are similar.
For obvious reasons the craft is timed from the shore, using apparatus
which eliminates the human factor as much as possible; a tenth of
a second error in timing may well lead to a &knot error in speed.
As is well known, it is necessary for the craft to make a run in each
direction over the course, and although primarily to allow for the
effect of tide and wind, if any, it is further a severe test of skill in
handling and of engine performance. This latter point is apt to be
overlooked by the layman in the burst of publicity which inevitably
follows the breaking of a speed record, but it should be remembered
that for such trials the engine is working to the very limit of its
capacity with low factors of safety in many highly stressed
components; and should there be the slightest flaw in any one part
it is unlikely that the engine would survive more than one all-out
run over the course. The fact that the engines do withstand such
severe tests, which may involve many trial runs, is a tribute to the
skill of their designers.
The analysis of the speed-trial results is undoubtedly as important

as the trials themselves. The more detailed the analysis can be made,
the more useful are the final results likely to prove to the designer.
I n the first instance the trials will indicate whether the trim adopted
is that likely to lead to the highest speed. The effect of changes of
trim from the design trim can be investigated during the speed trials
by suitable movement of any ballast carried. Such changes in trim
may produce significant changes in speed, since planing forms are
particularly sensitive to changes of trim. Furthermore, the general
behaviour of the craft among waves can be observed and any
excessive working of the structure should be carefulLy considered
with a view to strengthening, if necessary. Any undue vibration
should be investigated and the final cure may necessitate changing
the number of blades on the propeller.
Turning now to the measurements taken, the following analysis
is suggested as affording a ready means of assessing the performance
of the craft.
At each speed the following quantities are determined:
(I) e.h.p. from model experiments, or from suitable coefficients,
with appendages.
(2) b.h.p, from engine brake test and r.p.m. on trial.
e.h.p.
(3) Thrust developed by propeller, from Tc=
Speed
-
'
(4) Thrust, T,, of the propeller under non-cavitating conditions,
estimated from the KTcurves of Gawn's 20-in. Methodical
Series given in Fig. 219 (a), (b), (c) and (d) for the J
values calculated from the observed r.p.m. and speeds, and
the known propeller dimensions.
(5) The propeller efficiency, rj, from the propeller diagrams as
in (4)
From these the propulsive coefficient - e.h.p.
b.h.p.
, the thrust cavita-
TN the pressure coefficient =Propeller thrust (T,) and
tion factor =-,
Tc Blade area
Propulsive coefficient
the quasi-propulsive coefficient factor = can be
Screw efficiency
calculated.
These results are then plotted to a base of speed as shown in
Fig. 234. If the propeller is not suffering any loss of thrust due to
cavitation, then the curve of
TN is
- practically a horizontal
To
straight line, having a value approximately equal to unity. Thrust loss
SPEED TRIALS
PROPULSIVE COEFFICIENT
PRESSURE
(q)
I
SCREW EFFICIENCY
'NIT= COEFFICIENT
Q.P.C. FACTOR
1.5 I- 0.6
TONS
SQ.FT
0
10 15 20 25 30 35
SPEED (KNOTS)
Fig. 234
T N
due to cavitation is indicated by an upward trend in the -
Ta'
such a s in Fig. 234 at speeds above about 23 knots.
If trials results for a similar craft are available comparison of the
results can be made on the basis of the above diagram. Any large
difference between, say, the propulsive coefficients or the factors
TN
should be investigated further to enable suitable improve-
To
ments to be effected if required.
I t is important to appreciate that for most high-speed craft, par-
ticularly those of hard-chine form, it is essential to run in calm
conditions otherwise up to 10 per cent or more in speed is lost due
to the effect of waves. This is understandable if the energy dissi-
pation involved in pitching in a head sea is considered. The enor-
mous generation of spray shot out from the chines is a measure of the
lost power.
I t is also most important to realise that to be any good a speed
trial must be carried out at a known power. This is by no means
always easy to establish, especially where no supercharger or csm-
pressor pressure is known. A naturally aspirated engine will normally
only be calibrated against a full-throttle, full-power curve plotted
against revs. Unless the throttle is wide open the power will not be
known. [K.H.W.T.]
CHAPTER XXII
CONTROLLABLE PITCH PROPELLERS
A CONTROLLABLE PITCH propeller may sometimes be a good aid in

obtaining an effective propulsion unit for a high-speed small craft.
The interest in a CPP in this connection has been increased as the
use of gas turbine drive now is more frequently being considered.
However, until today their use has been very limited, and to the
author's knowledge only the KaMeWa CPP has been used to some
extent on such craft.
Today there are in all about 12 high-speed small craft propelled
by KaMeWa CPP where the horsepower per shaft is ranging from
1,200 to 4,000, and the displacement of the boats varies from 15
to 180 tons, all with speeds around or above 40 knots. (Fig. 235.)
I t is possible to distinguish some special cases where the CPP is
of interest :
(I) On gas turbine-driven boats where it comes in mostly as
a reversing feature.
(2) On boats with combined machinery, for example, diesel
plus gas turbine, where it facilitates the use of the diesel
only at cruising speed through adapting the pitch.
Fig. 235:-KaMe Wa Propellersjtted to tr@e screw boat showing:

Starboard in approx. feathered position;
Centre in approx, a r o Pitch position;
Port in designed normal pitch position
3 72
O n boats with three or four shafts where only one or more

shafts are driven under cruising conditions and whereby
the CPP through its ability to adjust the pitch to fully
feathered condition will reduce the drag of the propelIers
which are not working.
With supercharged diesel engines where the engine limit
curve is steep in terms of horsepower versus shaft speed.
For such engines the CPP will allow full power absorption
at all load and hull resistance conditions.
Typical Design
CPPs have been described in various papers during recent years.
There are many types in existence, most of them having a rod in
the hollow bored shaft for transferring the force to adjust the blades.
LECTRIC .CONTROL LINE

-PITCH COMBINATOR
Fig. 236:-CPP with V-drive gearbox
The KaMeWa CPP for high-speed small craft has a hydraulic

servo-motor in the propeller hub to turn the blades. To keep the
boss diameter down, this servo-motor has two opposed pistons. The
control apparatus to guide the hydraulic oil into the shaft line is
placed either on an intermediate shaft or on the free shaft end in a
gearbox. This latter arrangement gives a somewhat smaller weight.
Oil pressure is supplied either by shaft-driven or electric pumps
(Fig. 236).
Remote Control and Combination of Pitch and Engine Speed

Setting
The practice has developed of having bridge control of the main
propulsion units on high-speed small craft. This is perhaps still
more wanted in connection with CPPs. In the case of diesel engines
this gives no problem as the diesel can easily be fitted with a speed
3 73
governor that maintains a given speed setting even when the pitch
is changed. Therefore, when using a speed governor there will be
no danger of overspeeding the diesel as a result of a sudden reduction
of pitch setting. There are many systems of combining engine speed
and pitch setting so as to obtain best economy, so this will not be
described in detail here.
When a so-called free power turbine is used together with a CPP
some precaution must be taken against overspeed of the turbine
at a sudden reduction of pitch. This can, for example, be made in
such a way that the throttle position of the turbine is mechanically
connected to the pitch setting so that the throttle position cannot be
increased above idling position unless the pitch has a certain limit
value, for example minimum design pitch ahead or astern. A
similar arrangement is used in the rare cases where the main engine
is a petrol engine.
For transferring the signals from the bridge down to the control
apparatus on the shaft line and to the engine, mechanical, pneu-
matic, hydraulic or electric control lines can be used. The author
has found it difficult to use pneumatic or hydraulic remote control
systems on small craft. A mechanical system, for example, consisting
of teleflex cables and links, etc., is inexpensive but not so light and
puts a big premium on skill and care in the installation work itself.
An electric system consisting of Selsyn motors is light, occupies a
small space and has less requirements for installation but is con-
siderably more costly than the mechanical system.
Weights of CPP Equipments including Oil and Control System

Table I shows typical dimensions and weights of CP propeller equip-
ments of sizes of interest for small craft.
TABLE I
Propeller Weight of complete equipment
Diameter incl. pumps, oil, remote Shaft
mm. control* but excluding shafts weightlmetre
600 I95 kg 16.5 kg
800 335 9 , 31 ,,
1000 460 2 , 42 >,
1200 685 ,, 58 2,
I 400 995 3 , 79 2,
I 600 1485 3 , 160 ,,
*Control apparatus on free shaft end.
Cavitation Test Results

(a) To determine the propulsion characteristics of the CPP through-
out the speed range it is necessary to conduct cavitation tests at
3 74
different pitch ratios and cavitation numbers. During recent years

great efforts have been made to develop supercavitating blade
designs also for CP propellers. Figs. 237 (a), (b), (c), (d) and (e)
show some of the results obtained in the Kristinehamn Cavitation
Tunnel with a supercavitating model at different adjusted pitch
ratios. Fig. 237 refers to model No. 375-B(b) with BAR 0.501,
designed pitch ratio P/D 1.063, number of blades 3, boss ratio d/D
0.281. The model has been tested at various adjusted pitch ratios,
namely P/D 0.9, 1.1, 1'3, I -5 and 1.7. This model is one in a
series of models comprising three different BAR and three maximum
face camber values per BAR. The models have sharp trailing edges
at the outer parts of the blades to avoid high profile drag at low
speed (non-cavitating condition). The tests are carried out down
to as low J-values as possible to enable the designer to calculate
the performance when, for instance, a three- or four-propeller craft
is propelled by only one or two propellers at full power and r.p.m.
(b) I n connection with propulsion with reduced number of pro-
pellers for a multi-screw craft it is necessary to determine the drag
Fig* 237 ( 0 )
Figs. 237 (a), ( b ) , (c), ( d ) and (e):-Results obtained in fiistinehamn
Cavitation Tunnel with a fully cauitating model at dzyerent adjusted
pitch ratios
375
of water-milling and feathered propellers. An example of a drag

calculation based upon model propeller tests is shown in Fig. 238.
The advantages with a feathered propeller are clear from this figure.
The drag coefficients for an SC CPP with BAR=o.60, Z = 3 and
initial (design) P/D = I -03 are as follows in the feathered position :
TABLE 2
Drag
K P o=
el)a2D
CONTROLLABLE PITCH: PROPELLERS
(c) The CP propellers will have a hub ratio in the region of 0.30
for normal cases. Corresponding FP propellers may have a hub
ratio from 0.15 to 0.25 depending upon blade design. The increase
in hub ratio with CPP cornpared to FPP will, according to an
investigation made at Vosper Ltd. (Report No. I o6), not influence
the propeller efficiency as apart from overall propulsive efficiency.
I n this report test results with a CPP, BAR =o-pj, d/D =0*28, was
compared with the systematic series published by Newton and
Rader, Trans. R.I.N.A., 1960. To the extent that a CPP necessitates
increased dimensions of brackets and shafts, this will add to the
appendage drag, but this effect will not be too great. The effect
is to reduce fractionally the overall propulsive coefficient.
379
Assuming, therefore, the same efficiency with CPP as with FPP

the advantages of CPP in connection with supercharged diesels is
shown in Fig. 239. When the craft is operating in the light con-
dition, increased pitch is required to absorb full power and vice-
versa at loads higher than design conditions. I n the example
shown the speed gain at a resistance which is 10 per cent higher
than design is about 6 per cent with CPP compared FPP. At 10
per cent lower resistan& than normal, 4 per cent speed is gained
with CPP.
(d) I n the range between 30 and 40 knots it may be difficult to
find whether one of the non-cavitating type or one of the fully
cavitating type of propeller is best. I n the horizontal flow the wide-
380
bladed, non-cavitating type may show best results in model testing.

However, this type will lose considerably in overall efficiency due to
an inclined shaft Hnd associated appendages. Therefore, the propeller
with sections of the supercavitating type and blade area ratio not
higher than 65-70 per cent will probably be best on an inclined
shaft even at as low a speed as 35 knots, although it will only be
partly cavitating, in which case the effect of erosion must be con-
sidered. I n the range between 30 and 35 knots it is more doubtful
if a propeller with sections of the supercavitating type will be
advantageous, and other considerations may influence the choice
of propeller type, for example, requirements for noiseless operation
at lower ship speed.
381
RPM
Resistance and RPM
2000'
of a trailing-propeller
V=32 knots
D= 1,10 m
I
Rp( kg)
Fig. 238
Selection of Main Dimensions

To get a better idea of the application of an SC CPP propeller, let
us calculate suitable propeller data for the following condition:
b.h.p. = 3,000
-
per shaft (4 shafts assumed)
r.p.m. = 1,800
d.h.p. =2,g40 (d.h.p. metric=2,980)
V =45 knots
w = o (wake, definition see page 354)
v a = q a r 5m/s
p - e = I I ,000 kg./m2=static pressure at propeller centre-
vapour pressure.
This gives a cavitation number o o =-P

po-e 0.393.
e l 2 Ua
I t is found that the full scale cavitation number should be slightly
382
Fig. 239:-High-speed craft with supercharged diesels. Comparison of max.

speed between CPP and FPP at dzfirent displacements.
reduced when predicting performance from model cavitation tests.

If a correlation factor of 0.95 is (somewhat tentatively) assumed
in this case, the model tests diagrams should be entered with a
0,= 0.95 X 0'393 =0.37~$.
With the d.h.p., r.p.m. and v , given and the diameter unknown,
0-0I 263
Ke=
D6
, and J =O=. D Thus K Q=o-0461J 6 is determined,
and this parabola should be plotted in the K a -J diagrams in Fig.
237. By reading J and q p at the intersection between the parabola
and the KQ-curves for the different pitch ratios at the correct 0,
the following values are obtained:
TABLE 3
The optimum propeller has :

D =0.935 rn
P/D = 1'15
q p=0.615 [L.P.]
383
CHAPTER XXIII
INFLUENCE OF MACHINERY TYPES O N

PROPELLER DESIGN
THISIS A SPECIAL aspect of propeller design which is applicable

mainly to high-lspeed craft when propelled by high-speed diesel
engines, or for that matter petrol engines-in other words piston
engines as opposed to turbines. No apology is made for emphasising
this fact, because it occurs time and again and can and does cause
serious embarrassment. The general pattern is as follows:
Maximum speed is required from a given hull form with stipulated
machinery. By the methods described here and elsewhere a speed
prediction is made. If, for instance, it is required to obtain the
maximum possible speed this will be obtainable under optimum
hull conditions, that is to say lightest possible loading and clean
bottom. For maximum delivered power the propeller should be
designed to absorb the full offered power under the above con-
ditions.
However, it has to be realised that if a propeller is designed to
suit these conditions such that full power is absorbed in the optimum
(light) condition so far as engine and hull are concerned, then at
any other condition there will be trouble due to overloading of
the machinery. As soon as the ship becomes somewhat heavier due,
for instance, to carrying a full or even a half load of fuel, or if the
bottom becomes foul, then the machinery will become overloaded
and overheat. To make matters worse this is not overcome by
reducing power, because, unfortunately, the hull requirements curve
runs down parallel to the engine maximum output curve against
revolutions.
This state of affairs is more or less the same whether the hull is
of the fast round form or of the planing type. In the latter case
matters are somewhat aggravated by a "hump " condition at inter-
mediate speeds which results in the fact that to pass through this
range the propeller has to be designed with torque-absorbing quali-
ties so as not to overload the engines in this range. Due, therefore,
to the fact that the curve of resistance against revs. or speed above
this critical range flattens out, there will be a tendency for the pro-
peller to under-absorb power at the high-speed end of the curve.
As revolutions are limited in any case by engine considerations this
results in the fact that at top speed (and revs,) the engines will
not be able to develop their full power. An attempt has been made
to show this phenomenon in Fig. 240.
384
INFLUENCE OF MACHINERY TYPES ON PROPELLER DESIGN
The same applies also to the case where, for instance, the craft is
designed to operate in the tropics. Here, if it is desired to obtain
fullest possible speed in temperate climates by absorbing full horse-
power at maximum revs., then we shall find that on the station in
the tropics the engines will be overheating all the way up the scale
from, say, $ power. This is because the hull requirements curve
DESIGN POINT 'A

DESIGN POINT '0' -- -- -
SHIP SPEED
Fig. 240:-Typical diagram showing advantage of gas

turbines over diesel engines
is of the same character as the propeller absorption curve corres-

ponding roughly to a cube law.
Therefore, to be certain of running the machinery at a satis-
factory loading and to avoid overheating it is essential to design the
propeller initially for the worst condition of loading and heat, and
also for bottom roughness condition, despite the resultant waste of
power in good conditions.
This state of affairs is by no means always appreciated at the
design stage. What frequently occurs is that to obtain a good result
on trials a builder will fit a propeller designed for optimum condi-
tions of loading (i.e. light). Thereafter, when load increases the
speed is dramatically reduced. Eventually a propeller capable of
dealing with the realistic situation has to be designed, but a potential
loss of full-speed performance amounting to four or five knots can
as likely as not be the result.
All of this applies to the diesel engine or petrol machinery in
conjunction with a fixed pitch propeller. With a controllable pitch
propeller most of this trouble is avoided subject only to the propeller
being comparatively efficient.
385
However, the gas turbine of the free power turbine type is the ideal
unit for dealing with this situation. It is mechanically free from the
gas generator (consisting of compressor(s) and combustion chambers)
and from the point of view of torque can adapt itself to the output
requirements, in this case the propeller, Comparatively little effi-
ciency is lost by operating on overload conditions so that it is possible
to design the propeller for any desired optimum-even light con-
dition.
I t is for all the above reasons-which are fundamental when
considering optimum performance in the case of high-speed craft-
that the use of gas turbines and/or controllable pitch propellers are
recommended. [P.D.C.]
CHAPTER XXIV
POWER REQUIREMENTS, SPEED ESTIMATES

AND PROPULSIVE COEFFICIENTS
e.h.p. naked hull --

IF q OVERALL is defined as
b,h,p. from engine and before gearbox
our normal problem will be to find the b.h.p. required for a given
speed. From the tank results we shall know e:hsp. naked hull against
speed. What we do not really know is the factor to be applied to
e. h.p. to produce b.h.p. required from the engine.
There are, in a planing craft, certain modifications required to
produce realism. As the e.h.p, is given for naked hull in practice
more hap. is required because of the appendage drag. I n the case
of the more normal craft other corrections have to be applied due
to the fact that the water flowing into the propeller has a certain
amount of forward velocity due to the effect of the hull. This is not
considered to be a problem in planing craft any more than there is
supposed to be an effect due to unequal wake between one side of
the propeller and the other. There is, in all probability, some effect
from an inclined shaft both on the appendage drag and the pro-
peller efficiency. Not too much is known of this effect, though some
experiments conducted in the Vosper Cavitation Tunnel show a
decrease in propeller efficiency in these conditions. A breakdown
of appendage drag based on calculation points to the conclusion
that shaft inclination is the most potent form of' loss.
We can obtain a pretty good idea of the propeller efficiency from
open water tests, or from cavitation tunnel results. We have even
taken the trouble to test a model propeller under cavitating condi-
tions on a realistic inclined shaft with a propeller strut and rudder.
However, the really important factor is the percentage reduction
from the effect of appendages. The appendage resistance can be
found from self-propulsion tests or from tests in a cavitation tunnel,
where actual forces can be measured on, for instance, rudder, pro-
peller strut and shaft.
Now this result, so far as we have discussed matters, will give us
the percentage to be applied to propeller efficiency as found (usually
from tables but in important cases from experiment) to allow for
appendage drag. Suppose the propeller efficiency is predicted at
65 per cent, and the appendage resistance at 2 0 per cent, for the
appropriate speed we then have to reduce the propulsion efficiency
to 52 per cent (65 - 65 x - 2 ) .
If, therefore, we could rely upon the hull always to be absolutely
CC 387
clean and the gearing between engine and propeller to absorb no

power, we could base our prediction upon this factor applied to
e.h.p. to give b.h.p. required. However, it is always necessary to
make some allowance for shafting losses (friction in bearings and
angle). Also, no practical ship can be relied upon to run and remain
running as smooth as the model.
I t is important to mention at this point that for a gas turbine craft
there is no great drawback to making a somewhat optimistic speed
prediction, because if all goes well the conditions may occur whereby
the highest powers and lowest hull reductions due to roughness can
operate simultaneously. In these circumstances why not make use
of the power to get a good result? At the same time we should be
careful to avoid an excessively optimistic speed guarantee clause in
the contract for obvious commercial reasons.
However, for the reasons already described, we are in deep trouble
in the case of a diesel engine if we design the propeller in this way.
Quite a considerable margin is necessary to provide for the propeller
being able to allow the engine to develop full torque at the correct
revolutions for the worst cases. This means that quite a large
percentage must be allowed for these factors in the overall propulsive
coefficient.
The probability is that for gas turbine boats we had allowed too
much when mentioning 20 per cent for appendage drag, so that
about 50 per cent overall propulsive coefficient is a reasonable figure
to take for design purposes. For the case of diesel-driven boats a
more conservative attitude should be adopted if the design is to be
based on the b.h.p. offered by the makers at normal standard
conditions ( I 5' C.).
I t should be clear that this does not so much apply to the speed
prediction as such, because knowing the power actually available
at the propeller the performance should be equally capable of
prediction. What does have to be taken into account, however, is
the fact that we usually do not know the power available at the
propeller and the penalties for misjudgment due to locking up are
so much greater for the diesel installation associated with a fixed
pitch propeller.
I n an attempt to summarise this admittedly rather abstruse point,
which none the less causes much perplexity amongst naval archi-
tects and informed laymen alike, we can offer the following advice
strictly as applicable to the reasonably fast craft well in the planing
regime.
The inference here is that wake effects as allowed for in the more
normal types of craft can be discounted. Given an e.h.p. curve for
naked model and b.h.p. available at the engine coupling an allow-
ance should be made for the actual power likely to be available at
388
POWER REQUIREMENTS AND PROPULSIVE COEFFICIENTS
the propeller, then with the b.h.p. known the e.h.p. can be arrived
at by using an overall propulsion coefficient of 0'5. The e.h.p.
then will be half the b.h.p. and speed can be read off the e.h.p./speed
curve. Alternatively, if speed is known the b,h.p. required is obtain-
able by doubling the value for e.h.p.
This is a rough and ready way of dealing with the matter. But
provided the limitations are realised it does not as a rule lead one
far astray-at least initially and for making a quick, preliminary
estimate.
However, b.h.p. is frequently given by the engine maker as the
power delivered under standard conditions of temperature and
barometric pressure at the output coupling from the engine and
before the gearbox and shafting. If', therefore, it is ascertained that
the b.h.p. figure at the propeller is less for various reasons such as
gearbox losses, temperature effect, etc., then the overall propulsive
figure of 0.5 should be used with caution. Some engines have gear-
boxes integral so their output coupling power should be relied upon
in this connection. If not it would be wiser initially to assume, say,
0.46 as an overall propulsive coefficient.
In the case of gas turbines the power is frequently given in the
form of "offered power ". From this figure has to be deducted the
losses due to the particular intake configuration as also the exhaust
arrangements. Additionally some power loss can arise from the
effects of high ambient temperature and compressor fouling. The
latter losses are dependent upon conditions, but it is unwise not to
take these matters seriously into account when arriving at some idea
as to what power will be available at the propeller, more especially
if running in warm climates is contemplated.
Though this matter has been mentioned previously it should
be ascertained that the e.h.p. curve in use allows for full load
conditions as well as a margin for some roughness in service if the
diesel engines associated with this installation are not to lock up at
some quite early point in the scale of revolutions. For the free power
turbine this is not so important.
To allow for the possible overloading of the machinery in the
case of piston engines it might be considered wise in the first in-
stance to use an overall propulsive coefficient of 0.43 on the basis of
power delivered from the output coupling of the engine and before
a gearbox.
I n the absorbing and sometimes anxious process of finding lost
knots very many factors can be influencing the situation, all of which
require careful study. Trim can cause considerable resistance change
-most hulls are highly sensitive here-certainly when of the planing
type. State of the bottom can gain or lose a matter of several knots
in a fast boat. The weather conditions on the measured mile also
389
can result in adverse results to almost the same extent. To get the
optimum out of the hull the weather should be good and the surface
calm. The hull becomes increasingly resistful if listing. Probably
the major influence will be the propeller design which is referred to
elsewhere, but it must be realised that a good design for the intended
revolutions and slip value will lose efficiency if these conditions are
not attained.
For some hulls an appreciable gain can be achieved by designing
the hull in such a manner that the 1.c.g. position is somewhat further
aft than would normally result in correct running trim. The trim
can then be adjusted by means of a transom flap or wedge which
improves the planing efficiency as described on p. 108. This par-
ticularly applies to the "hump" condition where the variable
incidence transom flap can be most valuable.
If we seem to be favouring unduly the turbine configuration here
it should be recollected that we are discussing the really high-speed
craft. The diesel has advantageous features where range is con-
cerned and is of paramount importance, and, of course, in the
medium speed range of small craft. [P.D.C.]
CHAPTER XXV
DYNAMIC STABILITY
I r HAS been explained in Chapter I that in high-speed craft dynamic

