Geology

Geology means, literally, the study of the Earth. Explore this section to understand the structure of the
Earth and its surface features, what causes earthquakes and tsunamis, and why volcanoes form and erupt.
Learn about minerals, which form the building blocks of rocks, and how rocks are made and destroyed.
Learn about Earth’s fascinating history, the variety of life forms which have roamed the surface over the
millennia, and the dramatic changes that have happened over Earth’s long history.

Surface and Interior of Earth

Earth, the largest and densest rocky planet, was formed about 4.5 billion years ago. The Earth's interior is
divided into four layers, which is typical of rocky planets. Each layer has different characteristics and is
made of different elements and minerals.

There are many different types of features on Earth’s surface due to the complexity of our planet. The
surface is unique from the other planets because it is the only one which has liquid water in such large
quantities. Water forms some features of Earth's surface such as rivers, oceans, beaches and lakes. Other
surface features, such as mountains, earthquakes and volcanoes, are formed when large pieces of the
Earth’s outer layer move slowly by plate tectonics.

The Earth is formed of three concentric layers: the core, the mantle and the crust; these are separated by
transition zones called discontinuities.
lithosphere
Layer from 30 to 60 mi thick that comprises the Earth’s crust and the solid part of the upper
mantle; it is divided into tectonic plates.

continental crust
Layer varying in thickness from 20 to 45 mi and composed mainly of granite. It forms a
number of distinct landforms: the continents.

section of the Earth’s crust

asthenosphere
Layer of the upper mantle with a thickness of 125 mi; it is composed of molten rock, on top
of which the lithospheric plates slide.

Mohorovicic discontinuity
Zone that separates the Earth’s crust from the asthenosphere.

Gutenberg discontinuity
Zone separating the lower mantle from the core; it is located at a depth of about 1,800 mi.

lower mantle
Little-known layer with a thickness of about 1,420 mi; its slow-moving currents, called
convection currents, are caused by temperature variations.

outer core
Composed of molten metal, it is 1,130 mi thick; the magnetic field is caused by electric
currents circulating inside the outer core.

inner core
Composed of iron and nickel, it is subject to so much pressure that it remains in a solid
state in spite of temperatures higher than 9,000°F; its diameter is 1,000 mi.

oceanic crust
Layer forming the ocean floor; it is thinner, denser and younger than the continental crust.

ocean floor
ocean trenches and ridges

Earth’s crust
Solid layer at the Earth’s surface whose thickness varies from 6 mi beneath the oceans to
35 mi beneath the mountains.

section of the Earth’s crust

upper mantle
Layer of hard rock nearly 390 mi thick; it is made up of the asthenosphere and the base of
the lithosphere.

Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the fifth largest:

Planet Profile

orbit: 149,600,000 km (1.00 AU) from Sun

diameter: 12,756.3 km
mass: 5.972e24 kg

History of Earth

Earth is the only planet whose English name does not derive from Greek/Roman mythology. The name
derives from Old English and Germanic. There are, of course, hundreds of other names for the planet in
other languages. In Roman Mythology, the goddess of the Earth was Tellus - the fertile soil (Greek: Gaia,
terra mater - Mother Earth).

It was not until the time of Copernicus (the sixteenth century) that it was understood that the Earth is just
another planet.

Earth, of course, can be studied without the aid of spacecraft. Nevertheless it was not until the twentieth
century that we had maps of the entire planet. Pictures of the planet taken from space are of considerable
importance; for example, they are an enormous help in weather prediction and especially in tracking and
predicting hurricanes. And they are extraordinarily beautiful.

The Earth is divided into several layers which have distinct chemical and seismic properties (depths in
km):
0- 40 Crust
40- 400 Upper mantle
400- 650 Transition region
650-2700 Lower mantle
2700-2890 D'' layer
2890-5150 Outer core
5150-6378 Inner core

The crust varies considerably in thickness, it is thinner under the oceans, thicker under the continents. The
inner core and crust are solid; the outer core and mantle layers are plastic or semi-fluid. The various
layers are separated by discontinuities which are evident in seismic data; the best known of these is the
Mohorovicic discontinuity between the crust and upper mantle.