forces due to the motion of the hull at speed over the surface gradually
substitute for the hydrostatic forces of buoyancy which are operative
at rest.
The transverse stability has also been discussed briefly. I t will
perhaps be understood that at speed there will be a tendency for
the virtual transverse stability to increase greatly; in fact at infinite
speed a planing form will have infinite stability. I t will be as if the
hull were resting upon a concrete base which is the surface of the
water.
Considering the longitudinal hydrostatic stability the forces are
shown, which compare with the transverse forces, only the margin
of stability is much greater, and consequently the longitudinal
metacentric height GM (J will be of much greater magnitude.
This, however, only applies to hydrostatic considerations where

the effects of motion do not have to be considered or are of insignifi-
cant magnitude.
When speeds such as we have under consideration in connection
with planing boats are accomplished, another system of forces will
391
have to be taken into account. I t is here we must consider in the

longitudinal sense the dynamic forces acting upon a planing boat at
speed.
Figure 242 shows the forces acting on a boat at speed.
For equilibrium the sum of the moments about an axis at, say, the
centre of gravity must equal each other for clockwise and anti-
Fig. a&:-Forces acting on planing boat at speed

TPr= Thrust of Propeller
T~=Thrustif Jet or keaction Propelled
clockwise directions. The sum of the vertical and horizontal com-

-
ponents must also cancel out.
The principal forces to be considered, leaving aside aerodynamic
rces, will be:
(I) Force of gravity equivalent to the weight acting down
through the centre of gravity.
(2) Thrust from propeller acting through the shaft line.
(3) Resistance offered by friction of water to ahead motion.
This will be equal to the horizontal component of the thrust.
(4) The vertical component of the thrust plus the reaction in
a vertical direction from the water on the hull will equal
the total weight.
If we consider the case where the craft running at speed meets
a disturbing influence such as a wave, the magnitude and direction
of force L will change at least momentarily, perhaps to LI. Under
these circumstances the state of equilibrium above referred to will
be upset so that a pitching moment will be set up. Depending upon
whether this disturbing force tends to increase the pitching moment
or whether these forces die out in the course of a few seconds,
the conditions as far as longitudinal stability is concerned are
termed stable or unstable.
The factors governing the dynamic stability or instability, as the
case may be, were analysed by a mathematician, E. J. Routh
of Cambridge, though not at that time in relation to boats or aircraft.
Adaptation to the special problems presented by boats or aircraft
have since been made and in particular a paper was read before the
392
DYNAMIC STABILITY
Institute of Naval Architects by W.G. Perring in 1933 analysing the

determinants governing the onset of what is popularly called
6 g porpoising" in high-speed craft. Fairly complicated mathematics
are involved which are not within the scope of this book. However,
what is termed the "Routh discriminant" is usually calculated
and plotted for a series of cases when considering the design of
a new aircraft.
This porpoising is a phenomenon arising from the instability
above referred to.
A condition occurs in practice where this longitudinal dynamic
instability sets up a combination of a pitching action and a heave or
bodily rise which results in a boat moving across the surface of the
water in rather the manner of a galloping horse or porpoise, as its
name implies.
Most planing forms have a tendency to this porpoising if the speed
is increased to a sufficient extent, and in certain cases a boat can
pass through one or more porpoising ranges while accelerating, but
they can damp out at the speed range which matters; that is to say,
in the normal running range.
Other types of porpoising will build up near the operating range
and become progressively more violent as speed is increased until it
becomes necessary to slow up.
Either single-stepped, two-stepped or multi-stepped hull forms
are liable to this trouble. Equally so also are the stepless or so-called
hard-chine boats if driven at sufficient speed.
I n scheming the shape and general characteristics of a really fast
boat such as, for instance, a record-breaker, this question of the
liability to porpoise should be borne well in mind in the investigation
stage.
A scale model run at scale speed should show up any inherent
porpoising tendencies, but various factors can militate against
this.
To reproduce the conditions of dynamic stability the radius of
gyration should be in the correct ratio, which is none too easy to
achieve in a model. I t usually involves exceptional lightness of
construction in the skin of the model.
Owing to differences in the Reynolds number, the importance of
which is explained in Chapter XXVI, "Model Experiments",
it is also very possible that the aerodynamic influences will not be
faithhlly reproduced.
I n practice one must achieve a model which seems to be free of
porpoising by trial and error, but if it occurs in the full scale the
elimination can only be accomplished by making alterations system-
atically and one by one to shape and/or moment of inertia or magni-
tude or disposition of centre of gravity.
As statcd previously, no particular form appears quite free from

this trouble, but a small radius of gyration is likely to help. In
practical terms this indicates concentration of weights as far as
possible around the centre of gravity and avoidance of weights in
the ends, especially the bow.
Qualities which tend to damp out longitudinal disturbances will
be beneficial, such as wide "spread" between load-bearing surfaces
both in length and width. Realising the fact that disturbances are
certain to arise in the course of fast running, an appreciation should
be made as to what are likely to be the conditions for equilibrium.
I n the case of a two-stepped boat, for instance, it may well be that
at high speed the stern is practically unsupported by the water. In
effect, then, the boat will be running on the centre step only, A
disturbance such as a wave will initiate a see-saw action when the
rear step, or forward surfaces, will come into action. If the rear step
is well "veed" it may have the effect of damping the longitudinal
oscillation as opposed to what would happen if the rear step was very
"hard" or flat. The same, of course, applies to forward sections.
These observations do not pretend to be exhaustive, nor is it
suggested they are of necessity a correct diagnosis of the trouble,
but they will perhaps provide food for thought on an admittedly
complex subject.
For those who are sufficiently interested to study Mr. W. G .
Perring'sl paper, it will be found that the solution in the particular
case of Miss England III consisted in a modification of the forward-
step angle in a two-step hydroplane.
What this probably amounts to is that the subdivision of the load
between the two steps is adjusted to achieve satisfactory equilibrium
and damping of oscillation.
Directional Stability
This subject has been referred to indirectly under the heading of
manceuvrability (see Chapter V), but it may not be out of place to
put forward one or two ideas on this subject, as so many and various
views seem to be held.
The faster types of planing craft, whether stepped or of the hard-
chine form, have usually very flat sections in the interests of low
resistance and therefore speed.
While good in respect to resistance qualities, the fact that very
little resistance is offered to the water in any direction either fore
and aft or athwartships results in an excessive liability to skid off
the straight course in the event of any lateral force being applied
either by the rudder or, for instance, a gust of wind. Once the lateral
Late Director of Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough.
394
DYNAMIC S'I'ABZLITY
surface of the hull forward is presented to the water while the boat
as a whole continues its original path of advance there will be a
strong and dangerous tendency to skid uncontrollably unless there
is a sufficiency of lateral surface under water abaft the effective
pivoting point,
In practice this directional stability is best achieved by the
incorporation of a fin or fins under the boat extending from aft some
distance forward, as shown in Fig. 243.
This type of fin will tend to keep the craft running in a straight
line, but if it is desired to turn quickly some surface must be added
forward of the vertical axis through which the boat is presumed to
turn.
This forward fin must not be excessive and should be carefully

placed or it can be a danger and tend to make the boat heel out?
wards while turning. It can be used in conjunction with fin as shown
in Fig. 24.3.
Fig. 245
It does, however, substitute for the rather considerable deadrise

which is found to have the same effect in a seagoing type of hard-
chine craft but which will be there, anyway, from the point of view
of sea kindliness and shock elimination.
A further aid to directional stability is the incorporation of an
above-water fin effect either in the lateral plan of the hull or in
the event of the aft sections being much lower than those forward, by
means of an above-water fin somewhat akin to those fitted for the
same purpose in aircraft.
Planing Transverse and Directional Stability

Under high-speed planing conditions made possible by the new
power units, the above qualities bear little relation to the static
or slow speed case and can give some cause for anxiety. The reason
HIGH-SPEED SMALL GRAFT
for this is mainly due to the forces set up due to high-speed flow
along the bottom from forward to aft.
As has been shown in Chapter V, there is an optimum efficiency
expressed in terms of liftldrag ratio for the flat planing surface of
varying aspect ratio, angle of incidence, and deadrise. Generally
speaking the optimum is represented by a flat plate surface of maxi-
mum aspect ratio and at an angle of incidence of about 4". How-
ever, from the point of view of seakeeping ability it is not possible to
use a flat plate, so at least a certain amount of deadrise ("vee")
will have to be incorporated. Here it is desirable to incorporate
plenty of "vee" forward where the hull meets the waves, while aft
the ideal is a close approach to the flat. This really involves a
compromise from the ideal of a bottom made of constant deadrise
from aft to forward. The flow on the warped bottom, so called
when the "vee" is considerably greater forward than aft, is some-
what compromised to the extent that suctions are apt to be caused
of a somewhat unstable nature. These suctions or low pressure areas
are apt to be accentuated when there is a certain amount of con-
vexity in way of the forefoot.
This causes quite an appreciable transverse instability especially
at really high speeds and with an element of forward trim by the
head. The answer is, of course, to avoid convexity and warp, but
there can be no denying the fact that in a seaway both of these
characteristics are very helpful in avoiding slamming in waves from
ahead. It is all a question of how much seakindliness is of importance
in relation to pure speed in relatively calm water.
To consider for a moment the turning characteristics of a pretty
flat c c " or ~'' teatray
~ " type
~ of
~ form; this will be very fast but
when the rudder is put over the stern will move across relative to the
instantaneous path of the c.g., but as there is no grip on the water
forward the craft will continue in the same general direction at an
angle of yaw to the direction of advance. From the point of view
of changing direction, therefore, nothing effective takes place even
though the fore and aft axis is pointing in a new direction.
For an effective performance in turn it is necessary for a force to
be developed with a vector acting in the athwartships direction of
turn. This is a problem also met with in the case of the hovercraft
which will continue in the same path even though slewed by rudders.
As we have seen some force will have to be developed such that
there is a resultant moment around the effective axis of yaw. There
are various ways of effecting this. In the case of a very flat scow
shape as described above it would be possible to have a rudder
placed forward. Alternatively a fixed fin suitably located can do
this job by virtue of the fact that once an angle of attack to the flow
has been developed an athwartships resultant force will be developed
396
DYNAMIC STABILITY
at that point, which should be ahead of the effective c. of g. of

lateral area presented and result in a positive yawing moment.
In the case of hovercraft a jet or propeller thrust can do the
same job in each case by accelerating air resulting in a force due to
momentum change. This applies to an above-water unit such as
would be fitted to an aircraft; some hovercraft effect this by rotating
the axis of the jet or propeller.
Most well ''veed " types of hard-chine planing boat have sufficient
of the forebody in the water to provide enough effective lateral
immersed area forward to produce the desired force and moment.
However, there are cases where a small fin or plate forward can
help. This fitting has the additional merit of preventing leeway
due to a beam wind which causes a tiresome heel towards the wind
due to the effect of the rudder required to offset the leeway, and due
to the build-up of water under the lee chine forward-again causing
heel towards the wind. The fitting of these forward fins while useful
as described for assisting the turn and for limiting the tendency to
pay off to leeward, can lead to unpleasant behaviour if wrongly
placed or too large. Under these circumstances, especially when at
high speed, an undesirable directional instability can develop and
there is a tendency to cause outward heeling which can be dan-
gerous.
-
Generally speaking this unstable tendency arises in planing craft
as a function of high speed. Contrary to what may be the case
lower down the speed scale transverse stability is reduced at very
high speed especially where a considerable element of convexity
exists in the forward sections. The tendency in this case will be for
the supporting area of the wetted bottom to become undesirably
small as in Fig. 246. This can be even more the case in the event
of any convexity of buttock lines in the afterbody, when the wetted
area becomes as (b) in Fig. 246.
Unpleasant behaviour as described above does not by any means
always occur, especially when the speed is reasonable. However,
with the availability of very high powers from gas turbines this
type of behaviour can occur even in what are otherwise quite good
and stable hulls. This effect is accentuated with a boat running very
light and perhaps a little down by the head. Slight additional weight
aft will be likely to be beneficial but efforts should be made so far
as possible to avoid a permanent list.
The listing generally towards the wind has been touched on above
and it is generally caused by the leeway, especially forward, having
to be corrected by the rudder which causes a permanent and some-
times increasing heel towards the wind. This same phenomenon
can also be caused by any inherent asymmetry, calling for perma-
nent helm to be applied. One such reason will be the greater power
DEEP VEED
WARPED BOTTOM
PLANING FORM
.,---
-----CONS
REDUCTION I N AREA AND STABILITY 1
777-4 j \IDARY AND
BOUNDARY
WmED 80170MAREA
CONSEQUENT O N CONVEXITY OF OF W m E D 8 0 1 7 0 M
WHEN PLANING
BUlTOCKS WHEN PLANING
SHALLOW VEE
L O W RUN
OF CHINE
NOTE FULL STABLE SHAPE

OF WETTED AREA
WETTED PLANING SURFACE AS@ BUT SHOWING INSTABILITY ARISING FROM TRIM BY THE HEAD,
THE LONG FINGER RESULTING FROM DEEPLY VEED CONVEX SECTIONS TENDS TO UNSTABLE SHAPE
BETWEEN a-a AND b-b.
Fig. 246
398
DYNAMIC STABILITY
developed in one shaft than the other. I t is not unusual for a n

alteration to the rudder balance or configuration to effect a cure.
One of the best palliatives is, however, the use of a forward rudder
separately from the aft rudders. This requires some skill in the
operation but is effective in avoiding this permanent listing effect,
which should not be allowed to persist as it can lead to unpleasant
behaviour as discussed below. This leaning or listing is a tiresome
phenomenon and is rather common these days in the higher speed
craft, certainly in the prototype stage. I t is, as already emphasised,
largely a function of speed and any natural disturbance causing the
use of permanent helm such as a side wind, Even if only a moderate
heel persists this is an embarrassment because it causes a relatively
flat section to be presented to the oncoming waves, causing "slam-
ming ".
Unless corrected in some way a boat on a straight course with
only aft rudders will continue to heel progressively while the wind
is on the bow or abeam. Eventually it can be understood that the
rudders will become to some extent elevators. They will develop a lift
force proportional to the angle of heel. This, in turn, will lift the stern
and depress the bow until, due to the slight leeway in the opposite
direction, the forefoot will trip or catch in the water and bring her
round rapidly in the opposite direction to the list-an uncomfortable
procedure. At the first sign of this occurrence the helm should be
centred, or better still the boat put into a banked turn towards the
direction of the swing if there is room. Otherwise reduction in speed
is the cure. This phenomenon has become fairly common in proto- ,
type boats of the faster type where considerable "vee "is incorporated,
but it can usually be dealt with adequately by systematic modifi-
cation. From the nature of the hard-chine planing form or variants
thereof increasing speed will eventually cause an undesirable flatten-
ing of the planing angle which is why, for really high speed, the two
or three point suspension in some form is usually adopted.
I n making a study of this phenomenon for one particular case
(by observing the planing bottom of the hull in a water circulating
channel from underneath) it was noticed in particular that although
the general shape of the wetted surface was as in Fig. 246(a), there was
a tendency for this area forward to be very unstable. Even a small
amount of heel would cause the hull to lay over on one side, causing
a considerable area to be wetted one side and almost none on the
other. Only very small disturbance will cause this unstable beha-
viour. The wetted areas become somewhat of the shape shown in
Fig. 246(c). I t can readily be seen that the best way to avoid this
condition is by avoiding a head down trim by moving the 1.c.g.
aft in some way when wetted planing area tends to become as in (b).
[P.D.C.]
399
CHAPTER XXVI
MODEL EXPERIMENTS FOR RESISTANCE

AND POWERING
THEHIGH-SPEED craft, particularly the planing form, owes much to

model experiments. Since the first experiments with these forms the
use of models has contributed in no small way to the development
of the modern high-speed boat with considerable economy in money
and time. I t will be appreciated, therefore, that the experiment
tank and associated model experiments, despite their limitations,
are a n important step in the design of such craft.
The first to patent the idea of a planing form was Joseph Apsey
in 1852. Independent of this, but not until 1870, the Rev. C. M.
Ramus, Rector of Playden, Rye, put forward the first hydroplane
form in this country. His model had a length of 31 in., a beam of
I I & in. and a total weight of g i lb. The form was single-stepped, the
two separate planes being inclined at 10 degrees (Fig. 247). From his
results with this model he conceived a craft 360 ft. long, 50 ft. beam, of
some 2,500 tons displacement, driven by two paddle wheels of about
44 ft. diameter. With a total horsepower of 1,500, he estimated a
speed of 30 knots could be attained. This design was submitted to the
Admiralty and accordingly Mr. William Froude was asked to assess
the possibilities of this craft by experiments at the model testing tank
at Chelston Cross, Torquay. This tank was the first ever to be built
Fig. 247
4
for the purpose of testing models of ship forms, and it was mainly
due to William Froude's foresight and energy in convincing the Board
of Admiralty of its usefulness that such a tank was built. Since then
similar tanks have been built throughout the world with additional
refinements and of increased sizes, and modern experiment tanks
are pieces of engineering perfection, many times the size of this first
tank.
The experiments with models of the Ramus form, one one-hundred-
and-eighth full size, which was tested at speeds corresponding to 130
knots, indicated that the power had been considerably underesti-
mated. These disappointing results led Froude to test a triangular
arrangement of three separate floats rigidly connected and so
MODEL EXPERIMENTS FOR RESISTANCE AND POWERING
situated that the disturbance from the forward float would not
influence the aRer floats (see Fig. 248). The model was ballasted to
represent a ship of 2,500 tons on a scale of one one-hundred-and-
seventy-fifth full size and was tested at speeds corresponding to
190 knots in the ship. Although, to use Froude's own words, "the
result was striking", the experiments served to show that even with
Fig. 248
planing forms it was not possible to reduce the water resistance

below a certain proportion of the displacement. The soundness of
the principle of the three-point support is recognised to this day and
was adopted in the record-breaking Bluebird II form.
Some later experiments were made in 1884 with a single-step form
designed by M. Pictet which had a remarkably better performance
than the original Ramus form, approaching present-day standards.
The results for the Ramus form, the Pictet form and a later form are
shown in Fig. 24.9. Subsequent experiments have led to the develop-
ment of many different forms for high-speed craft, including the
multi-step, inverted "vee" or sea-sled and others. Each form has
its merits in its own restricted field, and these have been discussed
in chapter 11.
The usefulness of the experiment tank in research lies mainly in
the rapid and economic way in which the possibilities of a proposed
form, whether for high speed or for low speed, can be thoroughly
investigated under controlled conditions. Without such equipment
variations in form could be tested only by building and testing a
full-size craft. The results of such tests might well be inconclusive
unless conducted under rigorous conditions besides proving a
luxury which few owners or builders could indulge in, a state of
affairs which many yacht owners appreciate only too well. Viewed
in this light, model experiments appear an attractive proposition,

but there are limitations and difficulties inherent in such experiments,
The most important drawback is probably the "scaling" of the
model results to apply to the full-size form. As will be apparent later,
the ever-increasing speed of these boats has necessitated smaller and
smaller models; and small models are liable to give unreliable
results. These in turn demand increased accuracy of measurement
and improvements in technique.
RESISTANCE
DISPLACEMENT
-
20 30 40 SO
SPEED IN KNOTS 1
Fig. 249
The Experiment Tank

The experiment tank is essentially a large tank of fresh water spanned
by a carriage which is driven along rails laid the length of the tank
and from which the model is towed. Several such tanks exist in this
countryofvarious sizes up to about 1,oooft. in length, 3oto soft. wide,
and depths of 16 to 22 ft. The carriages of modern tanks can attain
steady speeds up to 24, knots, but because of the restricted length
of run, and the amount required for accelerating and decelerating,
the length of run and time at this steady speed is severely limited,
so that records must be taken with great rapidity on such runs.
Similar tanks of various sizes are also in use in America and on the
402
Fig. 250:-Haslar Experiment Tank
Continent. A view of such a tank is shown in Fig. 250. The carriages,

which in the larger tanks are driven by electric motors coupled to
the driving wheels, the supply being picked up from overhead rails,
carry all the necessary equipment for measuring forces and attitudes,
etc., of models under test. In order to ensure the greatest possible
lengths of run at the higher speeds rapid accelerations and decelera-
tions are used. Elaborate precautions are necessary to ensure, as far
+
as possible, accurate speeds, to within & per cent, and freedom
from vibration. The rails on which the carriage runs must be
straight and true and parallel to the still-water surface.
In tests with high-speed craft the model, which may be shaped
in wood polished to a fine finish, or of paraffin wax, is towed by a rod
hinged in the model and adjusted to the same angle as that of the
propeller thrust line, due allowance being made for the change of
attitude of the craft when running at speed from that when floating
at rest in still water. The other end of the towing rod is attached to
the lower end of the dynamometer which records the resistance. The
principle is illustrated by the sketch in Fig. 2 5 I . Most of the resistance
is balanced by the addition of weights to the balance arm of the
dynamometer and the remainder produces the extension of a spring.
An autographic record of this extension is traced on the recording
drum. The total resistance of the model can then be deduced by
adding the component balanced by the weights added to that which
can be read off from the autographic record using a calibrated scale.
This method enables the resistance to be obtained with a high degree
of accuracy, since any error in measurement will be confined to the
autographic record which corresponds to a small percentage of the

total resistance. Simultaneous records of fixed intervals of distance
and of time are taken on the record, enabling the speed to be
accurately evaluated.
The model under test is ballasted to the correct scale displace-
ment and with the centre of gravity in the same corresponding
position a s in the full-size form. This ensures that the model takes
up the correct attitude when running. The model is constrained
transversely to run a straight course. The attitude of the model
when running can be taken by measuring through light linkages the
movements of two points, one at the bow and one a t the stern. From
these measurements, the change in trim of the boat can be deduced,
together with the rise or fall of a typical section of the boat, usually
the midship section. These results are sufficient to describe the
attitude of the boat when running.
ROTATIN
DRUM
AUXILIARY
DYNAMOMETER
AUXILIARY
BALANCE WEIGHT
DYNAMOMETER
BALANCE WEIGH
- Fig. 251
The resistance of the model so measured is affected by a number
of factors and allowance must be made for variation in these factors
when estimating the resistance of the full-scale boat from the model.
Frictional Resistance and the Reynolds Number

The nature of the flow round a body moving fully submerged in a
DZ
fluid1 is largely governed by the value of the quotient --, known as
v
1 The term fluid refers to both liquids and gases, namely, water, air, etc.
404
MODEL EXPERIMENTS FOR RESISTANCE; AND POWERING
the Reynolds number. The significance of this function was dis-

covered by Osborne Reynolds in 1883from observations taken during
experiments with the flow of fluid through pipes. Its importance in
general problems of motion of bodies in a fluid was rapidly
vl
established. In the quotient --, v relates to the velocity of fluid re-
v
lath:: to the body, I is a typical length or dimension determining the
magnitude of the body, e.g. diameter of a sphere or pipe, or length
of a ship. v is a quantity termed the kinematic viscosity of a fluid
and is the ratio of,p, the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid and Q
the density of the fluid, that is, v =-.P The coefficient of viscosity
e
is a measure of the frictional of a fluid or in popular terms
of the "stickiness ". I t has a higher value for treacle than for water,
which in turn is greater than that for air. Typical values of v are
I .23 x 1 0 - 6 for fresh water at 59' F. and I .26 x 1 0 - 6 for sea water
at 59' F. in lb. ft. sec. units. Although water is some eight hundred
times as dense as air, the viscosity of air at ordinary temperatures
is relatively high and its kinematic viscosity is some fourteen times
as great as that of water.
The Reynolds number represents the ratio of two quantities of
work done in the fluid, namely: (I.) the kinetic energy of the particles
arising from their velocity v, and (2) the work done against fluid
friction or viscosity.
The kinetic energy of a fluid particle of mass m is &mu2 and this
is proportional to el 3v where Q is the density of the fluid and 1is a
characteristic length dimension,
The work done against friction is proportional to Fl, F being
the frictional force acting on the particle in the direction of the
velocity. F is proportional to --, where a is the surface area of the
1
particle and is proportional to l a . Work done against friction is then
pl
proportional to -x I, i.e. p12v. The ratio of kinetic energy to work
1
I
I
done against friction is therefore
This is the quantity we have termed the Reynolds number. Since

it is a ratio of two like quantities, namely work done by a force, this
ratio is a pure number, or, in other words, non-dimensional, The
physical significance of the Reynolds number is that for the
flow of fluids possessing viscosity it provides a criterion for the
similarity of the flow pattern around geometrically similar bodies.
405
In applying the concept of the Reynolds number to general flow

problems the question of what constitutes a characteristic length
dimension ( I ) arises. Strictly speaking the flow patterns can only be
similar round geometrically similar bodies such as a submarine and
its model, in which case the length, beam, depth, etc., can equally
well be used as the relevant length. However, it is an experimental
fact that in cases where the length of a body, that is, the dimension
taken in the direction of the flow, is the important feature, then it is
this length which should be adopted for evaluating the Reynolds
number. This applies to forms such as ships, fish and aerofoil
sections (chord length). In the case of flow through a pipe, however,
it is apparent that the length is of much less importance from a
flow point of view than the diameter, and the latter quantity is then
used to determine the Reynolds number.
I t must be remembered when comparing different ship forms that
by choosing the length of a ship to determine the Reynolds number
geometric similarity between the forms is implied. This is seldom the
case and, strictly, corrections should be applied to allow for variations
in the shapes of the bodies such as differences in curvature.
These corrections are, in general, small and can safely be neglected
in practice. This is evidenced by the fact that when determining the
frictional resistance of ship forms, which is a function of the Reynolds
number, the values obtained from experiments with flat planks are
used, no allowance being made for the effect of curvature of the
ship's hull surface, although in other fields attempts are now being
made to correcc for these discrepancies.
Some typical values for the Reynolds number are given in the
table below:
Water-/in Speed
length ( L Reynolds number Fluid
knots
Queen Elizabeth 987 ft. Sea water

Destroyer 380 ft. >> Y¶
M.T.B. 70 ft. ¶> ¶¶
Bluebird (1939) 23 ft. Fresh water

Air
Bluebird model
one-sixteenth I .44 ft Fresh water
scale Air
Bluebird model
one-third scale g ft. Air
Sailing boat 20 ft. Sea water
Dolphin 6 ft. ¶¶ YY
M.T.B. model g ft. Fresh water
M.T.B. model 2 ft. Y> ¶¶
It is interesting to note in the case of a craft such as the Bluebird,

where the air resistance is of equal importance as the water resistance,
that the Reynolds number is different for air and for water. This
means that separate experiments are required to determine the air
resistance, usually in a wind tunnel where the air speed in the model
can be increased to give the Reynolds number applicable to full
f
size. For the model in the above table the wind-tunnel test would
have to be made at an air speed of 3,840 ft./sec. to give the full-size
)
Reynolds number. Such a speed is quite impracticable, and in
order to attain the Reynolds number of 3.2 x 107 at a lower speed
tests would have to be carried out with a larger model or at higher
pressure. I n this case one-third scale of full size was selected. I t
will be observed that R n = I x 10' was achieved in the wind
tunnel. Here test conditions can be considered satisfactory, as the
full-size boat was running at about 3.2 x 10' in air, so both model
and actual boat are running well within the "turbulent" range.
I
The usefulness of Reynolds number lies in the fact that its value is a
guide to the type of flow which can be expected around a body mov-
I
ing wholly submerged in a fluid. The Reynolds number will be small
if the viscosity is large, that is, if the work done against friction is
large. Under these conditions the flow is regular and uniform and is
said to be laminar. If the viscosity is small, the frictional forces will
be small and the Reynolds number large. The flow then becomes
irregular, with considerable local fluctuations of velocity in proximity
to the surface of the body, and is then described as turbulent. The
irregularity of the flow conditions results in much greater loss of
energy than if the flow were laminar, thus accounting for the
increased resistance which arises with turbulent-flow.
The change from laminar-flow conditions to turbulent-flow
conditions is not definite and depends on such factors as the surface
finish of the body, initial steadiness of flow, absence of vibration, etc.
Under ideal conditions it is possible to' maintain laminar-flow
conditions for relatively large values of the Reynolds number, but
such conditions are unstable. The ranges of the Reynolds number
under which laminar- or turbulent-flow conditions exist can only
be determined by experiment and are different for different
shaped bodies; for example, the transition from laminar to turbulent
flow occurs at a Reynolds number of about 2,000 for flow through a
pipe. In the case of flow past a smooth flat surface, such as a plank,
it occurs at the Reynolds numbers between about 500,000 and
1,000,000.
I t can be shown that the quantity -,R R being the drag of a body
eau2
completely submerged, of surface Brea a, moving at a velocity
v in a fluid of density e, is a function of the Reynolds number.
That is,
R vl
-=f
eav
Thus if the Reynolds number is constant for similar shaped bodies,
R
--
eav 2
will be constant. I n other words, if, say, for a submarine
deeply submerged the conditions of the model test were such that the
R
Reynolds number was the same as for the ship, then -would be
eav"
the same in each case; for example, a submarine model one-twentieth
full size would need to be tested a t 2 0 times the ship speed to
maintain the same Reynolds number. These conditions can only
be satisfied for low ship speeds or with large models.
R
The non-dimensional quantity --,is termed the drag or resistance
oav
Z
coefficient CD. The manner in which this quantity varies with the
Reynolds number for a streamlined body is as shown in Fig. 252.
I t will be seen that C D follows different laws, depending on whether
the conditions are such that laminar flow or turbulent flow persists.
This difference is an important consideration when estimating the
drag coefficientof a full-size body from its model, since the Reynolds
number of model test may be so low that the flow is laminar, while
for the full size the flow may be turbulent. An even more dangerous
state of affairs exists if the values for the model lie in the transition
region, for the measured resistance, and therefore the drag coefficient
becomes erratic and unreliable. In practice the conditions under
which models are tested are so chosen that turbulent flow exists;
DRAG COEFFICIENT
Fig. 252
that is, the model would never be tested at sufficiently low speeds
vl
that the Reynolds number was less than the value of (-) of Fig. 252.
v T
I n some cases it is necessary to fit devices, known as turbulence
stimulators, to models to ensure that the flow is turbulent.
If the above conditions are satisfied, then values of CD for the
model plotted to a base of the Reynolds number will give a
smooth fair curve, a typical value being that shown at the point
vl
(-ulv td
(Fig. 252). The corresponding Reynolds number (--)
Y E
for the
full size is much greater and the value of Cn will decrease in passing
vl a1
from (-)
v td
to (-)
v E
.
This variation of CD with the Reynolds number
is known as scale effect. Thus to obtain CD for the full-size body from
that obtained from tests with the model, the necessary allowance for
its variation with the Reynolds number must be made. This can
only be done by extrapolation of the curve of drag coefficient
obtained from the model tests, thus further emphasising the need for
ensuring that all the results obtained from the model tests relate to
either laminar- or to turbulent-flow conditions, generally the latter.
Fig. 252 shows that if laminar-flow conditions could be retained up
to high Reynolds numbers, then the drag coefficient would be very
much less than that under turbulent flow and the resistance would
therefore be less. Unfortunately, such a state of affairs would require
extreme degrees of accuracy of finish of surface and absolutely
uniform flow conditions. The slightest departure from these coa-
ditions would cause the flow to revert to the turbulent condition
with the corresponding increase of drag.
I t seems unlikely that it will be possible to produce and maintain
ship forms of the required degree of surface finish with the possible
exception of small boats, which can be readily slipped, so that the
possibility of attaining laminar flow in ships appears remote. Some
success has been achieved, however, in the field of aeronautics,
where, by suitable choice of sections and with extreme care in
manufacture to produce a very smooth surface, it has been found
possible to retain laminar flow on at least a large part of the wing of
an aircraft. The conditions are, however, sensitive to slight dis-
turbances, even small particles of dust or insects being sufficient to
reduce the flow to a turbulent regime.
Laminar Flow
If it ever proved possible to devise some method by which turbulent
flow could be avoided, the implications with regard to both attain-
ment of speed, and economy of power, would be immense. For
409
although friction is not the only kind of resistance, it forms an appre-

ciable portion of the whole, and as a glance at Fig. 252 will show,
the ability to replace turbulent by laminar flow at the high Reynolds
numbers characteristic of most ship forms (between 10' and 109)
would reduce its contribution to negligible proportions. Of recent
times a novel suggestion as to how this might be achieved has come
from the work of M. I. Kramer in the United States. This is exciting
not so much for the results so far obtained-among which there
are apparently some inconsistencies-but for the new fields of
investigation it opens up.
Kramer is said to have derived his idea as a solution to the
problem posed by the porpoise, which mammal is supposed to be
able to move through the water at much higher speeds than its
muscular power and its estimated resistance would together lead
one to suspect. To question this contention is perhaps only to intro-
duce a red herring, but certainly the shapes of both porpoises and
dolphins have been subjected to a number of scientific tests, to
discover if they had any special properties, without revealing any
features contributing to unusually low resistance. Kramer suggested,
in effect, that it was not the shape, but the skin, oC the porpoise
which was responsible for the disparity, and that the mammal
reacted to the "tickle" of turbulence in such a way as to eliminate
its presence. The action seeming more likely to be involuntary
than a conscious effort, Kramer attenzpted to construct an < c engin-
eering approximation" to porpoise skin by covering the sides of a
torpedo-shaped body with rubber, supported on raised studs stuck
to the rigid covering beneath, the space between the studs being
filled with oil to simulate the creature's blubber. By towing this
body through the water its resistance could be measured, the results
lying mostly in the transition region of Reynolds number (about
one million). The tests appeared to indicate that there were sub-
stantial reductions of friction below the values obtained for rigid
skinned bodies of the same shape, and moreover that ordinary
turbulence stimulators lost their effectiveness when fitted to such a
body. As implied earlier, there has been some difficulty in detecting
any effect in laboratory experiments. On the other hand, some
encouragement has come from work by other investigators on the
basis of sea-trials of craft covered with such skins. Whatever the
truth of the m a t t e r a n d here it must be remembered that rubber
is notorious for the way its properties change according to how it
is, and has been, used-it must be accepted that a sufficiently
flexible skin ought to have some kind of effect upon the flow next to
it in the water, for good or ill.
There are those who believe that while it may not be possible
to avoid turbulence by this method, it may be possible to modify
its structure and its action on the surface so as to produce less

friction. Others suggest that a compliant surface might be "tuned"
to delay the onset of turbulence to a higher Reynolds number
than if it were rigid, but not to avoid it altogether. Kramer him-
self suggests that it is the oil-filling, or blubber, which is the
critical feature in extracting energy from the turbulence by its
damping action, and so far as his results appeared sensitive to the
viscosity of the oil, there may be truth in this assertion. Others
have suggested that it is the rubber which is critical, the oil only
serving to stabilise the structure whilst allowing the rubber skin,
right through to its inner surface, to move in response to the
eddying of the flow.
I t has been established that turbulence occurs due to the fact that
the laminar flow becomes unstable at sufficiently high Reynolds
number when subjected to any oscillatory motion. I n other words
if water is rippled with a certain frequency, and a body is accelerated
through it-so progressively increasing its Reynolds number-there
will be a speed at which the ripples, instead of being damped out
close to the body, in fact grow larger when they come into contact
with its surface, growing in its proximity downstream into the gross
pattern of unsteady eddying recognised as turbulence. If the ripples
are sufficiently small and the Reynolds number low enough, they
are damped out irrespective of their frequency, and this is why at
low Reynolds number the flow remains laminar. At higher Rey-
nolds numbers any small ripples, such as those formed by roughness
of body, can be amplified and so produce turbulence. The effect is
particularly marked if we are dealing with a condition in which
the water has large ripples in it (as opposed to small ones) due to
some extraneous cause, such as, for instance, a turbulence stimulator.
Any attempt to avoid turbulence must therefore take the form of
some mechanism which damps-or extracts energy from-the ripples
in contact with the body.
As mentioned before, it may be the oil within the Kramer skin
which provides this damping. Another view of the possible mechan-
ism takes account of the fact that any disturbance to a material
skin will cause waves to travel throughout the skin, and that these
waves will be propagated with a definite speed (natural frequency)
dependent on the choice of the material. (It is this fact which pro-
vides the seismologist with a means of determining the structure of
the earth from a knowledge of the speed of earthquake waves.) Now
the amplified ripples, which lead to turbulence, also travel along
the surface of the skin with a definite speed, and by arranging this
speed to be greater than (or less than) the natural wave speed of
the skin, energy can be extracted (or fed into) the turbulent flow.
I n other words, the turbulence can be made to force the skin to
41 1
vibrate, or the vibrating skin to force energy into the stream. To

take advantage of this effect requires skin materials whose modulus
of elasticity is comparable to the value of the dynamic pressure,
& p2,which implies in ordinary applications the use of rubber-like
substances, such as Kramer suggests.
I t may be a considerable time before a knowledge of these effects
can be turned to advantage, and still longer perhaps before a surface
is evolved which will survive the stresses, as well as the contamina-
tion, of prolonged use at sea: but the basic idea has potentially the
promise of great reward.
There is another possible appioach, believed ,to have been used
in connection with underwater "missiles", which consists in pro-
viding an outer layer of porous material through which a proportion
of the boundary layer is sucked away mechanically. This technique
is more developed in the aeronautical field, especially by Dr. Lach-
rnann of Handley Page.
To give an idea of how much can be achieved by laminarization
we carried out an approximate calculation for the case of the
Tramontana, a 40-ft. boat capable of 50-55 knots, which entered
and won the 1962 International DaiZy Express Offshore Race. Here
total resistance at 50 knots was 6,000 lb. of which the frictional
resistance will be about 3,000 lb. Based on a Reynolds number
2-5x IO* this would be reduced to a mere 150 lb. if laminar flow
could be achieved. Hence the e.h.p. based on total resistance multi-
plied by speed would be nearly halved.
Residuary Resistance and the Froude Number

So far the motion of a body completely and deeply submerged in a
fluid has been considered. Suppose we consider now the case of a
surface vessel. Common experience tells us that such a vessel in
motion sets up a train of waves. Moreover, these waves increase in
size as the vessel increases in speed. These waves contain energy and
are left behind as the ship moves forward. Since they are formed
by the motion of the ship, the waves must have received their energy
from the ship and therefore from the engines driving the ship. Thus
in addition to the engines having to supply the power necessary to
overcome the frictional drag due to motion through the water, they
must also supply the power to produce the train of waves behind the
ship. I n effect, therefore, there is a resistance to motion due to the
production of waves, termed the wave-making resistance. This term
also embraces the component of resistance arising from the formation
of spray in high-speed craft.
Alternatively, the motion of a body through a fluid causes the
pressure around that body to vary from point to point, due to
412
changes in velocity and in the case of a body,on the surface these

changes of pressure cause elevation and depressions of the water
surface around that body, namely, waves. The resultant pressure
on the body is such that it always opposes the motion, namely, it is
a resistance-the wave-making resistance. Wave-making resistance
persists even in submerged bodies so long as the body is sufficiently
near the surface for the variation in pressure around it to produce
elevations and depressions of the water surface.
At low speeds, wave-making resistance is small and most of the
resistance arises from the frictional resistance of the flow round the
hull. As speed is increased, the wave-making resistance assumes
increasing importance. Unfortunately for model experiments the
wave-making is not a function of the Reynolds number but follows
a completely different law. This is due to the fact that the controlling
force in waves is gravity, which tends to restore the wave formation
to a flat surface, whereas frictional resistance is governed by viscosity
and is not influenced by gravity.
William Froude was the first to realise that the resistance of a ship
comprised essentially two components which followed different laws.
He found in his experiments with models of different sizes that if the
speeds of test were made proportional to the square root of the length
of the model then the wave patterns produced by the models were
exactly similar. He further found that under these conditions of
test the component of resistance not due to friction, that is, the
residuary resistance,l was directly proportional to the displacement
of the form.
I n other words, if Rw is the wave-making resistance, A the dis-
Rw
placement, then -is constant for all sizes of geometrically similar
A
forms, provided the conditions of test are such that the speed-length,
v is constant, V being the velocity and L the length of the
ratio -
1TL
form. This, in essence, is Froude's law of comparison, and is the
law upon which the prediction of ship resistance from model experi-
T 7
v
ments rests. The speed-length ratio - or, more correctly, in its
a'
"
non-dimensional form - is the Froude number.
d& '
I t can be shown that ihe drag coefficient related only to wave-
making, that is for motion in a frictionless fluid, is wholly a
function of the Froude number. Thus:
The term residuary resistance is generally used, since in practice it contains elements
other than wave-making resistance, such as resistance from spray-making, eddy-making
resistance, etc. However, as wave-making accounts for practically all this resistance
except in certain cases it is often loosely referred to as wave-making resistance.
413
Now since V o dKand A oc L2

--
Rw a-
Rw a -Rw
, since A a eL 3,
eAV2 gL3 g A
we can therefore write:
v Rw
which if - is constant gives -= constant.
dE A
This is an alternative statement of Froude's law of comparison.
It should be noted that the law of comparison relates only to
geometrically similar bodies, for example, a ship and its model, and
not to different forms.
In this respect L is a typical length dimension of the form which
for convenience and for other reasons to be discussed later is taken
as the length of the form. It would be equally true to write:
where B and D are the beam and draught respectively. Since for
geometrically similar forms
- = B model -D model
L model
Lship Bship Dship
General Law of Resistance

Forla body moving on the surface in a real fluid, both the Reynolds
number and the Froude number are of significance; we can there-
fore combine the two in a general statement of resistance by writing
the total resistance R as a function of both these factors:
I n general, therefore, in order that the resistance coefficient of

model and ship should be the same, both the Reynolds number and
the Froude number should be the same for model and ship,
that is :
There is no fluid known, however, which enables both of these

conditions to be satisfied simultaneously, and it is therefore only
possible to satisfy one condition and allow for the effect of variation -
of the other when estimating the resistance of a ship from its model.
It has been shown that the frictional resistance can be estimated for
any size of body, using the curve of frictional drag coefficient to base
Reynolds number. No similar method exists, however, for estimating
the wave resistance of any size or shape of body. - The - principle
v
adopted, therefore, is to satisfy the condition that -is the same
2/c
for model and ship and to allow for the effect of difference in the
Reynolds number for ship and model. The speed v of the model
tT
v
which satisfies the condition that -is the same for model and ship
z/T;
is termed the corresponding speed of the model.
At large values of the Reynolds number the effect of inertia
forces predominates, and the resistance tends to become independent
of the Reynolds number. An extreme example is the case of a thin
plate held normal to the flow where the resistance is entirely due to
inertia forces. In such cases the drag coefficient of the body assumes
a constant value so that its resistance therefore varies as eAV2, and
since the area A is proportional to the square of the characteristic
length dimension the resistance varies as QL2V
These conditions usually apply in the case of high-speed stepped
forms, and the dependence of the resistance on the product QL2V is
sometimes used as a basis for predicting the full-scale resistance from
model tests. I t will be seen, however, that if tests are conducted at
the corresponding speed, and the frictional correction, which is
small in such craft, is neglected, then this condition is fulfilled. At
corresponding speeds V is proportional to 4 ;; so that the resistance
varies as QL3, which in turn is proportional to the displacement of the
craft. Thus on a basis of tests at corresponding speed, if the ratio
resistance
of - obtained from model tests is assumed to apply to the
displacement
full scale without correction, the resistance arising from inertia
forces is correctly scaled.
Estimation of Ship Resistance