Most of the mass of the Earth is in the mantle, most of the rest in the core; the part we inhabit is a tiny
fraction of the whole (values below x10^24 kilograms):

atmosphere = 0.0000051
oceans = 0.0014
crust = 0.026
mantle = 4.043
outer core = 1.835
inner core = 0.09675

The core is probably composed mostly of iron (or nickel/iron) though it is possible that some lighter
elements may be present, too. Temperatures at the center of the core may be as high as 7500 K, hotter
than the surface of the Sun. The lower mantle is probably mostly silicon, magnesium and oxygen with
some iron, calcium and aluminum. The upper mantle is mostly olivene and pyroxene (iron/magnesium
silicates), calcium and aluminum. We know most of this only from seismic techniques; samples from the
upper mantle arrive at the surface as lava from volcanoes but the majority of the Earth is inaccessible. The
crust is primarily quartz (silicon dioxide) and other silicates like feldspar. Taken as a whole, the Earth's
chemical composition (by mass) is:

34.6% Iron
29.5% Oxygen
15.2% Silicon
12.7% Magnesium
2.4% Nickel
1.9% Sulfur
0.05% Titanium

The Earth is the densest major body in the solar system.

The other terrestrial planets probably have similar structures and compositions with some differences: the
Moon has at most a small core; Mercury has an extra large core (relative to its diameter); the mantles of
Mars and the Moon are much thicker; the Moon and Mercury may not have chemically distinct crusts;
Earth may be the only one with distinct inner and outer cores. Note, however, that our knowledge of
planetary interiors is mostly theoretical even for the Earth.

Unlike the other terrestrial planets, Earth's crust is divided into several separate solid plates which float
around independently on top of the hot mantle below. The theory that describes this is known as plate
tectonics. It is characterized by two major processes: spreading and subduction. Spreading occurs when
two plates move away from each other and new crust is created by upwelling magma from below.
Subduction occurs when two plates collide and the edge of one dives beneath the other and ends up being
destroyed in the mantle. There is also transverse motion at some plate boundaries (i.e. the San Andreas
Fault in California) and collisions between continental plates (i.e. India/Eurasia). There are (at present)
eight major plates:

 North American Plate - North America, western North Atlantic and Greenland
 South American Plate - South America and western South Atlantic
 Antarctic Plate - Antarctica and the "Southern Ocean"
 Eurasian Plate - eastern North Atlantic, Europe and Asia except for India
 African Plate - Africa, eastern South Atlantic and western Indian Ocean
 Indian-Australian Plate - India, Australia, New Zealand and most of Indian Ocean
 Nazca Plate - eastern Pacific Ocean adjacent to South America
 Pacific Plate - most of the Pacific Ocean (and the southern coast of California!)

There are also twenty or more small plates such as the Arabian, Cocos, and Philippine
Plates. Earthquakes are much more common at the plate boundaries. Plotting their locations
makes it easy to see the plate boundaries.

The Earth's surface is very young. In the relatively short (by astronomical standards) period of
500,000,000 years or so erosion and tectonic processes destroy and recreate most of the Earth's surface
and thereby eliminate almost all traces of earlier geologic surface history (such as impact craters). Thus
the very early history of the Earth has mostly been erased. The Earth is 4.5 to 4.6 billion years old, but the
oldest known rocks are about 4 billion years old and rocks older than 3 billion years are rare. The oldest
fossils of living organisms are less than 3.9 billion years old. There is no record of the critical period
when life was first getting started.

71 Percent of the Earth's surface is covered with water. Earth is the only planet on which water can exist
in liquid form on the surface (though there may be liquid ethane or methane on Titan's surface and liquid
water beneath the surface of Europa). Liquid water is, of course, essential for life as we know it. The heat
capacity of the oceans is also very important in keeping the Earth's temperature relatively stable. Liquid
water is also responsible for most of the erosion and weathering of the Earth's continents, a process
unique in the solar system today (though it may have occurred on Mars in the past).