The outline of the method of estimating the ship resistance from the
model experiment results is then as follows. For example, take a ship
form 108ft. long, the resistance of which is required at 40 knots. A
model 12 ft. long is used for the experiments, that is, a one-ninth scale.
The speed of test must be such that
v
---- is the same for model and
dL
ship
. . 40 knots - -
v
%'I08 diii
12 40 knots
= I 34 knots = 2 4 ft. Isec.
That is, if the model is towed at the corresponding speed of 134 knots
then the wave-and-spray pattern produced will be exactly similar
to that in the ship at 40 knots. Further, the residuary resistance
Rw of the model, divided by the displacement of the model, will be
equal to the residuary resistance of the ship divided by the displace-
ment of the ship; that is,
I n the test, however, the total resistance R

,,,, comprising frictional
resistance plus residuary resistance is measured. In order to deter-
mine the residuary resistance of the model it is necessary to estimate
the frictional resistance Rg. The Reynolds number of the model
tested can be readily determined and the drag coefficient CDread
off from a suitable curve. Hence the frictional resistance can be
estimated from
Rg =!AVP.CD.
2
The residuary resistance of the model is then given by
Rw = R
,, - Rp.
Rw
Since -7is the same for model and ship, and since the displace-
L_I
ment is proportional to the cube of the linear dimensions, which in

this case are one-ninth of those of the full-size form, then the resi-
duary resistance of the ship is
The total resistance of the ship can now be computed by adding

to the residuary resistance the estimated frictional resistance of
416
MODEL EXPERIMENTS FOR RESISTANGE AND POWERING
the ship obtained from the value of the drag coefficient, on the same
curve used to determine the model drag coefficient at the value of
the Reynolds number determined for the ship.
The stages in the evaluation of the ship resistance from model
experiments can be illustrated by the following diagram :
Model experiments at corresponding speed
-4
Model Frictional
+
Total resistance of model
Model Residuary - Total Model - Model Frictional

Resistance
(Estimated)
Ship Frictional
Resistance
+
Resistance
Ship Residuary
Resistance
-
Resistance
Model
Residuary
Resistance
Ship Displacement
Model ~ i s ~ l a c e y
(Estimated)
v J,
Resistance ment
Total Ship Resistance
The principle of this method is universal, but the various tank

authorities use different methods and data for estimation of frictional
resistance.
Calculation of Frictional Resistance

It will suffice here to describe two methods for estimating fric-
tional resistance, namely, the method of Froude and that of
Schoenherr. The former is largely used in this country, the latter
by America.
Both methods are based on experiments with planks, Schoenherr's
being based on the results of the many series of plank tests carried
out since the innovation of experiment tanks. The important
difference between the two methods is the manner in which the
results of the plank tests, which covered a very limited range of
lengths, are extrapolated to give coefficients applicable to ship
lengths.
Froude's method. From the resistance measured from towed planks

up to 50 ft. in length R. E. Froude deduced that the frictional
resistance, R, in salt water of a surface, in pounds, is given by
where f is a constant dependent upon the wetted length L, A the

surface area in square feet, and V the speed in knots. Typical values
off are given in the following table :
41 7
To apply this to ship forms the surface area is measured by

girthing the sections at a number of points to the static water-line
and integrating along the length. In the case of M.T.B.s and
similar craft a more accurate estimation is obtained if the girths i r e
made to the "running" water-line to allow for the large change
in trim and position relative to the water-line and for splash-up
when travelling at speed. The "running" water-line, and therefore
the true wetted length and wetted surface, can only be accurately
determined from observations using a suitably marked model,
particular attention being given to reproducing the ship running
trim by correct position of the centre of gravity and towing along the
propeller thrust line. These observations must be made at each speed
of test up to full speed, since the "running" water-line varies with
speed. This correction only assumes significance at fairly high speeds
and in hard-chine craft. In very high-speed stepped craft the surface
in contact with the water is very small and not easy to determine
with model tests, so that in practice the frictional correction for such
craft is neglected.
Plates 34 ( a b o v e ) and 35. Eject of Appendages at Low Cavitation Numbers (High-speed).
Proficller shown working under same conditions with dzffering brackets. The eject of Vee
bracket ( b e l o w ) is very marked as compared to I bracket (above). The ratio of appendage
resistance to thrust for case (below) has been shown experimentally to be about double that for
case (above)
Plate 36. Model of M.T.B. under test in waves (with the wind) I metre in height, 40
metres between crests. This form was the original as submitted with a view to improvement.
The spray forward shows undesirable tendencies
Schoenherr's method. Schoenherr deduced the following formula for

the frictional resistance coefficient C, in terms of the Reynolds
VL
number, -:
v
This formula is unwieldy to handle and the values are best

presented in the form of a curve (Fig, 253).
In order to determine the resistance coefficientsof ship and model
VL
it is therefore necessary to evaluate the Reynolds number -. v
With the Schoenherr method of estimating skin friction resistance
it is usual practice with normal displacement hulls to add an
allowance of Cf=o.ooo4 to the value of Cf obtained for the ship to
allow for the increased frictional resistance arising from the roughness
of the surface, as shown in Fig. 253. I n the case of planing hulls, how-
ever, which are slipped more frequently and seldom achieve a great
degree of roughness, a lower roughness allowance may be justified.
Experiment Results
To facilitate the presentation of resistance data obtained from model
experiments, the results are generally plotted in non-dimensional
form. The relevant coefficients used are as follows :
Dimensions are referred to a basic length, U, obtained by taking
the cube root of the volume of displacement, A , that is U = 31/3*
The displacement-length coefficient is then defined by
where is the non-dimensional length coefficient in the form

introduced by Froude, L the length of the boat in feet and A the
displacement in tons.
I t will be seen that fine forms are characterised by having a large
@ value, whereas in full forms the value is small. Typical values are :
Destroyer @ = 8.8
70-ft. M.T.B. @ = 5.7
30-ft. fast motor boat a = 5.5
Bluebird ( I 939) @ = 5.3
A corresponding function often used is the displacement length
A
ratio =
(3
The surface-area function used is
where S is surface area in ft. 2. As already explained, in hard-chine

craft at high speeds the wetted surface area varies with speed and for
accurate assessment of frictional resistance it must be separately
determined for each speed.
The non-dimensional speed function used is
where V is the speed in knots, g the acceleration due to gravity.

This function is similar to the Froude number, with the basic
length U introduced instead of the ship length L.
The non-dimensional resistance function is not generally used in
the form of CD or Ci, but in the form either of the ratio
Resistance
-. . (in lb. ~
* e ton)
r , or
Uisplacement '
1000
The addition of the factor -produces, in general, a more reason-
@D2
R
able plotting of results than does the function - alone, though this
A
latter form is generally adopted for plotting the results for planing
forms.
The results obtained from the model experiments are converted
to o and o values and plotted with s as ordinate to a base of a. The

typical shape of such a curve is shown in Fig. 254.
The humps and hollows in the curve are caused by the interference
of the wave system produced by the bow of the ship with that pro-
duced by the stern. The humps are produc'ed when the two systems
augment each other, that is, crests and troughs of both systems
coincide; the hollows when the systems tend to diminish each
other, that is, crests of one system coincide with the troughs of the
other.
The virtues of using the above functions for plotting the resistance
results are that the characteristics of the curve are emphasised and
the humps- and hollows are always found to occur close to certain
v v
values of - The greatest value of -for which a hump exists is in
fi' TT
dr;
v
the region of I .8; with increase of - above this value, s decreases
dL
steadily. The hump at
v
- = 1.8 is
known as the main hump,
l/f;
since it is by far the most prominent. Other humps occur at
T7
v
values of - of 1.0, 0.8 and so on, and become of less and less
prominence. The maximum speeds of high-speed craft give -
v
df;
values greater than 1.8; for example for a 72-ft. boat at 36 knots
*f;
17
= 4.25, so that in this field the relevant region of the a-a curve
would be to the right of the main hump. Because of this, the results
R
are often plotted in the simple - form. A comparison of the results
A
-- - BOW WAVE SYSTEM
---- STERN WAVE SYSTEM
RESULTANT WAVE SYSTEM

Fig. 255
42 1
Figs. 256 (a) and (b)
for a 9-ft. model of an M.T.B. plotted by both methods is given in

Figs. 256 (a) and (b). The corresponding curves of bodily rise and
trim are shown in Figs. 257 (a) and (b),
Planing
From the curves of rise and trim (Figs. 257 (a) and (b)), it will be seen
that the boat assumes a constant attitude above a certain speed, with
slight increases as speed is increased still further. There is no apparent
R
corresponding change in the o-o curve, but the -;i- curve shows
L1
R
that in this region the value of 7 becomes almost constant; that is,
U
the resistance for a given displacement is constant. When this con-

dition is reached the vessel is said to be planing. I t occurs when
v
- is approximately = 3 or above in hard-chine craft. Beyond this
dZ
value the resistance steadily increases again,
It is difficult to define planing exactly. Its broad significance is
that when planing the forces of buoyancy, which are the forces
responsible for keeping slower-speed vessels afloat, are no longer of
primary importance. Instead the weight of the vessel is supported
almost wholly by the dynamic lift which is a component of the
resultant force acting on the hull due to the high velocity of the boat
422
MODEL EXERIMENTS FOR RESISTANCE AND POWERING
I
relative to the water. The other component of the resultant force
constitutes the drag of the craft which must be overcome by the
thrust of the propeller. The slight increase of resistance with increase
of speed when planing is due to increase of frictional drag and to
greater amount of spray, wind resistance, etc., produced.
Fig. 256 (b) shows that the resistance of the planing form is much
1
less above the planing speeds than the resistance of the displacement
Figs. 2.57 (a) and ( b ) di
form, that is, a form in which the forces of buoyancy arerof prime
importance, the dynamic lift being small, but is greater below planing
speeds. The planing form can therefore travel at higher speeds than
a displacement form with the same power, provided the power is
sufficient to enable the planing speed to be reached initially.
Planing is dependent very largely on the trim of the boat and on
its underwater form. Excessive bow trim will cause planing action
to be delayed or to be impossible; large stern trim will produce
planing at relatively low speeds, with a tendency to "squat" or
excessive stern trim at high speeds. The longitudinal position of the
centre of gravity is therefore a very relevant factor. I n order to
achieve satisfactory planing with its attendant advantages, the

underwater form needs careful consideration. Hard-chine forms,
stepped forms, etc., have been introduced to this end. Generally, a
planing form must have large flat surfaces to enable the dynamic
lift to be produced. Theoretically a wide short surface, of high aspect
ratio, is the most efficient, but practical considerations limit the
extent to which this ideal can be adopted. Dihedral is necessary for
stability and to avoid high local pressures on the bottom; the
longitudinal chine angle should not be too large and produce
excessive stern trim. Generally, the most satisfactory type of hull
form is best found by model experiments for the maximum speed
required. I t is of interest to recall that, following his experiments
with the Ramus form and the three-float form, Froude deduced by a
fairly simple analysis that the planing angle to give minimum
resistance is about I in I 7, namely about 34 degrees, and the minimum
resistance is then about % of the weight of the ship, that is,
..-\
K
-
A
u
= o. I I 8.Y These conclusions have been fully substantiated by the
results of many other model experiments and subsequent ship trials.
Such forms as round-bilge craft are not conducive to planing, and
even at speeds giving
v -4,
T~ i.e. 33 knots for a 70-ft. boat, planing
is not fully developed.
Estimation of Ship @
Before the power required can be estimated, it is necessary to obtain
s for the ship, given the value of o from model tests. The method
of doing this has been illustrated in principle on page 416 and is
further developed here using the same non-dimensional notation.
The method is designed to facilitate rapid evaluation of the o value
for ship, given the o-Q values for the model. The total resistance
coefficient oTMof the model comprises that due to residuary
resistance, ow,, and that due to fiictional resistance opX,that is:
We can also write for the full size vessel:
where the suffixes M and S refer to model and ship respectively.

Now since the model tests are carried out at corresponding speeds,
Rzer
-- is the same for model and ship. Further, a, = o, at correspond-
A
ing speeds.
424
Therefore the residuary resistance coefficients of both ship

and model will be the same, that is, Q ~ ,= mws.
If we now subtract equation ( I ) from equation (2) we have
We have seen that, due to scale effect, the frictional resistance

coefficients of the model and ship are not equal, so that the resistance
coefficient of the ship is obtained from that of the model by the
addition of the skin friction correction (S.F.C.) = cFS - oFN,
This may be evaluated using either the method of Froude or that of
Schoenherr.
Froude
This can be reduced to the form
1.0552 -
v
where GJ =
d L (V in knots, L in feet),
Or, as generally written,
0,
= 0 g~-0.176.
The frictional resistance coefficient is then readily calculated for

given values of 0 and of 6. Tables of these functions are
given below:
Length
3.
I 0 1 Length
3.
Since 8 and Q are non-dimensional, they have the same values for
both model and ship.
Therefore OSu - oFM= (0" OM) Q w ~ . ~ From~ ~ the
* table
above it will be seen that OM will always be larger than 0 s so that
equation (3) becomes
The skin friction correction curve given by S.F.C o = (OM- 0 s )

9 w " is ~ ~ on
plotted ~ the model o-GDcurve as shown (Fig. 258) ;
Fig. 258
I
the value of o, for ship is then the height of the ordinate between
the s, curve for model and the S.F.C. 0 curve.
Schoenherr
In a similar manner the S.F.C. can be estimated, using the Schoen-
herr results. The drag coefficient Cr can be converted readily to
o form by the following relationship :
and the S.F.C. o =-125 (CfM- C,, - 0.0004) o . (5)

3t
426
The Or curve for ship can then be deduced in the same manner
as described for the Froude correction. The values for Ct can be
taken from Fig. 253.
I Estimation of Power
The general form of presentation of model results in terms of power,
is a curve of e.h.p. to base of ship speed, for each displacement and
trim for which experiment results are available.
E,h.p., or effective horsepower, is the power required to tow the
ship on a straight course, I n model tests, it is usual to obtain the
"naked" e,h.p., that is, the model is tested without any appendages
such as shafts, shaft brackets and rudder. This is because such
appendages on the model scale are so small that they are subject
to considerable scale effect, which cannot be readily allowed for when
estimating ship resistance from model test results. Thcir resistance
is therefore calculated from empirical formulae or assessed and
added to the e.h.p. deduced for the ship to give a curve of total e.h.p:
RV ad'v3
e.h.p. = 2
---
9
0.1454 427.1
where R and A are in tons, V is in knots.
Air resistance is also added in the case of very high-speed craft,
generally as determined from wind tunnel tests.
I
Propulsive Coefficient
It is important to note that the total e.h.p. is less than the power
required from the engines, since losses will occur in the transmission
e,h.p. e.h.p.
system and in the propeller itself. The ratio -or -is
s.h.p.
- b.h.p.
-
defined as the propulsive coeficient.
A reliable estimation of the speed of a boat can only be made if
the propulsive coefficient can be accurately predicted: Trial data
from previous similar ships is therefore a prerequisite, since it is on
such trials that the horsepower developed from the engines is
measured or estimated, thus allowing the appropriate propulsive
coefficient to be evaluated, This is discussed in more detail in the
section dealing with speed trials.
The shaft h&sepoier (s.h.p.) is the power measured by torsion-
meters fitted to the propeller shaft as near the propeller as possible.
It does not therefore include the power losses in reduction gearing,
etc. Its application is generally restricted to turbine-driven ships.
The brake horsepower (b.h.p.) is the power deduced from brake
tests of the engines. During such tests the relationship between fuel
consumption, boost, r.p.m., etc., and b.h.p. is established which can

be used later to deduce the b.h.p. of the engine when operation on
trials. It is generally applied to diesel or petrol engines and includes
losses in transmission system, "ec.
The e.h.p. may or may not include appendage resistance and it
is important to differentiate between the propulsive coefficients
obtained, using either one or the other.
Typical values for propulsive coefficients are given below:
Craft E.H.P. B.H.P.
Bluebird 852
(with app.)
70-ft. M.T.B. 1,310
35-ft. Motor 45
boat
Brave F.P.B. 5,250
Larger, slower vessels, such as battleships, cruisers, liners, etc.,
may have propulsive coefficients as high as 0.6.
Quasi-propulsive coefficient, or Q .I? .C.

The propulsive coefficient may be broken down into a number of
component parts as follows :
e.h.p. (with appendages)
Propulsive coefficient=
s.h.p.
-
e.h.p. (with appendages) t.h.p. dht' dhp
x-x-x-
t.h.p. dhp dhp s.h.p.
(I) t.h.p. is the thrust horsepower developed by the pro-
pellers. This is determined from methodical series data
(see Chapter XX) from the known dimensions of the pro-
peller, its speed through the water and the propeller r.p.m.
There are two important effects to be considered:
(a) The velocity of the propeller through the water V, may not
be the same as the velocity V of the boat due to skin
friction, appendages, shape of hull etc., which affect the
flow conditions. The difference between the two velocities
is termed the wake.
(b) The proximity of the propeller to the hull results in a loss of
useful thrust so that in effect the propeller must be designed
to produce a thrust T which will be greater than the ship
resistance R at the speed in question, the difference T- R,
428
/ MODEL EXPERIMENTS FOR RESISTANCE AND POWERING
termed the thrust deduction, being lost due to the interaction

effects.
I Thus t.h.p.=T xV.

---- R x V This ratio is called the hull e$iciency (h.e.).
e.h.p.
.
t.h.p. T xVl
I n high-speed craft it is not conventionally considered to
depart greatly from unity but could be determined by a
special series of model tests.
t.h.p.
2 ) where dhp' is the power delivered to the propellers
when developing thrust T in a uniform stream of water at
speed Vl, is the propeller e$cieny and can be determined
by methodical series charts (see Chapter XX).
1 dhpf
,where dhp is the power delivered to the propellers when
$ (3) dhp
propelling the ship. This factor takes into account the fact
that appendages close to the propeller, e.g. shaft bracket
arms and hull form, influence the flow through the propeller,
which will not, as a result, be uniformly V,,
The ratio is termed the relative rotative e@ciency and in
high-speed craft may not differ appreciably from unity,
though the amount it is affected by cavitation from the
propeller bracket arms is not very accurately known as yet.
More investigation on this subject would be valuable and
could be carried out in a cavitation tunnel given a suitable
rig incorporating propeller shafting, brackets and perhaps
rudders.
- dhp represents in effect the transmission &ciency.

(4) s.h.p.
Thus we have, when appendage resistance is included
in the e.h.p.,
Propulsive coefficient = h.e. x Screw efficiency x r.r.e. x
Transmission q.
The product h.e. x Screw efficiencyx r.r.e. is termed the quasi-
propulsive coefiient (q.p.c). I n high-speed craft little error is in-
volved if it is taken as equal to the screw efficiency, subject only
to possible effect on r.r.e. at very low cavitation numbers.
Furthermore, due to the extraneous effects, it is usually found in
Propulsive coefficient
practice that the ratio is rather less than the
4.p.c.
estimated transmission efficiency.
The effect of these extraneous influences is combined with the

p.c.
transmission loss in a factor given by the ratio -, referred to
4.p.c.
as the q.p.c. factor.
I n general, the q.p.c. factor will vary with the type of craft,
machinery combination, gearing etc., and suitable values are best
obtained from previous speed trials results of similar craft. How-
ever, if no other information is available a q.p.c. factor of 0.7 may
be assumed for use with the propeller data given in Chapter XX.
I t is unlikely to be any greater than this and at very high
speeds may well be less. For example, in the case of the Bluebird
at 141.7 m.p.h. the nominal screw efficiency estimated was 0.72 ;
the corresponding propulsive coefficient was 0.456, giving a q.p.c.
-0.72
factor of 0.456 -0.635.
- Such low values of the q.p.c. factor are
essentially pkculiar to high-speed craft with fast-running engines,
and in larger slower vessels it may assume values as high as 0.95.
Estimation of B .H .P., Model Experiments

The b.h.p. required for a craft to attain a certain speed may be
readily estimated from model experiments. These model experiments
will give the e.h.p. for the naked hull. The extra horsepower neces-
sary to overcome the resistance of appendages such as shaft brackets
and air resistance can also be deduced from model experiments or
estimated from available data. The horsepower necessary to
overcome the appendage resistance is of the order of 10 per
cent of the naked hull e.h.p., although in very high-speed planing
forms where the hull resistance is relatively small the horsepower
to overcome appendage and air resistance may be as high as 80
per cent of the naked hull e.h.p. This illustrates the importance of
keeping appendages to an absolute minimum in such craft and
giving as much attention to the design of the above-water form as
to the hull form. To this end wind-tunnel experiments are frequently
desirable.
The screw efficiency mav be evaluated approximately in the
early design stage frhm the curves of effic&cy (Figs. 2 (a), 1
(b), ( c ) and (d) referred to in Chapter XX, pages 334-5), and
its product with a suitable q.p.c. factor will give the propulsive
coefficient. As already pointed out, in the absence of other data
the q.p.c. factor may be taken as 0.7.
The required b.h.p. is then given by:
(e.h.p. of naked hull + appendages and air resistance)
--
b.h.p. =
Screw efficiency x q.p.c. factor
If trial results from similar craft are available, the propulsive

coefficient may be assumed equal to that obtained from analysis of
these trials, thus avoiding the necessity for estimating the screw
efficiency in the early stages of design.
Estimation of B.H.P. Approximate Method

I t is often necessary to estimate rapidly the b.h.p. required for a new
form without indulging in the luxury of model experiments. Alterna-
tively, if the b,h.p. of the craft is known some simple method of
evaluating the speed is required. For purposes such as these,
empirical formulae can be deduced from trial results, giving speed
in terms of b.h.p., displacement, length, etc. The difficulty arises
that for the formula to be strictly accurate it should allow for the
effect of variations of all factors affecting resistance, and, needless
to say, such formulae would be far too complex. Doubtless all
designers develop their own rules and formulae based on trial
results with their own craft and these probably prove satisfactory
over the range of speeds and length for which they apply. I t is
essential when using such formulae to realise the limitations which
necessarily- apply.
- - -
The general form of most formulae is a simple relationship
between the ratio of b.h.p. to displacement and the speed-length
@"
ratio or the speed alone,-for different lengths of craft. One sdch
relationship is shown in Fig. 259, where values of V
J
displacement
horsepower
are plotted to a base of length both for hard-chine forms and for step-
ped-planing forms. These curves are based on the results of a number
of speed trials with craft of various lengths, the curves being a mean
B.H.P.
5 -
4 -
3 -
2 -
I -
0 1 I 1 I 1 I
do LENGTH
,i0 I;o
L
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 iz0
(FEET)
Fig. 259
43 1
line through the results. The use of these curves will not give an
exact prediction of speed or of power, but if the design is a fairly
normal type of form the error should not be more than about 5 per
cent, or at worst 10 per cent. No greater degree of accuracy can
really be expected from empirical formulae. I t is important to
realise that the curves are only applicable to speeds above planing
fT T7
speeds, i.e. 2v/E= 3. The largest value of
d~ for which the results
-!!=
were plotted was 6.5 for hard-chine forms and 15 for the stepped
forms, so that the curves are probably fairly reliable in the range
v
- v v v = 15
z / =~3 to z/f;=6.5 for hard-chine forms and d L = 3 to T~
for the stepped forms. A reasonably good propeller design must
be assumed in using these curves.
As an example in the use of the curves in Fig. 259, the approximate
power required for a 70-ft. M.T.B. to travel at 35 knots at a displace-
ment of 35 tons can be estimated as follows:
Jdisp2;;ent
Assuming a hard-chine form, the V - value corres-
ponding to a length of 70 ft., from Fig. 259 is 4.25; that is:
p l a c e m e n t =4.25.
b.h.p.
V = 35 knots ; displacement = 35 tons.
I t is thus clear that this method affords a ready means of estimating

either power required for a given speed or speed attainable with a
given power, within certain limits of accuracy. Such a method can-
not hope to compete with model experiments for accuracy of pre-
diction of speed estimate. The case of the Bluebird illustrates the
degree of accuracy which can be obtained by model experiments;
the figures speak for themselves. I n 1937 it was predicted that the
speed attained would be 130 m.p.h., actually the official record
speed was 129.56 m.p.h. Similarly in 1939 a speed of 140 m.p.h.
was predicted; the official record speed on this occasion being 141.7
m.p.h.
I
I MODEL EXPERIMENTS FOR RESISTANCE AND POWERING
i
I Comparison of Forms
The objective of all designers of high-speed craft is to produce the
form having the lowest possible resistance for a given displacement,
bearing in mind any other requirements for the craft. Obviously
the designer of a record-breaking craft has a much different proposi-
tion than the designer of an M.T.B. Both want to achieve the highest
possible speed, but whereas in the former case everything is sacrificed
for speed, in the latter case the craft is expected to carry offensive
weapons and accommodate crew. Both cases, however, reduce to
the same objective, Now for a given displacement any combination
of length, beam and draught, within certain obvious limits, will give
the required displacement, and the object of the designer is to
choose a suitable combination of these dimensions to give minimum
resistance. A new design, therefore, may well differ in these dimen-
sions from a previous craft, perhaps not even of the same displace-
ment, and, following model experiments, it is usual to compare the
performance of the new design with that of other similar craft to
ensure that the former is at least as good as previous craft, if not
better.
I t is apparent that no useful purpose is served by comparing the
maximum speed attained with a certain power by two completely
dissimilar craft botb as regards form, displacement and principal
dimensions. There would be little point, for example, in comparing
a round-bilge form with a hard-chine form, or even a stepped form,
1T
since the limits of in which each of these forms is superior to the
a
others, in calm water, have been fairly well established, and the
designer would obviously start by choosing the appropriate form for
the speed-length ratio a t which the craft is expected to run. This
matter of selection has already been discussed in an earlier chapter.
In the case of normal displacement forms running at relatively
v
low speed-length ratios, that is, below -= 2, a suitable basis for
df;
comparing two forms is the speed-length ratio. I t has been pointed
out that the curve of resistance coefficient for displacement forms
is characterised by a series of humps and hollows which always
occur at approximately the same value of the speed-length ratio
due to the interference between the wave systems from the bow
and the stern. A comparison on a basis of speed-length ratio will
therefore enable the most suitable form for a given degree of wave
interference between bow and stern systems to be determined.
The problem of comparison of forms is rather different in the case of
high-speed forms, for above speed-length ratios of 2 no further inter-
action between the bow- and stern-wave systems occurs and above
433
values of about 2.5-3, namely, when the craft begins to plane, the
flow conditions round the hull change and are no longer similar to
those around a normal displacement form. Because of the change in
conditions it is thought that the speed-length ratio no longer affords
a convenient basis for comparison. This is particularly so in the case
of stepped forms, where, when planing is fully developed, the length
of the craft is of no significance and even the length between steps
is probably of little greater importance, the three-point support type
of craft being an extreme case. There are thus perhaps justifiable
grounds for criticising the applicability of the speed-length ratio as a
basis for comparison of planing forms, but it must be remembered
that it is still a sound basis for predicting the performance of the
full-size craft from the results of model experiments, and the two
issues must not be confused with one another. I n the latter case the
ship and its model are geometrically similar, whilst in the former
they are not, necessarily.
The question arises that if the speed-length ratio is no longer a
valid basis for comparison, what is? The answer to this is not easy
to give, and at present no convenient basis has yet found universal
acceptance. For hard-chine craft it is argued that the speed-beam
ratio, namely,
v
d B ' is a more suitable basis for comparison, and this
-.
is now often used. The reason is that in such forms the direction of
the flow under the hull has a large transverse component, so that
the beam of the craft becomes of greater significance than the
length. This is also true for the flow conditions behind the hull,
where the characteristic stern plume or "rooster tail" is formed.
The speed-beam ratio may be a satisfactory form of comparison
for hard-chine forms, but it suffers from the same disadvantages as
the speed-length ratio when applied to stepped forms and three-
point support forms in particular. I t is clear that in such cases the
dimensions of the craft are relatively unimportant, and the only
quantity of significance, apart from the speed, is the displacement
of the craft. In such cases comparison is usually effected by com-
paring the values of the resistance per ton of displacement on a
basis of the speed-displacement ratio, where
v is the displace-
-
d&
ment of the form. The speed-displacement ratio is, of course, directly
proportional to e which is defined earlier in this chapter. Within
fairly broad limits the speed-displacement ratio can be regarded as a
satisfactory basis for comparing planing forms one with another;
provided the a values and the ratios of beam to length do not differ
considerably from one form to another there is little to choose
between any of the above ratios as a suitable basis for comparison.
It is only when large differences in the ratios of the dimensions occur
Plate 37. Model of M.T.B. under test in waves. ModiJed ,form at 19.85 knots. Wave
height I metre. Distance between crests 40.5 metres, which is rather less than twice the
boat's length. This normally represents a veTy dzficult state of affairs. The improvement
in spray thrown forward is very noticeable
Plate 38. "Crusader" model running at 974 m.p.h.
Plate 39. 24-ft. scale model of M. T.B. form running through wash of larger boat
that the choice of a suitable basis should be considered, as discussed

above.
Methodical Series Data

A rapid method of estimating the e.h.p. of a hard-chine form is
provided by some recently published American data1 obtained from
the tests of 2 0 models of hard-chine forms deduced from a parent
form by varying the ratio of the beam to draught for a givenlength
and displacement and by varying the displacement-length ratios,
'/ (&)'. The parent form had values A / (-&-)'=110and
beam
=5.3. The range covered by this series of experiments
draught
were from 40 to I 60 for '/ ($) 'values and 4 to 15 for
beam
draught
ratios. These ranges cover most values likely to be met with in
practice.
The results are presented in the form of charts giving curves of
total model resistances as pounds per pound of displacement for the
range of displacement-length ratios and beam-to-draught ratios for
v values from 1.5 to 6.5 in steps of 0.5 for each of three static
-
dL
trims, namely, level, 2 degrees by stern and 4 degrees by stern, for
normal displacement and displacements 10 per cent and 2 0 per cent
in excess of normal. The values are for models of 40 in. length and
the resistance of the full-size craft must be estimated by one of the
methods already explained in which the resistance is divided into
its two principal constituents, frictional and residuary resistance,
which are then scaled independently. Curves of running trim are
also given for the same conditions, and data is also included from
which the position of the longitudinal centre of gravity in relation
to the static trim and the corresponding wetted surface can be
determined. The latter is of course essential when predicting full-
size performance.
The porpoising characteristics of selected models were investigated
and the results of these tests shown. Charts show the ranges of speed-
length ratios, in which porpoising can be expected to occur. No
porpoising occurred in any of the models when tested with normal
trim, but at the other trims porpoising occurred beyond certain
speed-length ratios. In fact with 4 degrees stern trim from normal,
porpoising was found to occur at speed-length ratios as low as 3,
thus illustrating the adverse effect of excessive stern trim.
1 Tests of Twenty Related Models of V-bottom Motor Boats, published by the
David W. Taylor Model Basin, U.S.A.
I n the course of model experiments the following relationships

between model and full-scale boat will be of value:
Full-scale Craft Model
Length L I
Speed VF vx
Speed-length ratio
vr
-
VN
-
dL di-
Displacement A
Wetted surface S
Power cc LB for correspon-

-
ding speeds ( ) or for
1 This is really only applicable for stepped forms' where wetted areas at speed
and therefore frictional resistance is small.
[K.H.W.T. and T.R.F.N.]
CHAPTER XXVII
USE O F MODELS FOR PREDICTION OF

BEHAVIOUR I N ROUGH WATER
THEAIM to achieve optimum performance in a seaway must, of

course, be foremost in the mind of a designer, whether his product
is to be fast or slow, big or little.
It so happens that the particular problem here discussed is the
behaviour of the relatively small high-speed craft, but much stated
hereafter can be generally applicable.
When we refer to "optimum performance " speed is the quality
which comes first to mind. We can perhaps qualify this by stating
that the aim will be maintenance of maximum possible speed under
stipulated conditions of sea and wind.
I t goes without saying that speed must be maintained with safety
and reasonable comfort. In the case of naval, patrolling, or rescue
vessels, their ability to fulfil their functions under adverse conditions
is an important requirement.
Taking the matter to somewhat absurd lengths, it can be envisaged
as a possibility that speed and actual safety can be adjudged satis-
factory in a certain case, but the motion, either pitching or, almost
equally important, rolling, may be so violent that conditions become
intolerable to the operating crew, Violent rolling is not so likely to
become an embarrassment in the case of the hard-chine type of plan-
ing craft, but it very definitely can have the effect of wearing out all
concerned in the case of the many types of smaller round-form craft
produced these days, unless they are fitted with effective damping
arrangements either active or passive.
Another important feature which can adversely affect satisfactory
operation is the propensity for covering the bridge and other im-
portant parts of the decks and upperworks with spray.
I t is most difficult to generalise over the matter of what constitutes
a seaworthy hull-which is perhaps another way ofsaying the problem
is very easy to over-simplify.
For example, a hull which can be driven fast without excessive
vertical accelerations (slamming)in the forward sections can produce
very violent pitching (in amplitude) to an extent that a forward gun
cannot be operated with any reasonable degree of accuracy or even
safety to the crew. Equally a hull which behaves nicely in head sea
conditions may prove to behave badly in following or quartering sea
conditions.
As a generalisation it is probably true that for a given length and
FF* 437
speed the round-form hull will be expected to develop accelerations

in the forward sections of a lesser magnitude than the hard-chine
planing type though assuming the latter to be well designed there
is not a great deal in it. I t may well prove thoroughly unpleasant,
however, from the point of view of pitching, building up the am-
plitude to an extent that the bow will dip right into the oncoming
wave, resulting in decks, and perhaps bridge, being washed down
to a dangerous extent.
As a matter of interest and rather surprisingly a recent series of
experiments carried out at the N.P.L. (Ship Tank) in waves with
two models, one hard chine and the other round form, showed that
the difference in slamming was negligible. This result is so revolu-
tionary that further confirmation has been sought from sea experi-
ments which has confirmed this result. There is room for further
study of the rate of change of acceleration which perhaps means
much more to the human frame and internals than a record of
maxima and minima. It is definitely accelerations which count
towards seasickness, although there appears to be a threshold in time
within which the stimulus is able to affect the human system. This
may be the explanation of why few people are seasick in the speed-
boat or M.T.B. types.
TOdrive a round-form craft fast involves relatively fine entry and
therefore weak lift or buoyancy in the forward sections. To prevent
"squatting" the aft sections will have to be relatively wide. This
combination, combined with weak transverse sections approaching
the semi-circular at the turn of the bilge, results in poor following sea
behaviour.
As already explained, the round-form type of fast craft is to some
extent prone to bury her forward sections, more especially in a follow-
ing sea. The basic reason lies in the fact that below the running
water-line the sections must be fine to ensure minimum resistance.
As opposed to the hard-chine type of form where the sections between
the chine and gunwale can be relatively wide and well "flared ",this
quality is not obtainable to anything like the same extent in the round-
form hull.
I t has, however, become increasingly popular in recent years to
incorporate widely flaring sections a short distance above the water-
line, terminating in a " knuckle" or hard chine. Thereafter and
towards the fore-deck the sides may be relatively vertical.
I n this way much is to be gained. The flared sections relatively near
the running water-line tend to throw the spray out in a horizontal
direction, which is a most desirable feature, while the compartments
in the forward sections are able to avoid the very awkward slope in
their sides which would occur in the case of marked flare without a
chine, Fig. 760 (a) and (b) will show this feature clearly.
438
MODELS FOR PREDICTION OF BEHAVIOUR IN ROUGH WATER
Fig. 260
The best way to assess relative seaworthiness of various forms is, of

course, to try them out in adverse conditions at full scale.
This is not usually possible for financial and other reasons, not
least of which is the time taken to design, build and try each and
every alternative hull form afloat in suitable conditions,
I t is, however, fortunate that when geometrically similar hulls of
differing length are run in water, provided that the speedtlength
ratio V/ dz is maintained at the same value, the behaviour generally
is comparable.
I t can be shown that for models running at the same number for
V/ z/r; accelerations in the vertical sense will be reproduced exactly
when disturbed by waves of height and length proportionate to the
ratio of the linear dimensions.
Thus if a 25-ft. boat is run at V/ 2/z=5the speed will be 25 knots.
For the same form of - 100-ft. length the speed will be 50 knots
(still assuming same V/ I/L=5 ) .
Therefore the accelerations measured when the "model" is run
through a wave system I ft. high and 40 ft. long will be exactly the
same as will be recorded when the 100-ft. boat runs at 50 knots in
waves 4 ft. high with a length 160 ft. between crests.
In the same way, with satisfactory reproduction of moment of
inertia to scale, a g-ft. model towed in an experiment tank at 15 knots
would reproduce identical accelerations when run in waves 0.36 ft,
high, spaced apart 14.4 ft.
For much the same reason that the accelerations are reproduced
exactly at the same V/.\/Z numbers, so also is the behaviour as
regards the generation and shape of spray pattern subject to effects
of surface tension.
Use of these fundamental principles can be most useful in the
study of sea-keeping qualities.
Probably the optimum form such an investigation should take
would commence by observation of a series of models run at varying
wave height and length, and through a range of speeds.
See Appendix at the end of this chapter.
439
Such an investigation would certainly form a good guide as to

features worthy of incorporation into the final form.
If behaviour in broken water is the principal object of the investiga-
tion quite a good idea as to relative qualities can be obtained by
towing a model at "scale" speed from a launch. In this case an
cc
outrigger" can be arranged forward from which the model can be
towed. Adjustment of the length of towing line inboard can ensure
that the model is run in water undisturbed by the bow and other
waves generated by the hull of the towing launch (see Fig. 103).
Needless to say, it is desirable to "calibrate" the launch over a
measured mile, plotting speed against engine revolutions.
This method may be considered to suffer from the drawback that it
is difficult to assess with accuracy the character and dimensions of the
waves encountered, but it is nevertheless a surprisingly good method
of obtaining qualitative results. The hull form of more than one
vessel costing well over roo,ooo has been decided upon in this way
when time has not permitted of a full series of tank investigations.
Incidentally, though again the indications are qualitative rather
than quantitative, the character and direction of the spray emerging,
more particularly at high speeds, can give a good indication of the
magnitude of loadings likely to be experienced on the bottom panels,
especially in the region which is always most highly loaded in the
neighbourhood of the running water-line forward.
I n general terms, a highly loaded bottom in the forward sections
will result in spray emerging relative to the hull approximately at
right angles, whereas well " veed " deep forward sections will result
in spray emerging at considerably smaller angles relative to the fore-
and-aft axis, with a considerable aft component.
Conversely, in the case of the flat plank spray will emerge
directly forward in fore-and-aft line. This is discussed in more
detail in Chapter VII, "Planing Principles" (see Fig. 78), also in
such standard works as Shoemaker, Wagner, etc.
Study of the diagram shown in Fig. 78 will make it understand-
able that change of momentum considerations can explain the
higher loadings resulting from large angles of spray emergence
relative to the fore-and-aft axis. It can be seen that even for the
case of spray emergence at right angles the absolute velocity and
'direction relative to a point in space will be well forward of the
beam.
There is also, of course, the vertical plane to take into account
here. I n general the more the spray departure approaches the hori-
zontal the higher the loadings. Conversely, spray departing at
appreciable angles to the horizontal is indicative of lower loadings.
The long bow wave or "blister" from a round-form high-speed
craft is large, and has a considerable vertical component in its
direction of departure. This can be clearly seen in the photograph

of H.M.S. Bold Pathznder, Plate 15.
While on the subject of loading, the sketch Fig. 261 herewith
reproduced from the classic report on planing phenomena by H.
Wagner1 shows how extremely high loadings can be experienced near
the chine under certain circumstances in the case of relatively flat
continuous concave sections.
Fig. 261
" Manned Models "

After a preliminary sifting of the small-scale models a short list
can be arrived at; and if time permits, one, two or even three
I models can then be built of such a size that they can be driven
at scale speed by an observer in scale conditions.
Between 25 and 30 ft. is a good size which has the merit of not
involving excessive expense or power while giving the observer a
good idea of all-round qualities, including maneuvrability at low
and high speeds in varying-conditions. A 25-ft. water-line length has
its attractions owing to z / for
~ this case being the whole number 5.
I t goes without saying that the individual testing the "manned"
model should have a good deal of experience of the behaviour of this
1 Planing of WatercraB (N.A.C.A., T.M. I 139 (Translation)).
441
class of craft at sea. There are, unfortunately, not a great many of

such individuals who are also designers or who can give sufficient
guidance to a naval architect to ensure a satisfactory product in
this respect. On the whole it is probably true that the best and
most seaworthy craft are produced by those who are themselves
practical seamen. The observant individual who has a superficial
knowledge of the dynamics of control surfaces, etc., will unfortunately
usually find it difficult to convey his meaning to the naval architect.
There are remarkably few seamen or indeed technicians who have
sufficiently analytical minds to sift the matter to bed rock. I t is so
easy to be misled by false trails or advice. Here perhaps a little of the
lawyer's training in examination would be of more help than a
degree in engineering or naval architecture.
Though this does not only apply to the manned model it should
perhaps be mentioned here that the control position, its location
and equipment, can make more than IOO per cent difference to the
way a boat can be driven in adverse conditions.
The steering gear and throttle controls must be light and positive,
and in addition careful thought must be given to the location of
the windscreen and its clearance to ensure that the driver has a good
view of the approaching wave formations. These observations
apply mainly to day-time running, of course, it being accepted
that for night running a high-speed craft will have to reduce speed
fairly considerably so as not to be caught out by the occasional
really big wave.
Model Running in " Waves " at Experiment Tank

An investigation carried out on an M.T.B. hull form at the request
of the Chantier Naval de Meulan, who were the designers, by Mom.
Brard of the Bassin d'Essais des Carhnes in Paris is of considerable
interest in this connection.
The accompanying photographs (Plates 36 and 37) show the
improvement incorporated in the forward sections of models running
at the same "scale" speed and in the same waves by means of
relatively small modifications to the character of the forward sections.
Plate 37 showing the modified form should be compared with Plate
36 which represents the hull it was desired to improve.
The important parameter here is clearly HIL, where H is the
wave height and ilthe length between crests.
The diagram shown in Fig. 262 indicates clearly this improve-
ment.
A photograph of one of three 24-ft models used by Vosper Ltd. in
an attempt to investigate the suitability for sea service of three diff-
ering hull forms i s shown in Plate 39. These boats made very
UlGU GPEED M.T.B. 25 MErREsS LONG
HEIGHT OF \VAVE=I METRE
[ I 1 0 2 5 130 I KEY
FORE DECK COMPLETELY COVERED
WITH ACTUAL WAVE
LIGHT SPRAY
I
1 FORE DECK QUITE DRY
-
VEDETTE A 2 VEDETTE A3
HEIGHT OF WAVE=2 METRES
clear the relative merits under reasonably realistic conditions. As

\
these trials were carried out in 1939 and included a stepped form
and a hard-chine form possessing most favourable resistance charac-
teristics it is of interest that the form with the least favourable
resistance qualities was eventually chosen by the user (the Royal
Navy).
1n 'retrospect, and knowing more now than at that time of the
conditions in which these craft have to operate, the selection was
probably a sound one provided a speed-length ratio of 3.0 or above
were ~ossible.
I
For the case where it became necessary to run slower for operational
reasons, or due to stress of weather, it would undoubtedly have
improved matters to have raised the chine through approximately
the forward third of the length and incorporated a deeper and more
buoyant forefoot.
As a generalisation, it seems highly desirable that concavity of
bottom section should be achieved as it rises to the chine, thereby
directing spray in a generally horizontal direction, while at the same
time producing the effect of deep "vee" (relatively large @-see Fig.
263),with a little convexity, especially lower down, to reduce shock on
impact and provide an element of buoyancy for the low-speed case.
This convexity will also help towards avoidance of the peak loadings
as shown in Fig. 261.
I t has to be realised that excessive convexity in the sections both
transversc and longitudinal which will be revealed in the buttock
lines can, if ovcrdone, lead to instability and a tendency to "lean".
The reason for this phenomenon is probably due in the main to the
Fig. 263
"CONSTANT FORCE" BOTTOM O F PARABOLIC SECTION"