The Earth's atmosphere is 77% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, with traces of argon, carbon dioxide and water.
There was probably a very much larger amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere when the
Earth was first formed, but it has since been almost all incorporated into carbonate rocks and to a lesser
extent dissolved into the oceans and consumed by living plants. Plate tectonics and biological processes
now maintain a continual flow of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to these various "sinks" and back
again. The tiny amount of carbon dioxide resident in the atmosphere at any time is extremely important to
the maintenance of the Earth's surface temperature via the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect raises
the average surface temperature about 35 degrees C above what it would otherwise be (from a frigid -21
C to a comfortable +14 C); without it the oceans would freeze and life as we know it would be
impossible. (Water vapor is also an important greenhouse gas.)

The presence of free oxygen is quite remarkable from a chemical point of view. Oxygen is a very reactive
gas and under "normal" circumstances would quickly combine with other elements. The oxygen in Earth's
atmosphere is produced and maintained by biological processes. Without life there would be no free
oxygen.
The interaction of the Earth and the Moon slows the Earth's rotation by about 2 milliseconds per century.
Current research indicates that about 900 million years ago there were 481 18-hour days in a year.

Earth has a modest magnetic field produced by electric currents in the outer core. The interaction of the
solar wind, the Earth's magnetic field and the Earth's upper atmosphere causes the auroras (see the
Interplanetary Medium). Irregularities in these factors cause the magnetic poles to move and even reverse
relative to the surface; the geomagnetic north pole is currently located in northern Canada. (The
"geomagnetic north pole" is the position on the Earth's surface directly above the south pole of the Earth's
field.)

The Earth's magnetic field and its interaction with the solar wind also produce the Van Allen radiation
belts, a pair of doughnut shaped rings of ionized gas (or plasma) trapped in orbit around the Earth. The
outer belt stretches from 19,000 km in altitude to 41,000 km; the inner belt lies between 13,000 km and
7,600 km in altitude.

Earth's Satellite
Earth has only one natural satellite, the Moon. But

 thousands of small artificial satellites have also been placed in orbit around the
Earth.
 Asteroids 3753 Cruithne and 2002 AA29 have complicated orbital relationships with
the Earth; they're not really moons, the term "companion" is being used. It is
somewhat similar to the situation with Saturn's moons
 Crust
 This is not what we walk on. The layers of dirt and silt that cover the crust are normally
considered to be separate from it. The crust comprises the continents and ocean basins. It has a
variable thickness, anywhere from 35-70 km thick in the continents and 5-10 km thick in the
ocean basins. The crust is composed mainly of alumino-silicates. More info here.
 Mantle
 Just under the crust is the mantle. It is composed mainly of ferro-magnesium silicates. It is about
2900 km thick, and is separated into the upper and lower mantle. This is where most of the
internal heat of the Earth is located. Large convective cells in the mantle circulate heat and may
drive plate tectonic processes. More info here.
 Outer and Inner Core
 There are two very distinct parts of the core: the outer and the inner core. The outer core is 2300
km thick and the inner core is 1200 km thick. The outer core is composed mainly of a nickel-iron
alloy, while the inner core is almost entirely composed of iron. The outer core contains as much
as 10% lighter elements than iron alloy. The inner core is thought to rotate at a different speed
than the rest of the Earth and this is thought to contribute to the presence of the Earth’s magnetic
field.
 CRUST --The thin, outermost layer of the earth is called the crust. It makes up only one percent of the
earth's mass. This consists of the continents and ocean basins. The crust has varying thickness, ranging
between 35-70 km thick in the continents and 5-10 km thick in the ocean basins. Within the crust, intricate
patterns are created when rocks are redistributed and deposited in layers through the geologic processes.
The crust is composed mainly of alumino-silicates.
 MANTLE -- The mantle is a dense, hot layer of semi-solid rock approximately 2,900 km thick and is
composed mainly of ferro-magnesium silicates. This is where most of the internal heat of the Earth is
located. Large convective cells in the mantle circulate heat and may drive plate tectonic processes.
 CORE - Below the mantle is the core. It makes up nearly one third the mass of the earth. The Earth's core is
actually made up of two distinct parts: a 2,200 km-thick liquid outer core and a 1,250 km-thick solid inner
core. The outer core is made of iron and is very dense. As the Earth rotates, the liquid outer core spins,
 creating the Earth's magnetic field. The inner core is made of solid iron and nickel. Many scientists believe it
is kept in the solid state because of the extreme pressure from the other layers.