-
(HYDRODYNAMICS OF SLAMMING OF SHIPS SZEBEHELYl
(DERIVED FROM H. WAGNER)
circular path taken by the mass of water flowing along the bottom
or up the sides which results in an outward centripetal force causing
instability. This is one more example of the necessity for judicious
compromise in all engineering design problems.
This shape of forward sections may not be in some respects ideal for
production purposes, but it is believed that a study of the technique
of developable surfaces might be beneficial and rewarding.
I t cannot be denied that the generalisations as set out above are
lacking in substantiation (as far as is known) by any scientific data.
I t is perhaps worth considering whether the effect of various
features on behaviour and performance could be assessed as a result
of some series of experiments incorporating modern technique for
measurement of the various phenomena observed, such, for instance,
as accelerations, amplitudes of pitch and perhaps roll, bottom
pressures, spray direction, thickness, etc. Also most desirable is a
simultaneous record of local wave height and length. In addition
there have recently been carried out for Vosper in various experi-
mental tanks a number of investigations in waves, mainly with the
objective of ascertaining the relative merits of various forms.
For instance, there is much controversy, and in many cases quite
exaggerated claims one way or another, over the round form
versus the planing form or hard chine. Investigation into the merits
of the "monohedron" form, for which substantial claims are made,

have also attracted interest. More recently still, the merits of the
constant deadrise deep "vee" form have been tested against the
more normal warped bottom form commonly used by Vosper. This
latter was established as being very suitable for the potential con-
testant for the 1 9 6 2 International Daily Express Offshore Powerboat
Race, Here within the speed range of interest the Vosper warped
form was substantially superior so far as resistance was concerned,
while actual pitching was much reduced. The accelerations were
halved by the simple expedient of straightening the transverse
sections, or in other words, by eliminating the concavity under the
chine. The spray was controlled by suitably placed "spray strips".
An interesting series of tests were carried out in the Saunders-
Roe tank in 1957 to establish the relative merits of various high-speed
forms in following (and quartering) waves. The result, in condensed
form, was given in a paper read by the author to the International
Seakeeping Symposium held at Wageningen in September 1957.
Appendix
Use of Models for Prediction of Behauiour in Rough Water
It can be shown that for a model running at the same Froude
number as the full-scale craft, accelerations are equal for the two cases
provided the disturbing waves are proportionate to the linear
dimensions :
v
L
v =distance
time
I-
L
-
L I
Acceleration =- = - =constant
tz L
Alternatiuely
Under dynamically similar conditions:
force @AV2
Vertical acceleration = - oc-
mass mass
K
e L 2 ( 2 / ~ )*2
L8
cc constant
[P.D.C.]
CHAPTER XXVIII
ELECTRIC ARRANGEMENTS I N
HIGH-SPEED CRAFT
IT IS not proposed here to discuss more than certain special factors

which have to be taken into account in scheming the electrical
system as applicable more particularly to high-speed craft.
It is the weight factor which must of necessity enter into con-
sideration here first and foremost, apart, of course, fiom reliability.
Though to some extent applicable to all warships, the electric
fittings, especially those containing lamp filaments, should be
mounted in such a manner that vibration can be insulated.
As high-speed craft will always have relatively high-powered
engines installed, the supply of electrical energy for starting involves
in most cases the use of batteries capable of high current output.
Most of these starting circuits are of I 2 or 24 volts.
In cases where engine units of the American type are converted
for marine purposes it will sometimes be found that a 6-volt starting
and ignition system will be involved, but for marine work 12 volts
or upwards is really preferable.
The smaller craft such as runabouts supply a few lights in the
form of an outside circuit from the starting battery, which may be
increased in capacity for this purpose, otherwise there is no form of
charging arrangement other than the engine-driven dynamo,
which will usually be supplied to each engine.
For somewhat larger craft, where it can be anticipated that the
owner may require to live aboard at times and where the outside
load apart from starting and ignition may be such as to run down the
battery to such an extent that it would become incapable of starting
the main engine, it is usual to fit a small auxiliary generator capable
of charging the batteries when the main engines are not working.
Where two or more engines are used for propulsion purposes their
dynamos will normally be "paralleled" so as to share the load of
charging one centrally placed battery.
When we come to consider the larger cralt, such as patrol boats,
M.T.B.s, etc., the electrical system becomes more complex, as
besides starting it will be necessary to provide quite extensive boat
circuits for the operation of fans, wireless, radar, gunnery, com-
munications, etc., as well as for lighting on a fairly large scale.
This may well lead us to the separation of starting from ship's
circuits, in which case the engine starters will operate from 24-volt
starting batteries charged by dynamos driven from main engines,
while the I a 1 may be provided by separate engine-driven

generators supplying I 10 or 2 2 0 volts D.C. It will usually be fbund
convenient to drive a small 24-volt generator from the auxiliary
set to charge starting batteries in emergency, as, for instance, if
main engines have not been run for some considerable time.
Arrangements are sometimes also made so that the ship's circuits
can be connected to a shore main when in harbour or alongside a
quay. This source of supply cannot of necessity be coupled to the
ship's circuits direct because the shore main, in the U.K. at least, is
usually of 22Q volts A.C., whereas a ship's circuits will be 24, I 10
or 220 volts D.C.
For this reason it is not uncommon to provide a separate skeleton
circuit for this purpose alone or else to couple the shore main to a
suitable form of rotary converter or transformer.
Cables
Cables used for high-speed craft are generally selected for lightness
and for resistance to oil and water. The type of cable now favoured
is of the rubber or varnished cambric insulated type, sheathed with
polychloroprene.
This cable is substantially flame-resisting and is virtually unaffected
by petrol, paraffin, lubricating and other oils, such as are used for
hydraulic mechanisms.
Consideration has been given to a cable known as Pren, which is
extensively used in aircraft. I t is extremely light in weight, due to the
Fig. 264:-Voltage regulator and cut-out mounted in light housing for

high-speed craft
448
ELECTRIC ARRANGEMENTS I N HIGH-SPEED CRAFT
Fig. 265:-Light-weight fuse and junction box
reduction in the thickness of the insulation, which consists of a glass

braid weaved directly over the conductor and then sheathed in
polychloroprene. However, it has been found in practice that when
used in marine craft it is liable to damage. I n order to prevent this
it is necessary to provide some mechanical protection. The cable can
be run in a metallic conduit. This offsets any weight-saving en-
visaged by the use of this type of cable in an installation.
Perhaps it should be mentioned here that on all types of modern
high-speed craft the two-wire system is adopted; that is to say,
the system sometimes used in automobile practice where one wire
is employed in conjunction with an earth return is not considered
suitable or safe. This may involve some alteration to the engine
circ~its~where a conversion from a car engine is used, but this does
not present much difficulty. This is usually carried out by replacing
the ignition coil and distributor with a magneto and the
modification of the earth return starter to a two-pole insulated
type*
Weight -saving
I n the interests of weight-saving, junction boxes, switchboards,
switches, instrument panels, etc., are best designed and fabricated
specially for this job making use of a saltwater-resisting light alloy
as far as possible. Although in the past it has been usual to make
these items watertight, in view of the necessity to give still further
consideration to weight-saving, a compromise is necessary. Where
this equipment is not directly exposed to the weather-as, for example,
below decks-drip-proof equipment is used. Photos of watertight
types of fitting are shown in Figures 264 and 265.
Radio Screening
Radio screening and/or suppression represents one of the more
important problems.
Generally speaking any form of spark wherever it is set up
in the electrical system will cause radio interference. In other
words, a radio operator will hear a crackle or harsh noise in his
earphones if sparks occur in the ship's circuits or, for that matter,
in those of an adjacent ship. One well-known example of this noise
can be and has been heard by anyone listening to the broadcast on
a home radio set when thunder and therefore lightning is in the
vicinity.
However, the commonest form of radio interference met with
in a boat will emanate from the sparking plugs. I t is true the
actual spark itself is shielded by being surrounded by metal, but a
considerable impulse radiates from plug leads, terminals, dis-
tributors, coils, make-and-break, and so on.
All these items will therefore require screening, which consists
in providing a covering of metal or suppression which involves the
use of suppressors or choke coils, the functioning of which will
be explained hereafter.
Bearing in mind the fact that any piece of electrical apparatus
likely to produce a spark can cause interference, other sources of
this trouble can be expected from commutators such as are to be
found in D.C. motors, voltage regulators as fitted to engine-driven
dynamos and any piece of electrical apparatus involving relay
contacts such, for instance, as automatic steering gears.
Suppression of Radio Interference

The cause and effect of radio interference have already been briefly
discussed.
Interference has three main classifications:
(I) Direct radiation.

(2) Conduction.
(3) Re-radiation.
Radiation occurs direct from the source of interference generation

to the radio receiver or its aeriallearth system. Direct radiation is
generally not effective at more than 10 yards from source.
Conduction. Interference currents travel along conductors, usually

those forming the supply system.
INTERFERENCE H/F ClJRRENTS
SUPER-IMPOSED ON CABLES
CARRYING D.C. CURRENTS
RADIO RECEIVER
TO LIGHTS ETC.
Q LIGHTS AND
BATTERY 24 V. -AUX. CIRCUITS
Fig. 266:- Various channels by which interference is transmitted to radio receiver

Re-radiation. This is a combination of ( I ) and (2) and accounts

for 80-90 per cent of interference, It occurs when wires conduct
interference and also radiate it.
Re-radiation is a frequent cause of trouble because it conducts
the noise throughout the mains network and releases it in close
proximity to the receivers and aerials.
Methods Employed for Suppression

Condensers used in conjunction with motors and dynamos.
Resisters for plugs (the alternative is complete shielding of the

ignition system, that is, enclosing in metal casing).
Su@ressors which consist in so-called choke coil and condenser in

metal case.
If the high-frequency interference currents could be short-
circuited the resulting energy would be dissipaked in heat, The
method adopted here is the use of a condenser(s).
The condenser, which is coupled straight across the positive and
negative, offers infinite resistance to D.C. currents. The properties
of the condenser are such that they have a very high resistance to
direct current but a very low resistance (reactance) to high-fre-
quency alternating currents. In certain cases a condenser alone is
insufficient, in which case a choke coil is introduced.
A choke coil has a very low or negligible resistance to direct
current but a high resistance (reactance) to high-frequency alter-
nating currents.
Figure 267 shows how suppression of what are termed symmetrical
currents between lines and asymmetrical currents between line and
earth is accomplished.
I n the case of a motor or dynamo it may be found that condensers
placed across the brushes of the machine may in themselves be
sufficient, but this is largely a matter of experiment.
This type of suppression is usually carried out by the manufacturers
and checked with an interference meter (Ferris Meter) to comply
with a certain standard.
Ignition circuits, if completely surrounded by a metallic screen
or shroud, will be effectively suppressed. This screen short-circuits
the high-frequency currents that arise.
Another method is to fit resisters into the sparking-plug leads.
These resisters should have a resistance of the order of 15,000 ohms,
which will damp down the high-frequency currents that arise.
Resisters can be used in sparking-plug leads because the resistance
is negligible compared with that of the air gap of the plug.
SCREENED CABLE JOINING MOTOR OR D Y N A M O
T O SUPPRESSOR-THIS TO BE AS SHORT AS
POSSIBLE-9" MAX. TO PREVENT RADIATION
D. C. MOTOR OR DYNAMO / SUPPRESSOR, UNIT I N METAL CASE
EFFICIENTLY BONDED T O
SUPPRESSOR 'CASE
ASYMMETRICAL A N D SYMMErRlCAL
INTERFERFNCE CURRENTS
SYMriErRlCAL VOLTAGE
EXISTING BETWEEN POAES
CONDENSER / VOLTAGE
REPRESENTING SHORT-CIRCUITED
0. C. MAINS
ASYMMETRICAL VOLTAGE
BETWEEN LINE A N D FRAME NOTE: DOTTED LINES
OF MACHINE SHOW PATHS OF
ASYMMETRICAL VOLTAGE SYMMETRICAL VOLTAGE INTERFERENCE
SHORT-CIRCUITED SHORT-CIRCUITED CURRENTS
THEORETICAL DIAGRAM OF TOP SKETCH
Fig. 267:-Condenser and choke combination method of suppression
Bonding and Earthing

Static.
In the case of a high-speed craft used for patrolling or war purposes
a number of metal "masses" are incorporated into the craft as a
whole. Examples would be, for instance, torpedo tubes, engines,
tanks, guns, etc. Each of these masses, if electrically isolated as
will normally be the case in a wooden boat, can, under certain
circumstances, become charged with what is called "static" elec-
tricity. The amount of this charge depends upon a number of
factors, but atmospheric conditions play a large part. If contact

is made with the mass by another mass or piece of metal a discharge
or spark is likely to occur between the two which can be dangerous
where inflammable vapour is present or explosives are exposed.
One of the better-known forms of static met with in everyday life,
especially in a very dry atmosphere such as exists in, for instance;
New York in winter, arises when a man touches a metal handle of
a door or taxi-cab. A spark will be likely to jump from the hand to
the metal and a slight electric shock is usually felt.
When crossing the road bridges across the river in New York it
will be observed that a spring wire whip makes contact with the car.
This is to avoid the toll collector receiving a shock each time a driver
presents him with a coin from a car which is charged, as a whole,
with electricity.
The way to eliminate the danger of this static in a boat is to
connect each mass to earth, thereby reducing the potential in
each mass to the same amount. This is termed bonding. I t is,
of course, much easier to avoid these static potentials in a metal
craft, because more or less every metal portion is connected elec-
trically by or through the metal hull, thereby reducing the danger
of a difference in potential.
Danger of Shock.
Where systems of I O O volts or more are used there is always present
a risk of shock in the event of a person touching a part of the circuit
which is incompletely insulated or where the insulation has broken
down.
Here again earthing, or, in other words, connecting a fitting to
earth, will help materially to eliminate this danger.
Radio Interference.
The proximity to metal masses of cables carrying high-frequency
currents can cause radiation and therefore radio interference.
Bonding Strifl.
In order to bond the ship and its contents into one mass two copper
strips are usually run from forward to aft on the main longitudinal
or engine girders and then electrically connected to the inboard
side of shaft brackets. Each individual mass is connected by
subsidiary strips to the main bonding strips, thereby ensuring that
the ship as a whole behaves as one mass.
Earthing Plates.
To increase efficiency of radio equipment and avoid any possibility
of interference from the main bonding system as described above,
TORPEDO TUBE
CONNECTED T O BONDING STRIP
FORWARD G U N
AMMUNITION LOCKER
CONNECTED TO BONDJNG STRIP I CONNECTED T O BONDING STRIP
/
STRIP
/
COPPER EARTH PLATE
I
\
WIRELESS CABIN
WIRELESS EQUIPMENT
CONNECTED TO SEPARATE
- \
MAIN PORT 81 STARBOARD
BONDING STRIPS
CONNECTED T O RESFECTIVE
EARTH PLATE, AS SHOWN PROPELLER SHAFT BRACKETS
JOINED TOGETHER AT VARIOUS
INTERVALS ALONG LENGTH
Fig. 268:-Method o f bringing various masses to the same potential
a separate earthing plate, usually copper, is fitted to the under side

of a wooden hull.
Any earthed radio equipment is connected directly to this plate.
Screened Radio OLffice.

For maximum efficiency and insulation from possible outside
sources of interference, of which there are many, the radio office
is frequently totally enclosed in a copper gauze screened cage.
Voltage Regulators
I n the interests of lightness, and to some extent economy, it is fre-
quently necessary in high-speed craft to drive the electric generators
from the main engines. In this way the additional weight and com-
plication involved in a separate generating set is eliminated. One
of the requirements of a constant voltage dynamo as a rule consists
in a constant and uniform speed of rotation. This is accomplished
by means of a speed regulator on the engine in the case of an
auxiliary set. Voltage output is dependent, in general, on the rate
a t which lines of force are cut by the conductors of the armature,
hence the desirability for speed regulation.
455
GG
I n the case, however, where the generator is driven from the main
engines the revolutions will obviously vary considerably according
to the boat speed required.
To meet requirements and to have any chance of keeping the
batteries charged and the outside circuits supplied, the generator
must be of such a character that at quite low speeds the dynamo
can supply enough current at the voltage required. This pre-
supposes that at the higher rates of revolution the voltage will
be greatly excessive unless some form of voltage regulation is
adopted.
Satisfactory arrangements here are most important in both boats
and perhaps even more so in aircraft where the conditions are very
parallel.
The two most commonly used voltage regulators in use today are
the Vibrator and Carbon Pile types.
Vibrator or Tirrill Type Voltage Regulators.

,*
As explained previously, the voltage output of a dynamo is pro-
portional to the speed so that after the "cut in" speed the tendency
will be for the current to build up until the winding shown in the
diagram below becomes strong enough to pull the vibrator away
from its contact, thereby to break the field current and so reduce
the voltage. On reduction of the voltage due to breakage in the
field circuit thq-contact will be made again, and so on.
~ i s a d v a n t a g hof this arrangement consist in the radio inter-
ference set up due to the sparking at contact points. Also the
contact points eventually get dirty and pitted due to sparking.
MOVABLE FIXED
VIBRATING BAR CONTACT CONTACT
PULLING I N DIRECTION
COMPENSATING
SERIES WIND1
CURRENT
OPERATED
WOUND TO ASSIST
SHUNT WINDING
SHUNT WINDIN
VOLTAGE
OPERATED
+'vE. 1 VE
DYNAMO OUTPUT
Fig. 269:-Vibrating contact type regulator

456
ELECTRIC ARRANGEMENTS IN HIGH-SPEED CRAFT
ELECTRO MAGNET
PULL I N OPPOSITION TO SPRING
/'
SPRING COMPRESSING /
T O ADJUST
SHUNT FIELD VOLTAGE MANUALLY
DYNAMO OUTPUT
Fig.270:-Carbon pile type regulator
Carbon Pile Regulators.

The principle adopted here depends on the fact that the resistance
of a number of carbon discs in contact decreases with the pressure
applied.
A carbon pile regulator is essentially a pile of carbon discs com-
pressed by a spring. This spring in turn is connected to an electro-
magnetic solenoid which is controlled by the voltage of the generator
in such a manner that as the voltage rises the pressure of the spring
on the carbon pile is reduced by virtue of the fact that the pull
of the electromagnet reduces the pressure of the spring thereon.
The carbon pile is inserted in series with the shunt field of the
generator and governs the voltage thereby.
Figure 269 demonstrates the principles involved. On the
whole the carbon-pile form of regulator is the most satisfactory
provided the regulation is backed up by a cut-out to protect the
generators against reverse currents or overloads.
Radio interference is, of course, much reduced owing to the
absence of contact-breaking and sparks. [E.J.H.]
CHAPTER XXIX
CONCLUDING REMARKS O N
FUTURE TENDENCIES
INAN attempt to summarise, it must once again be made clear that

such opinions as are expressed are those of the author, except where
stated to the contrary.
I t has to be admitted that the problems presented by the design,
construction and running of high-speed craft are by no means new
so that it is doubtful whether any startlingly new ideas have been
presented here.
An attempt has, however, been made to explain and justifjr such
opinions as are held. I t is quite surprising how many diametrically
opposed opinions can be held by individuals who might be expected
to arrive at more or less the same conclusion after being presented
with much the same problems.
I n the realm of hull forms it is not seriously disputed that some
form of surface-reducing arrangement such as a "step", as here-
tofore described, will offer optimum possibilities where very high
speeds are required.
A useful adaptation to this principle is exemplified in the "three-
point" hull where two widely spaced surfaces take the weight for-
ward with one centrally placed surface aft almost relieved of any
load. This principle is well known and has been much used by
Ape1 and others in the U.S.A.
A variation of this "three-point" scheme which may be worthy
of attention could consist in one surface forward placed on mid line
with two aft "surfaces" located a sufficient distance apart to give
lateral stability. Some form of shock absorbing or hydraulic sus-
pension would seem desirable.
This arrangement could be advantageous in that it would offer
the directional stability or restoring characteristics of the tricycle
undercarriage as used in modern aircraft.
As far as high-speed sea-going craft are concerned, the form
depends, as previously described, on the speed required in relation
to length.
There seems little reason to doubt that beyond - v = 3 some
2/L
variant of hard-chine form represents the optimum, and there seems
no valid reason why a good planing form in the aft half-length should
not be married to a forward form well "veed" and capable of reduc-
ing to reasonable magnitudes the shock loading involved in driving
over a system of waves resulting from head winds.
458
CONCLUDING REMARKS ON FUTURE TENDENCIES
Associated with these well "veed" sections can be a certain amount

of flare towards the chine which has a markedly beneficial effect on
spray. The effect here is to turn the spray as it rises until it leaves
at the chine in a horizontal or slightly downward direction, assisted,
of course, by the effect of gravity. A certain small amount of con-
vexity in the lower part of the forward sections unquestionably helps
reduce shock loading.
Care must be exercised to avoid excessive warp which can lead
to "leaning" and directional instability. The cult of the multiple
spray strake is undoubtedly beneficial.
It is probably in hulls likely to run in the transition range at
speed/length ratios between, say, 1.5 and 2.5 that most room for
uncertainty and development exists at the moment.
Both round and planing hard-chine forms can fulfil the necessary
requirements to a reasonable extent here, but it seems probable that
a form incorporating one or two hard chines on each side may prove
very effective in this range, more especially where spray reduction is
of interest. I n the case of all-welded structural schemes one or more
hard chines can go towards helping to achieve "developable"
surfaces, thereby eliminating " double " curvature with its attendant
complication and expense.
Certainly in the world of relatively small craft the welded structure
of either steel or aluminium will be developed with increasing
frequency.
On the subject of materials it seems very likely that one at least
of the so-called "plastics" will be used to an increasing extent,
especially where strength combined with immunity from soakage and
rot is concerned.
Structural schemes will undoubtedly be developed in conjunction
with welding and are referred to in previous chapters.
I n the case of the small round-form craft, which are very prone to
heavy rolling, it is felt that there is room for the development of
roll-damping devices controlled by gyro.
Relatively small total energy can produce uncomfortable degrees
of rolling, so that as a corollary relatively small applications of force
at the right place and time can do much to improve the comfort of
small craft in a seaway.
This can have more significance than simply an improvement in
comfort. I t can substantially improve efficiency where much hand-
ling work on deck has to be carried out as in the particular case of
minesweepers.
In the field of high-speed craft it is probably in the matter of
propulsion that most can be done to effect an improvement.
It is by no means entirely clear as to what detailed form the
main propelling machinery will take. This matter is discussed at
some length in the chapter on machinery, from which it cannot be

doubted that a high power-to-weight ratio is an essential. The
probability is that for the highest speeds and powers some variant
\f the internal-combustion turbine will be necessary, although a
compromise in the form of the compounded reciprocating engine may
prove to possess interesting features, especially where specific con-
sumption is concerned. This unit could be developed to advantage.
However, whichever unit receives favour, the means adopted to link
up output shaft to propeller is of prime importance and represents an
engineering problem of no mean order. This problem should, in fact,
receive as much consideration as is given to the design of the
main machinery or the hull. Unfortunately this is not by any means
always the case, although in the last few years two or possibly three
sound schemes have been developed and produced.
The tendency with most prime movers excepting the free turbine
is for the optimum output performance to be achieved over rather
a limited range of revolution. This in turn makes it difficult to
use a fixed pitch propeller in conjunction with engines possessing
this characteristic. For these reasons the development of the con-
trollable pitch propeller suitable for use in conjunction with high-
speed craft is very desirable.
One of the more interesting problems relates to the design of what
has been described previously as the "fully-cavitating" propeller.
If it is desired to obtain reasonable propeller efficiencies in the
case of high-speed craft, this can as a rule only be achieved, as far as
knowledge which had been generally disseminated is concerned, by
making use of low revolutions and large blade areas and therefore
relatively large diameters. I t is not clear that this is applicable
where shaft and propellers are working at a substantial angle to
the horizontal.
However, the way has been shown in the case of certain craft in
the record-breaking category where small propellers running at very
high speeds have been fitted with success.
Even in the case, however, of relatively large high-speed craft
running in the 40- to 50-knot range the large slow-running propellers
above referred to are an embarrassment for many reasons, but chiefly
because of their size and weight and also because they suffer un-
avoidably from cavitation-erosion.
For these cases, as above mentioned, the so-called "fully-cavitating"
propeller is proving successful following research in the Vosper
Cavitation Tunnel and elsewhere.
Much reduced blade surfaces and high revolutions are leading
to success in reducing propeller dimensions and associated appendage
drag for these cases, which in turn leads to increased propulsive
efficiency considered from an overall point of view.
460
CONCLUDING REMARKS ON FUTURE TENDENCIES
Detail design of propeller boss, brackets, rudders, etc., can

without doubt be improved following careful study of flows in
their vicinity, especially in the higher speed cases (low cavitation
numbers).
For the highest speeds, such as in the case of record-breakers,
where specific consumption is of minor importance, there seems no
reason why "jet" or "reaction" propulsion should not provide a
satisfactory answer, or even where craft of very short-running
duration are required the rocket in its various forms could give a
good account of itself.
The problem which has so far proved difficult of solution in these
latter cases is that of producing satisfactory behaviour both in the
aerodynamic and in the hydrodynamic sense.
The difficulty has been that in order to produce reliable results
from a model the Reynolds number has to be within the same range
both when considered as running in air and water.
Above all else in importance so far as the development of modern
high-speed craft is concerned is the availability of a suitable power
unit.
The production of satisfactory hulls for the purpose in hand is
regarded as relatively easy compared to the technical ability,
experience and resources involved in the production of a power
unit whether it be diesel, petrol, internal-combustion turbine or
dare we yet suggest the possibility of nuclear power for these special-
ized craft.
So far as the main propulsive machinery is concerned, running
experience at sea is tending to confirm the outstanding qualities of the
free power gas turbine where really high speeds are contemplated.
This is partly due to the high power to weight ratio obtainable.
Almost equally important is the flexibility inherent in the use of the
free power turbine which permits considerable variation in output
torque without affecting the efficiencyof the gas generator.
In the case of high-speed diesels this is a really serious drawback
to the necessary flexibility of operation, leading to a potential loss
of full speed obtainable when considering a craft with substantial
load variation. The short term answer here would seem to be the
use of the controllable pitch propeller, while looking further into
the future some way of combining the best qualities of both turbine
and diesel could provide an interesting new direction for research.
There is still a wide divergence of informed opinion as to whether
the round form or the hard-chine planing craft represents the
optimum for the high-speed seagoing craft. In the author's opinion
there is little real doubt as to which to use so long as the speed
required is beyond V / d L = qwhen the planing form is a necessity.
Surprisingly enough the result of many tank tests in waves shows
461
'HIGH-SPEED SMALL CRAFT
little difference in the matter of vertical accelerations in head seas.

In following and beam seas the planing form, well designed, shows
to advantage even in the regime where either form will satisfy the
speed requirements.
Although in recent years much attention has been devoted to
hydrofoils and cushion craft it is still too soon to arrive at any firm
pronouncements as to the relative merits in relation to the more
conventional hull forms, in spite of intensive propaganda. However,
so far as hydrofoils are concerned it is thought probable that the
submerged foil system will prove to possess qualities outstanding in
a seaway, provided always that the control system is not excessively
complicated. In the case of the surface-piercing types there is
evidence that the qualities in waves are not outstanding in relation
to what can be achieved by the round or planing forms. The next
few years will tend to clarify these matters. [P.D.C.]
INDEX
A B B O T T305
, Beech (wood), 205
Accelerations, analysis of, I 74, I 76 Bending Tests on Panels of Stzrened Plate
Accelerometers, I 72 Sheet, I 97 fn.
A.C.V.-see Air Cushion Vehicles Bendix drive, 253
Adhesives, 203-4, 2 I 2-1 3 Bernoulli's theorem, 103, 125, 300, 303,
Admiralty, I 73, 400 : Experiment 310
Tank, Haslar, 84, I I 9, 403 Betz's theory for optimum propeller
A.E.G. steering gear, 287 lifting line models, 3 I 6-1 7
Aerofoils, 100-101, I I 1-12, 146-52 B.h.p.-see brake horsepower
See also Airfoils Birch (wood), 205, 208, 209, 214, 215
African mahogany, 205, 2 14, 2 15 Blount, Donald, I 35 fn.
Aircomatic welding process, I 79 Bluebird, 9, 89, 401, 406, 407, 419, 428,
Air-compressor units, 253 430, 4-31
Air Cushion Vehicles (A.C.V.), I 2, Bold class, 225
41-7.1; and shallow water, 58-60; Bold Pathfinder, H.M.S., 441
cushlon pressure choice, 5 1-4 ; ducting Bonding, 453-5; strips, 454; types, 204-
efficiency, 44; fan efficiency, 44; 5 ; WBP (weather and boil proof),
hover height choice, 54-5; jet total 204-5
head, 43-4; lifting power, 45, 46; Booster pumps, 240
overcoming drag, 45, 46-7; power Bottom pressures, I 7 1-2, I 74, I 76
requirements, 44-51 ; power-saving Brackets, plywood, 2 I I
devices, 61-6; response to waves, Brake horsepower (b.h.p.), 427-8, 430-2
68-9; stability, 66-9; symbols used Brard, M., 442
in formulae, 70-1; total power, 47; Brave class, xii, 88, 171, 177, 252, 287,
wavemaking resistance, 55-60 288,428
Airfoils, 303-8 Brave Class F.P.B., The (Revans and
Air heaters, 255 Gentry), 174,
Air Riders-see Air Cushion Vehicles Brazell, N., I 55
Air/Sea Rescue Launches, 208, 209, 2 I 2 Breslin, Dr. John P., xi
Alcoa Structural Handbook, 200 Bridge control, 236, 255-7, 373-4
Allen-Stoeckicht gears, 269, 272 Bristol Siddeley: Olympus turbine, 225;
Alloys, 188-202 Proteus turbine, 223, 225, 267
Aluminium and aluminium alloys, 164, British-made Plywood for Building and
165, '70, '77, '79, '84, 188-95, '97, General Purposes (B.S. 145511956), 204,
459; heat-treatable, 188, I 90-2 ; non- 205
heat-treatable, I 88, 192-3 ; welding, Brltish Standards Institution and
'93-5, 459 Specifications: B.S. !08811957
Aluminum Company of America, I 97fn., (structural plywood for marlne craft),
200 205; B.S. 1203 (bonding and tests),
American Towing Tank Conference, I 24 204; B.S. 1204, 203; B.S. 145511956
Aminoplastic resin, 203 (British-made plywood), 204, 205
Ana(ysis of Fluid Flow in Spray Root and "Broaching to ", 74, 75
Wake Regions of Flat Planing Surfaces Brown, Dr. T. W. F., 229
(Pierson and Leshnover), 98 B.S.G.E. (British Standard General
Apel: 3-point hydro, 9, 10, 458 Engineering) system, I go
Apsey, Joseph, 400 Bulkheads, 2 I 1-1 2
Area stabilised hydrofoils, 30 Bureau of Ships, U.S.A., xii, 155, 173
Argonaut welding process, I 79 Bureau Veritas, I 67
Asbestos fibres, I 80 Burrill, L. C.9 332, 336, 338-9, 359
Aspect ratio, I I 1-15, 146-7
Auto-pilot system in hydrofoils, 30, 31 CABINPANELS AND FURNITURE,
Auxiliary diesel engines, 228-9 plywood, 2 I 2-1 3
Cables, electric, 448-9
B A R N A B YK., C., 120, I24 California Institute of Technology, 157
Basic Functions in Girder .Networks (Corlett), Calor gas heaters, 255
200 fn. Canadian rock elm, I 62, I 73, 2 14, 2 17
Basic Naval Architecture (Barnaby), I 20, Cantiere Navaltecnica, Anzio, 14
=24
Bassin d'Essais des Cadnes, 442
Carbon pile voltage regulators, 456, 457
Cascophen RS. 216-M, 2 14
Batteries, 253, 447, 448 Catamaran twin hulls, I o, I 1-1 2
463
INDEX
Cavitation, I 48-52, I 56-7, I 59-6 I, Deck panels, plywood, 209
312-13, 337, 349-9, 362, 374-81,460; de Havilland Aircraft Co., 89
number, 329, 331, 342-4, 359; tests de MaIherbe and Ogorkiewicz (Design
and tunnels, 89, 101, 331, 332, 342-4, Studies to Aid Teaching on Synthesis), 89
365, 374-81,387,460 Design, 82-96: adaptive, 88; and dis-
Cavitation, Etfect on Perjmnance of Series placement, 93, 95-6; general arrange-
of 16-in. Model Propellers, 332 ment, 82; hull form, 82-8; propeller,
Chantier Naval de Meulan, 4-41 95, 293-366; speed estimates, 93-6;
Chartered Mechanical Engineer, 89 weight estimate, 88, go, 93
Chatterton, E. E., 230 Design and Estimated Performance of a Series
Chelston Cross tank, 400 of Supercavitating Propellers (Tachmindji
Chine, defined, 6 and Morgan), 327
Choke coils, 450, 452 Design Studies to Aid Teaching on Synthesis,
Christina, I 73 88
Christopher Hook design hydrofoils, 39 Designer: requirements for, 89-9 I ;train-
Chrysotile fibres, I 80 ing, 89
Clement, Eugene, 84, 97, 119, 133, 135, Diehl, 139
I44 Diesel engines, 24-6, 220, 250, 253, 274,
Clutches, 274-8, 284, 286 279, 282, 373, 388, 461; auxiliary,
Coastal motor boat hulls, 7 228-9; turbo-compound, 24,230-4
Cobb, John, 130-1, 141 Directional stability, 394-9; and planing
Coefficients, propulsive, 388-9, 427-8 transverse, 395-9
Coffman starter, 254 Dowty turbocraft, I 4-1 5 : propulsion
Compounded reciprocating engine, 460 arrangements, 272
Compressed-air starting, 253 Dragonair air heater, 255
Condensers, 452-3 Dry rot, 205-8
Conduction interference, 450 Dumbflow silencers, 25 I
Conolly (Strength of Propellers), 297 Dynamic: lift, 21 ; stability, 391-9
Constant Pitch Propellers, Correction to Dynamometers, 367
Camber (Cox), 326 Dynamos, 447
Consumable electrode welding process,
179 E A R T HI N G, 453-5 : plates, 454-5
Control of machinery, 236, 255-9,373-4; Eckhardt, 297, 326
lines, 374; panels, 256-7 Effective horsepower (e.h.p.), 427-8,
Controllable pitch propeller, 229-30, 430, 435
234, 284, 372-83, 460, 461 : cavitation Effect of Cavitation on Performance of Series
tests, 374-81 ; engine speed and pitch of &in. Model Propellers, 332
setting, 374; main dimensions, 382-3; Effect of Impact on Simple Elastic Structures
remote control, 373-4; typical design, (Frankland), I 76
373; weights of equipments, 374 Effect of Pitch and Blade Width on Propeller .
Coolant, 235, 248 Performance (Gawn), 332
Cooling circuits, 245-9, 257 "Effelebt" rudders, I 10
Cooper, Fred, 14 ' E.h.p.-see effective horsepower
Corlett, E. C. B., 200 Electrical arrangements and systems,
Corrections to Camber of Constant Pitch 447-57 : bonding, 454-5; cables, 448-
Propellers (Cox), 326 9; circuits, 448, 452; earthing, 454:;
Couplings, 260 radio screenmg, 450, 455; SuPPresslpn
Cowl ventilators, 250 of radio interference, 450-3; two-wire
Cox, G. G., 326 system, 449; voltage regulators, 455-7;
CPP-see Controllable pitch propellers weight-saving, 449
Crago, W. A., xi Electric control lines, 374
Creosote, 207 Electric starting, 253-4 '
Cruising engines, 279-86 Electro-hydraulic steering gear, 287, 292