Figure of the Earth

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the historical development of the concept, see Spherical Earth and Flat Earth.

An oblate spheroid

The expression figure of the Earth has various meanings in geodesy according to the way it is used and
the precision with which the Earth's size and shape is to be defined. While the sphere is a close
approximation of the true figure of the Earth and satisfactory for many purposes, geodesists have
developed a number of models to represent a closer approximation to the shape of the Earth.

Need for models of the figure of the Earth

The actual topographic surface is most apparent with its variety of land forms and water areas. This is, in
fact, the surface on which actual Earth measurements are made. It is not suitable, however, for exact
mathematical computations, because the formulas which would be required to take the irregularities into
account would necessitate a prohibitive amount of computations. The topographic surface is generally the
concern of topographers and hydrographers.

The Pythagorean concept of a spherical Earth offers a simple surface which is mathematically easy to deal
with. Many astronomical and navigational computations use it as a surface representing the Earth. While
the sphere is a close approximation of the true figure of the Earth and satisfactory for many purposes, to
the geodesists interested in the measurement of long distances on the scale of continents and oceans, a
more exact figure is necessary. Closer approximations range from modelling the shape of the surface of
the entire Earth as an oblate spheroid or an oblate ellipsoid, to the use of spherical harmonics or local
approximations in terms of local reference ellipsoids.

The idea of a planar or flat surface for Earth, however, is still sufficient for surveys of small areas, as the
local topography is far more significant than the curvature. Plane-table surveys are made for relatively
small areas, and no account is taken of the curvature of the Earth. A survey of a city would likely be
computed as though the Earth were a plane surface the size of the city. For such small areas, exact
positions can be determined relative to each other without considering the size and shape of the entire
Earth.

Models of the figure of the Earth

The models for the figure of the Earth vary in the way they are used, in their complexity, and in the
accuracy with which they represent the size and shape of the Earth.
Sphere
Main article: Earth radius

The simplest model for the shape of the entire Earth is a sphere. The Earth's radius is the distance from
Earth's center to its surface, about 6,371 kilometers (3,959 mi). While "radius" normally is a characteristic
of perfect spheres, the Earth deviates from a perfect sphere by only a third of a percent, sufficiently close
to treat it as a sphere in many contexts and justifying the term "the radius of the Earth".

The concept of a spherical Earth dates back to around the 6th century BC,[2] but remained a matter of
philosophical speculation until the 3rd century BC. The first scientific estimation of the radius of the earth
was given by Eratosthenes about 240 BC, with estimates of the accuracy of Eratosthenes’s measurement
ranging from 2% to 15%.

The Earth is only approximately spherical, so no single value serves as its natural radius. Distances from
points on the surface to the center range from 6,353 km to 6,384 km (3,947 – 3,968 mi). Several different
ways of modeling the Earth as a sphere each yield a mean radius of 6,371 kilometers (3,959 mi).
Regardless of the model, any radius falls between the polar minimum of about 6,357 km and the
equatorial maximum of about 6,378 km (3,950 – 3,963 mi). The difference 21 kilometers (13 mi)
correspond to the polar radius being approximately 0.3% shorter than the equator radius.