Crusader, 9, 89, I 18, 131, 141 Elm, Canadian rock, I 62, 2 I 4, 2.1 7
Cushion pressure in A.C.V.; and hover- Empirical Study of Low Aspect Ratzo Lifting
height, 54; and jet total head, 43-4; Surfaces with @articularregard to Planing
choice of, 51-4; weight considerations, Craft (Locke), I 15
51-3 Engine-room: telegraphs, 259; tempera-
tures, 255
Daily Express, I N T E R N A T I O ON F FA- L Engines, 220-34: clutches, 274-8, 284,
SHORE P O W E R B O ARTA C E ,xiii, 14, 286 : compounded reciprocating, 460;
17,186, 292, 4x2, 445 cooling circuits, 245-9; 257; cruising,
David W. Taylor Model Basin, xii, 84, 279-86; diesel, 24-6, 220, 230-4, 250,
119, 131-8,435fn. 253, 274, 279, 282, 373, 388, 461;
Davidson Laboratory, xi, 19, 21 fn., 31, exhaust system, 235, 250-2; fuel
39, 138 system, 236-41; gas turbines, 24-6,
Deadrise, 105, 110-11, 113, 115, 127 88, 282, 374, 461; installation,
INDEX
Engines-contd. Goodrich, G. J. 74, fn.
Chapter XV passim; internal-com- Gott, 97
bustion turbine, 222-30, 460, 461; Gray (General Motors) diesel engines, 279
lubricating system, 241-4; petrol, Grillage Beams (Vedeler), 200 fn.
229-30, 250, 253, 279, 286, 374? 461; Grillage calculations, 200
starting, 253-4, 447; transmission, Ground Effect Machines (G.E.M,)--see
260-73; ventilat~onsystem, 249-50 Air Cushion Vehicles '
Epoxy resins, 181, I 82 Grumman, xii
E.T.T.-see Experimental Towing Tank Gyration, radius of, 393, 394
Exhaust system, 235, 250-2: pipes, 250,
252 ; underwater discharge, 25 1-2 H AB E R M AN,327, 345, 347, 349, 350
Experimental Towing Tank (E.T.T.), Hamburg Tank, 102
Hoboken, 98, I 19, I 20, I 38 Handley Page, 41 2
Experiments with Planing Surfaces (Sottorf), Hard-chine hulls-see Hulls
102 fn. "Hardy Spicer " shaft assembly, 26 I
External ply, stressed and unstressed, Haslar Admiralty Experiment Tank,
208-10 84, 1 19, 403
Heat-treatable alloys (H. 10 and H . I ~ ) ,
F A S T P A T R O LB O A T S(F.P.B.), 13, 188, I 90-2
88: 174, 213, 214, 225, 252, 428 Heating, 235, 254-5
Feroczty, 290, 292 Heli-Arc welding process, I 79
Ferris meter, 452 Heller, S. R., iv., 177fn., 197fn.
Fiat diesel engines, 220 Helmholtz's law, 3 I 3
Fibre reinforcements, 180 Hickman Sea Sled, I 0-1 I
Fins, 395 High-speed craft defined, I
Fittings, plywood, 208-13 High Tail hydrofoil craft, 31
Flexatex flexible pipes, 241 Hobson type hydraulic booster, 292
Flexible
-. tanks,
. . 239 Holmes-Fletcher, A., 225
Flow analysis, I 02-7 Hook (Christopher) design hydrofoils, 39
Flow meters, 258 Hooke's joint, 260, 267
Flying-boat hulls, 8, 143, 171, 173, 188-9 Horsepower: brake (b.h.p.), 427-8, 430-
Flying Duck hydrofoil craft, 3 I 2 ; effective (e.h.p.), 427-8; shaft
Following Sea, Broaching and Surging, The (s.h.~.),427
(Du Cane and Goodrich), 74 fn. Hovercraft, 10, 12, 41, 397; see also Air
Ford petrol engines, 14, 279 Cushion Vehicles
F.P.B.-see Fast Patrol Boats Hoverheight design in A.C.V., 54-5
Frames, I 67-9 H.S.L.-Rescue Launch, 343
Frankland, I 76 Hull Form of Stepless Planing Boats
Frictional : clutches, 274.; resistance, I 24, (Clement), 119, 144
129, 131, 404-9, 417'19 Hulls : all-glued, 2 I 3-1 5 ; Catamaran
Froude, R. E. and William, 400,4o I , 417, twin, 10, 11-12; coastal motorboat, 7;
419, 424-7: law of sim~larity, 329; design, 82-8; displacement, I ; flying-
momentum theory of screw, 299; boat, 8, 143, 171, 173, 188-9; hard-
scaling law and numbers, 33, 37-g, $, chine, 5-8, 12, 13, 15-17, 72, 74, 76,
58, I4I,I42,I43,I45,329,4I2-I5,42o 83, 84, 90, 93, 94, 102, 113, 115, 127,
Fuel system, 235, 236-41 171, 183-5, 209, 217, 371, 393, 397,
Fundamentals of Behaviour of Ships in 399,418, 422, 424, 431, 432, 433, 435,
Waves (Vossers), I 7, 18 437, 438, 443, 444, 458, 459, 461;
hfeboat, 15, 17; materials, 162-6;
G A S T U R B I N E E N G I N E S , 24-6, 88, Monohedron, I 2-1 3, 445 ; moulded,
282; starting, 254, 388-9 217-18; planing, 2-3, 10, 17, 72, 83,
Gawn, R. W. L., 146: Gawn and Gawn- Chapter VII passim, 20 I-2,445 ;plank,
Burrill series propellers, 332-3, 336, 5-6; plastic, I 83-6 ; resistance curve
338:9, 358, 359, 360,361, 370 characteristics, I 30-1 ; round-bilge,
Gay Vzkzngs, 2 8 I 4, 15, 16, 74-6, 171, 209, 433, 458;
Gear and gearbox, reversing, 229, 267, Sea Sled, 10-1 I ; stepped, 6-9, 135-7,
2 74-8 393,424,431,4329 438,443,.458,461;
General Electric, 26 structure, I 69-79 ; three-point, 9-10,
Generators, 448, 456 458; timbers, I 62-6; Tramontana, I 7-
Gentry, A. A. C., I 74, 177 I 8 ; Trimaran, I I
German "E" boats, I 10, 220, 274 Hydraulic: boosters, 292; clutches, 274,
Ginzel, 326 284
Girder Networks, Basic Functions in (Corlett) Hydrodynamic Loads on High-speed Motor
roo fn. Boats, Measurement of, I 89 fn. I 95
Glass fibre reinforcement, 166, 180, 182 Hydrofoils, 12, 19-40, 293, 462: and
Glue, 172-3, 179, 211, 213-15, 217 screw propellers, 293; auto-pilot
Goldstein factor, 320, 326 system, 30, 31; component weight
INDEX
Hydrofoils-contd. Lerbs' induction factor method, 326
distribution, 39;. control, 30-5; diesel Leshnover, Samuel, 97, 98
engines, 24-6; displacement-type servo Levi, Renato and Levi craft, 14 '
unit, 31-2; drag, 22-3; gas turbine Lifeboat hulls, 15, I 7
engines, 24-6; model tests, 19; over- Lift: calculations, 98-1 oo ; hydrostatic,
coming wave motion, 32-4; power I 18-19
plant, 24-6; propulsion devices and Lifting line theory of screw propellers,
systems, 24-9; required horsepower, 315-27
23-4; resistance, 20-3; seakeeping, Light alloys, 162, 164-5, 166, 169,
29-30, 34-5; size and speed selection 202.: design approach, I 95-201
and relation, 35-7; stable platform Light%, 235, 254-5
operation, 32-3; subcavitating, 22-3; Lignin, 2 I I
submerged foils, 30-1, 34-5; super- Lloyd, T. xii
cavitated, 22-3; surface-piercing fo~ls, Lloyd's, 167
30, 34, 39; tr?nsmission system, 26-9; Local strength, 196-201
wave contourmg operation, 33-4 Locke, F. W. S., 115, 119, 129
Hydromatic drive, 27 1-3 Log, 367.
Hydroplane forms, 400-1 Longitudinal : convexity, I 07 ; curvature,
Hydrostatic lift, I I 8-19 108-1 o ; metacentric height, 391 ;
strength, I 95-6
Lord, Dr. Lindsay, I 2, I 3
I G N I T I O NC I R C U I T S , 452 Lovell, R. E. L., xii
Impact, Effect of, on Simple Elastic Structures Lubricating oil: filter, 242, 243; pump,
(Frankland), I 76 241-2; system, 235, 241-4; tank, 241
Impulse starters, 254 Lucas pumps, 287
Inboard-outboard drive, 267, 271 Ludwieg, 326
Institute of Marine Engineers, 225
Instrument panels, 257 M A C H I N E R YT Y P E S , I N F L U E N C E
Interference: electrical, 450-2, 454,457; on propeller design, 384-6
meter, 452 Mahogany, 162, 163, 205, 210, 214-15,
Internal-combustion turbine engines, 217
222-30, 460, 461 Manceuvrability, 76-8 I
Internal ply, stressed and unstressed, Marad (Maritime Administration), go-
210-12 ton hydrofoil boats, 26
International Seakeeping Symposium, Marguerre formula, 198
445 Mathway: gearbox, 278; steering gear,
Isotta Fraschini marine engine, 2 19, 220 : 290, 292
exhaust system, 251 Maybach diesel engiqes, 220
Measured miles, 368, 389
Measurement of Hydrodynamic Loads on
Jaguar T Y P E M.T.B., 75 High-speed Motor Boats, I 89 fn., I 95
Jasper, N. H., I 70, 174, I 77 fn., 189fn., Mercedes-Benz diesel engines, 220, 274
195, 197fn. Mercruiser propulsion system, 27 I
Jet propulsion, 14-15, 461 Mercury engine unit, 271
Johnson, Virgil E., Jr., 39, .160, 313,345 : Mercury, M.Y., 88, 287, 289
three- and five-term sections, 313 Metropolitan Vickers G.2 Naval gas
turbine, 225
KaMeWa CPP, 372-3 M.G.B.s, 212
Keelavite cylinders and valves, 287 Millar, G. H., I 20
Key Leather air heaters, 255 Miss England 111,394
K.M.W. (Karlstads Mekaniska Mitsubishi diesel engines, 220
Werkstad), xii Model tests, 130-1, 135-9, 141-2:
Korvin-Kroukovsky, B. V., 97, I 20, I 39fn A.C.V., 60; androughwater behaviour,
Kramer, M. I.: diagrams, 320, 323, 324, 437-46; hulls, I 7, 84, I 31-5; hydro-
360; skin, 410-1 2 foils, I g ; "manned", 441-2 ; resistance
Kristinehamn Cavitation Tunnel, xii, and powering, 400-36; runnlng in
waves ", 442-5 ; screw propellers,
66
375
Kruppa, Dr. Claus, xii 328-53
Kutta-Joukowsky theorem, 304, 306,3 I 8 Moderately Loaded Propellers with Finite
Number of Blades and Arbitrary Dis-
tribution of Circulation, 326
L A C H M A N NDR.,
, 412 Momentum: theory of screw, 299-303;
Laminar flow, 407-1 2 vector changes and lifts, 98-100
Laminates and laminated constructions, Monohedron hull, 12-1 3,445
173, 177-8, 181, 186, 206, 214-17; Morgan, 297, 326, 327, 342, 347, 350,
components, 2 I 5- 17 357,366
Lehman, William F., 120, 139fn. Moulded hulls, 2 I 7-1 8
INDEX
M.T.B.s, 75, 91, 95, 97, 102, 133, 165, Planetary type gearbox, 275-6
208, 210, 212, 236, 249, 253, 255, 266, Planing, 1-5, 422-4 : definition, 2 ;
279, 281, 406, 418, 419,428, 43.2, 433, hulls, 2-3, 10, 17, 72, 83, Chapter
438, 442, 447 : resistance estimates, V I I passim, 201-2, 444
I 23-6 ; stressmg, I 69-71 Planing craft, principles underlying
Multi-ply frames, 2 I 2 performance, 97-145: aerofoil analogy,
Murray, Allan B., 97, 118, 119, 120, 129, I 00-1 ; aspect ratio, I I 1-1 5; basic
I33 theory, 97-8; deadrise, I 05, I I 0-1 I ,
I 13, I 15; flow analysis, 102-7;
hydrostatic lift, I 18-19; lift and mo-
N.A.C.A., xii, 307, 308, 310, 311, 312, mentum, 98-1 00; longitudinal curva-
344, 352, 362: 6-series aerofoils, 152, ture, I 08-1 o ; performance of craft
'54, '59-61 with differing dimensions, 140-1 ;
Napier, D., Ltd., 230: Deltic engine, 230; resistance curve and estimation, I I g-
"Nomad " c o m ~ o u n ddiesel enmne.
u 2
3 1 ; "rocker", I 07-8; roughness cor-
233 ; Sea Lion engine, 2 I g rection and factor, 124-5, 129; speed
N.A.S.A. tanks, 2 1 fn., 135 prediction, 141-5
National Physical Laboratory Ship Tank, Planing surface : experimental data,
438 I o 1-2 ; flow analysis, I 02-7 ; variants,
Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, I 15-18
Society of, 119, 124, 129, 135fn., 144, Planing transverse and directional
297,326, 327 stability, 395-9
Naval Architects, Royal Institution of, Plank hulls, 5-6
'46, 174,177fnv 197fn., 297, 326,332, Plastics, reinforced, 180-7, 459: tables of
342, 379, 393 properties and performance, I 87
Naval Architecture of Planing Hzdls, The Plywood, 162, 163, 165, 172-3, 177-8,
(Lindsay Lord), I 2, I 3 184, 203-18: all-glued hull construc-
Naval tenders, 162 tion, 2 I 3-1 5 ; application, 208-1 3 ;
Neidinger, Joseph W., 39 bonding types, 204; cabin furniture,
Newton and Rader, 379: cambered 2 I 3 ; deck panels, 208-9 ; external ply,
propellers, 342-7, 350, 364 208-10; internal ply, 2 10-12; lamin-
Non-heat-treatable alloys (N.5, N.6 and ated components, 2 I 5-1 7 ; manu-
NP. 5/6), 188, I 92-3 facturing techniques, 204-5; moulded
Nonweiler, Prof. T. R. F., xii-xiii hulls, 2 I 7-18; multi-ply frames, 2 I 2;
panels, 206; species of timber, 205-6
O A K , 162, 217 Poisson's ratio, 197
" Offered power ", 389
Polyester resins, 181-2
Oil system, 235, 241-4 Pope, James D., 135, 160
Olympus gas turbine, 285 Porpoising, 393, 435
Oregon pine, 162 Position of Propellers and Shafts, The
(Brazell), 155fn.
Power-assisted steering gear, 291, 292
P A C K A R DM A R I N E E N G I N E , 219, Powering and resistance, model experi-
276 ments, 400-36 : brake horsepower
Pametrada reverse reduction gear pro- (b.h.p.), 427-8, 430-?; comparison
posal, 229 of forms, 433-5; effectlve horsepower
Panel strength, 196-201 (e.h.p.), 427-8, 430, 435; estimation
Parkinson, John B., 125 of power, 427; Froude number, 41 2-15 ;
PC(H) hydrofoil boats, 29 functional resistance, .404-9, 41 7-1 9,
Pehrsson, Lennart, xii 425 ; general law of resistance, 414-1 5;
Penta Aquamatic transmission, 2 7 I Kramer skin, 410-1 2; laminar flow,
Performance Data of Propellers for High- 407-1 2 ;methodical series data, 435-6;
speed Craft (Newton and Rader), 342 planing and planing forms, 400-1,
Perkins diesel engines, 279 422-4; propulsive coefficient, 427-8;
Perring, W. G., 97, "3, "9, 393, 394 quasi-propulsive coefficient (q.p.c.),
Petrol engines, 219-20, 250, 253, 279, 428-30; residuary resistance, 41 2-1 4;
286, 374,461 results, 419-22 ; Reynolds number,
Pfeil, Fast Patrol Boat, 2 13 404-17; shaft horsepower (s.h.p.), 427;
Phenol and phenolic resins, 181-2, 203, ship resistance estimation, 416-1 7 ;
206, 208, 209, 216, 21 7 skin friction correction (s.f.c.), 425-6;
Phillips-Birt, Douglas, I 20 tanks, 400-4, 417; wave-making re-
Pictet, M., and Pictet form, 401 sistance, 412-13
Pierson, John D., 97, 98 Power requirements, 387-90
Pine, Oregon, 162 Power-saving devices m A.C.V., 6 1-6;
Pipes: exhaust, 250, 252; supply, 239-41 articulated jet extensions, 63;
Pitch and Blade Width, Efect on Propeller deflectors, 61 ; recirculation, 6 1-3;
Performance, 33 2 sidewalls, 64-6
INDEX
i
Prandtl, 129 Reynolds, Osborne, and Reynolds
Prefabrication, I 78 number, 124, 129, 131, 142, 143, 311,
Pren cable, 448-9 329, 356, 393, 404-17, 4'9, 461
Pressure transducers, I 72 "Rocker ", 107,
Propeller Design Method, A (Eckhardt Rocket propulsion, 142, 46 I
and Morgan), 297, 324, 326 Roll-damping devices, 459
Propellers, 78-8 I : cambered, 342-7 ; Rolls-Royce, Ltd., 225, 276: "Avon"
controllable-pitch, 229-go, 234, 284, gas turbine, 225; ''Griffon" marine
372-83,460,461 ; design, 95, 293-366, engine, 220, "Merlin" marine
384-6; machinery types and design, engine, 2 I g ; 2z%ene '' gas turbine,
384-6; reversible-pitch, 2 74 ; screw, 225; R.M.60 gas turbine, 225, 227
design of, 293-366; supercavitating, Rot-proofing compounds, 207
327, 342-9; thrust, 260; torque effect, Roughness correction and factor, 124-5,
78-81 ;transmission, 260. See also Screw 129
Propellers and Shafts, The Position of Rough water behaviour, use of models
(Brazell), I 55 fn. for prediction of, 437-46
Propellersfor High-speed Craft, Performance Round-bilge hulls-see Hulls
Data of (Newton and Rader), 342 Routh, E. J., and Routh discriminant,
Propelling machinery, 2 19-34: power 392, 393
requirements, 2 I g Royal Aeronautical Society, 89, 230
Propulsion system, 260-73; hydrofoils, Royal Aircraft Establishment, I 42,394fn.
24-9 ;integrated, 2 7 I Roval Institution of Naval Architects.
Propulsive coefficients, 388-9, 427-8 I'46,174, 177fn.9 197fn.3 297,326,332;
Pump: jets, 294; lubricating oil, 241-2; 342, 379, 393
sea-water, 245-8 Rudders, 74, 76-8: aerofoils, 146-52;
area values, I 58-9 ; aspect ratio, I 46-7 ;
balance, I 54-61 ; cavitation, 148-52,
I 56-7, I 59-61 ; design, 146-61 ;
"effekt ", I I o; fences, 78; trailing
edge, 160; wake factor, 157
R A D ~ R , P., 3G2-79 35O9 S64, 379 Runabouts, 97, 162,447
Radio interference, 450-2, 454, 457: Ruston internal-combustion turbine, 226
conduction, 450; direct radiation,
450; methods of suppression, 452-3; S A L T - W A T E RP U M P , 245-8
re-radiation, 450, 452 Sambraus, 97
Radio screening, 450, 455 Saunders-Roe tank, 445
R A E . Rocket Propulsion Division, I 42 Saunders-type valve, 239, 240 .
Ramus, Rev. C. M., and Ramus form, Savitsky, Daniel, xi, 39, I 20, 131, I 39
400-1,424 Schoenherr friction coefficient, 124, 131,
Rankine, 299 4-17, 4'9, 425, 426-7
Ray Hunt hulls, 13-14, I 5 Screw propellers, design, 293-366,460-1:
Reaction propulsion, 46 I cambered, 342-7; examples, 357-66;
Recommended Dejnition of Turbulent Friction free-running, 3 I 5, 3 16, 323.; Cree
in Incomn~ressibleFluids, I 29 surface effect, 329; fully cavltatmg,
Recording instruments, 236 327, 347; 351, 365, 460; fkctional
Redux process, I 65 aspects, 353-7; geometry, 294-9 ;
Rescue craft, 162, 208, 209, 212, 279, hydrofoils, 293 ;lifting line theory, 3 I 5-
343 27 J manufacture, 298-9; methodical
Residuary resistance, 412-14 series, 332; model tests, 328-53;
Resins, 181-2, 203, 206, 208, 209, 213, momentum theory, 299-303; non-
21 7 : adhesives, 203-4; cold-setting, cavitating, 322, 324-5, 351, 357, 365;
203-4; epoxy, 181, 182; phenolic, non-optimum, 326-7, 342, 362;
181-2, 203, 206, 208, 209, 216, 217; optimum, 316, 318, 323; self-pro-
polyester, I 81, I 82 ;thixotropic, I 82 pulsion tests, 356; strength, 294-9;
Resistance, 20-3 : curve characteristics, supercavitating, 327, 342-9; two- and
I 30-1 ; estimation, I I 9-26, 416-1 7; three-dimensional theory of wing
frictional, 129, 131, 404-9, 41 7-19; sections, 303~15,352 ;vapour pressure
general law, 414-1 5 ; induced drag, effect, 329; VISCOUS flow effect, 329
2 I ; model experiments, 400-36 ; re- Sea Legs hydrofoil craft, 3 I
siduary, 412-14; wave-making, 3, 21, Sea Sled, I 0-1 I
55-60,412-13 Sea-water circuit, 245, 248
Resisters, 452 Seaworthiness, 72-6
Resorcinol, 203, 208, 209, 2 I 3 SechIer formula, I 98
Revans, J. T., I 70, I 74, 177 Seine, River (Six Heures international
Reversing gear and gearbox, 229, 267, event), xiii
274-8: planetary type, 275-6; twin Self-propulsion tests, 356
disc type, 276-7 Self-sealing tanks, 239
INDEX
Selsyn motors, 374 Suppression of radio interference, 450-3
Serck combined coolers, 245, 246 Suppressors, 450, 452
Shaft and shafting,. 260-73: log, 264; Supramar-type hydrofoils, 39
losses, 388; reversing, 274 Surface-piercing hydrofoils, 30, 34,.39
Shaft horsepower (s,h.p.), 427 Swedish Institute of Naval Architects,
Shoemaker, James M., 97, 102, I 10-13, 177
130, 139, 440 Synthetic resin, 203
S.h.p.-see shaft horsepower
Shuford, C. L., Jr., I 35
SIHI pump, 248
Silencers, 251, 281 T&horneters, 367
Six Heures international event, xiii Tank experiments, 84, 93, 95, 102, I I I,
Skimmers-see Air Cushion Vehicles "9) 400-4, 417, 442
Skin friction correction (S.F.C.), 4.25 Tank Tests of Flat and V-bottom Planing
Skin, "sandwich ", I 64 Surfaces (Shoemaker), 102 fn.
S.L.M. marine gearbox, 278 Tanks : f ~ ~ e235,236,239-41
l, ;lubricating
Small craft defined, I oil, 241
Smiths' air heaters, 255 Taylor, Admiral, 95
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Taylor (David W.) Model Basin, xii,
Engineers, I 19, 124, 129, 135fn., 144, 84, 1 19, 131 4 4 3 5 f n .
297, 326, 327 Taylor wake fraction, 354-5, 358
Sottorf, W., 97, 102, 108-10, I 18, 129 Tests of T~eientyRelated Models of V-bottom
Speed: estimates in design,.g3-6,387-90; Motor Boats, 435fn.
governor, 373-4; prediction, 141-5 ; Theory of Wing Sectzons, 305, 307, 308
trials,, 967-11
" , ,
Thixotropic resin, I 82
Speed-beam ratio, 434, 435 Three-dimensional theory of wing
Speed-displacement ratio, 434, 435 sections, 3 I 3-1 5
Speed-length ratio, 433-4, 435, 443, 459 Three-point hulls, 9-10, 458
Sponsons, g Timbers, hull, 162-6, 205-7,r 13-15, 2 I 7
Spray: emergence, 105; root, 98; strakes, Tirrill voltage regulators, 456
'4, '5 ; strips, 445 Top hamper, 92-3
Spruce, 162, 2 I 7 . Torque effect of propeller, 78-8 I
S.S.S. (Synchro-Self-Shifting) clutch, 286 Training of designers, 89
Stability: bow impact, 69; damping, Tramontana, 291, 292, 412: hull type,
67-9; directional, 394-9; dynamic, 17-18
391-9 ; longitudinal, 391 ; response to ~ r a k m i s ~ i o n , 260-73 : hydromatic
waves, 68-9; state of equilibrium, device, 2 7 I , 2 73 ; inboard-outboard
392 ; transverse, 391 drive, 267, 271; system in hydrofoils,
Stalling, I oo 26-9; "vee" drive, 266-7
Starting engine, 235, 253~4, 447-8: Tricycle three-point hull, 9-10
compressed-air, 253; electrical, 253-4, Trimaran hulls, I I
447-8 Trimming angles, I 38-40
Static electricity, 453-4 Tulin, Marshall P., xii, 39, 160, 313,
Steel, 165, 184, 459 345, 349; two-term sections, 313, 349
Steering gear, 287-92 : electro-hydraulic, Tungsten-arc welding process, I 79
287, 292; power-assisted, 291-2 Turbine engines : free-power arrange-
Stepped hulls-see Hulls ment, 225-8, 374, 461; internal-
Stevens Institute of Technology, xi, 19, combustion, 222-30,460,461
21fn., 39, 119 Turbo-compounded diesel engines, 230-4
Stiffener system, I 96-9 Turbulent Friction in Incompressible Fluids,
Strahl, xii Recommended Dq%tion, I 29
Strength of Propellers (Conolly), 297 Twin Disc-type gearbox, 276-7
Stressing, I 68-7 I Two-dimensional theory of wing sections,
Stringer system, 167-8, I 73 303-15, 352
Structural Design of Planing Craft (Heller Two-wire system, 449
and Jasper), 174, 177fn-9 197fn. Ultima Dea, 14
Structural Plywood for Marine Craft (B.S. Uniform Procedure for Calculation of
'088 (1957)), 205. Frictional Resistance and Expansion of
Submerged hydrofoils, 30-1, 34-5 Model Test Data to Full Size, I 24, I 29
Supercavitating Propeller Performance, Urea-formaldehyde, 203
(Venning and Haberman), 327, 342, U.S.E.M.B. Series 50, 131-5
345
Supercavitating propellers, 327, 347-9 V E D E L E R ,PROF., 2 0 0
( 6 Vee" drive, 266-7, 271, 286, 292
Supercavitating Propellers, Design and
Estimated Performance of Series, Veneers, 204-6, 209
(Tachmindji and Morgan), 327 Venning, 327, 345, 347, 349, 350
Supply pipes, 239-4' Ventilation system, engine, 235, 249-50
469"
INDEX
Vibrator voltage regulators, 456 Wave-making : hull, I ; resistance, 3, 2 I ,
Vickers-Sperry-Rand, 292 55-60, 412-1 3
Voltage regulators, 455-7 Welding: of aluminium alloys, 193-5,
von Doenhoff, 305 459; techniques, 165, I 79
Vosper Ltd., xii, 160, 379, 442: Air/Sea Westland Research, Cowes, xi
Rescue Craft, 209; all-glued hull, Wetted Area and Center of Pressure of
2 I 3-1 5 ; cambered propeller craft, Planing Surfaces, 119, 120, 139fn.
343; Cavitation Tunnel, xii, 89, 101, Wilkins, C . T., 89-90
343, + 365, 387, 460; electro-hydraulic Wind Tunnel Testing (Pope), I 60
steering gear, 287, 288; plywood Wingsections, two- and three-dimensional
section experiments and panels, I 72-3, theory, 303-15
209 ; power-assisted steering gear, 29 I , Wing Sections, Theory of (Abbott and von
292; "vee" drive reduction gearbox, Doenhoff), 305, 307,308
267, 273; wave investigation, 444, Wiring, electric, 448-9
445
Vossers, G. (Fundamentals of Behauiour of , 92, 210, 287, 289
Y A C H T S88,
Sh$s in Waves), I 7, I 8 Young's moduli, 180, 184
Vulcan-Sinclair hydraulic clutch, 284
W A G N E RH.,
, 97, 440, 441 Z A H N R A D P A B R(ZF)
I K gearbox, 267,
Wake factor, 157 2 70
SECTIONAL DRAWING of
JET-PROPELLED a CRUSADER-
I. Main girder (port). 25. Drogue tackle eye.
2. Main girder (starboard). 26. Square chine.
3. Main girder alters section. 27. Moulded bilge member.
4. Bottom stringers. 28. Forward cantilever arm.
5. Gunwale or main stringer. ng. After cantilever arm.
6. Gunwale or main stringer 30. Forward strong beam (port-
alters section. able).
7. Thrust beam. 31.After strong beam (port-
8. Birch ply frame (No. 23). able).
9. Moulded nose. 32. Strong beam securing plate.
10. Step. 33. Fuel tank.
I I . Transom. 34. Air trunk-outline.
12. Steering drop arm, drag 35. Air guide and spray guard.
link, tiller arm and rudder 36. Port float.
stock. 37. Starboard float.
13. Rudder. 38. Metal bottom.
14.Starboard bracket at step 39. Metal stringers.
(port bracket similar). 40. Fin.
15. Cockpit carline. 4 1 . Cheek plate.
16. Stressed skin (double di- 42. De Havilland Ghost engine.
agonal plywood). 43. Jet pipe.
17. Pilot's seat. 44. Compressor turbine.
18.Throttle (foot). 45. Combustion-chambers.
19.Throttle (hand). 46. Compressor.
20. Instrument panel. 47. Starter motor.
21. Air speed indicator. 48. Vacuum pump.
22. Tachometer. 49. Oil filter.
23. Air drogue release. 50. Engine cowling (portable).
24. Drogue stowage.

High-Speed Small Craft-Peter Du Cane

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HIGH-SPEED

TEMPLE PRESS BOOKS

Printed in Great Britain

Vosper Ltd., Portsmouth Silentbloc Ltd.

Plate 30 Maybach MD.6551I 8 engine

Hydrofoil Craft This chapter is based on a lecture by Doctor John

Air Cushion Vehicles The latest developments in this field of re-

Propellers. As applied to high-speed craft in the true sense of the

The supercavitating propeller is frequently mentioned these

Nonweiler has given me advice both on the chapter devoted to

THETITLE to this book, High-speed Small Craft, involves definition

Fig. I:-Displacement or wave-making Izuld:

These optimum conditions are as a rule achieved when -

siderably out of hand by the time a speed equivalent to - - 1.6 - 2

I t will be gathered that after a certain speed a boat or hull ceases

I t is sometimes convenient to express

v formula clearly relates

As EXPLAINED in the previous chapter, the term "high speed" as

Fig. 3:-Round form

Once sufficient power is available to force a hull into the planing

reducing wetted surface to a minimum; in other words, with the

Fig. 4:-Hard-chine form

Once, however, it is accepted that a practical boat has to$meet

T o obtain best planing results it is necessary to retain the char-

,-, PROFILE OF WAVE SYSTEM I ,

- - -- LOCUS OF A FIXED POINT

Fig. 5:-Stepped hull in wave system

PROFILE OF WAVE SYSTEM

Fig. 6:-Hard-chine hull in wave system

There are a fair number of variations to which the stepped form

It is, however, always used in the case of a flying boat, where

Fig. 7:-Stepped hydroplane

There is also the multi-stepped type, which usually consists in a

Fig. 8:-Ape1 3-point hydro

Tricycle three -point

forward as in the Ape1 layout, the positions were reversed so that

Fig.9:-Hickman Sea Sled '

Great relative stability is claimed by virtue of the widely spaced

Plate 2. M. T.B. Jiring torpedoes

I t is claimed that this hull is more efficient than is a comparable

canmt be said to be entirely clearcut. The: influence of spray be-

make for good planing conditions. However, though without first-

Fig. rr;-"Ray Hunt" Q j e hull

and constant deadrise running throughout from right aft. So

Thc overall propulsive efficiency is probably somewhat less than for

Though there is little really new in principle about any of the

Fig. 12:-Vertical accelerations at 0.25 L aft of the

Fig. 13:-" Tramontana" type hull

DU CANE, P. Trans. I.N.A., 1956. The Planing Performance, Pressures and

IT IS THOUGHT to be feasible to build a 400-ton hydrofoil boat de-

Resistance of Varlous Marine Vehicles

The absolute speed at which the resistance starts to increase rapidly

Fig. 15:-Drag characteristics of hydrofoil craft

speed the water is completely separated from the upper surface,

~oo,oooh.p. required to propel a relatively small hydrofoil boat

The Propulsion System

DRY WEIGHT, (LBS)

Fig. 17:-Horsepower-weight summary

fuel consumption va1ues.l The circles plotted on this figure relate

Fig. 18:-Free turbine conversion of simple turbojet

in the specific fuel consumption values sf -50 lb./h.p.-hr. Such an

Fig. 19:-Range-weight comparison

. requirements. Because of their inherently low specific fuel con-