Ellipsoid of revolution
Main article: Reference ellipsoid

Since the Earth is flattened at the poles and bulges at the equator, geodesy represents the shape of the
earth with an oblate spheroid. The oblate spheroid, or oblate ellipsoid, is an ellipsoid of revolution
obtained by rotating an ellipse about its shorter axis. It is the regular geometric shape that most nearly
approximates the shape of the Earth. A spheroid describing the figure of the Earth or other celestial body
is called a reference ellipsoid. The reference ellipsoid for Earth is called an Earth ellipsoid.

An ellipsoid of revolution is uniquely defined by two numbers: two dimensions, or one dimension and a
number representing the difference between the two dimensions. Geodesists, by convention, use the
semimajor axis and flattening. The size is represented by the radius at the equator (the semimajor axis of
the cross-sectional ellipse) and designated by the letter . The shape of the ellipsoid is given by the
flattening, , which indicates how much the ellipsoid departs from spherical. (In practice, the two
defining numbers are usually the equatorial radius and the reciprocal of the flattening, rather than the
flattening itself; for the WGS84 spheroid used by today's GPS systems, the reciprocal of the flattening is
set at 298.257223563 exactly.)

Scale drawing of the oblateness of the 2003 IERS reference ellipsoid. The outer edge of the
dark blue line is an ellipse with the same eccentricity as that of the Earth, with north at the
top. For comparison, the outer edge of light blue area is a circle of diameter equal to the
minor axis. The red line denotes the Karman line and yellow area, the range of the
International Space Station.

The difference between a sphere and a reference ellipsoid for Earth is small, only about one part in 300.
Historically flattening was computed from grade measurements. Nowadays geodetic networks and
satellite geodesy are used. In practice, many reference ellipsoids have been developed over the centuries
from different surveys. The flattening value varies slightly from one reference ellipsoid to another,
reflecting local conditions and whether the reference ellipsoid is intended to model the entire Earth or
only some portion of it.

A sphere has a single radius of curvature, which is simply the radius of the sphere. More complex
surfaces have radii of curvature that vary over the surface. The radius of curvature describes the radius of
the sphere that best approximates the surface at that point. Oblate ellipsoids have constant radius of
curvature east to west along parallels, if a graticule is drawn on the surface, but varying curvature in any
other direction. For an oblate ellipsoid, the polar radius of curvature is larger than the equatorial

because the pole is flattened: the flatter the surface, the larger the sphere must be to approximate it.
Conversely, the ellipsoid's north-south radius of curvature at the equator is smaller than the polar

where is the distance from the center of the ellipsoid to the equator (semi-major axis), and is the
distance from the center to the pole. (semi-minor axis)

More complicated shapes

The possibility that the Earth's equator is an ellipse rather than a circle and therefore that the ellipsoid is
triaxial has been a matter of scientific controversy for many years.[3][4] Modern technological
developments have furnished new and rapid methods for data collection and since the launch of Sputnik 1,
orbital data have been used to investigate the theory of ellipticity.

A second theory, more complicated than triaxiality, proposed that observed long periodic orbital
variations of the first Earth satellites indicate an additional depression at the south pole accompanied by a
bulge of the same degree at the north pole. It is also contended that the northern middle latitudes were
slightly flattened and the southern middle latitudes bulged in a similar amount. This concept suggested a
slightly pear-shaped Earth and was the subject of much public discussion. Modern geodesy tends to retain
the ellipsoid of revolution and treat triaxiality and pear shape as a part of the geoid figure: they are
represented by the spherical harmonic coefficients and , respectively, corresponding to
degree and order numbers 2.2 for the triaxiality and 3.0 for the pear shape.

Geoid
Main article: Geoid

It was stated earlier that measurements are made on the apparent or topographic surface of the Earth and it
has just been explained that computations are performed on an ellipsoid. One other surface is involved in
geodetic measurement: the geoid. In geodetic surveying, the computation of the geodetic coordinates of
points is commonly performed on a reference ellipsoid closely approximating the size and shape of the
Earth in the area of the survey. The actual measurements made on the surface of the Earth with certain
instruments are however referred to the geoid. The ellipsoid is a mathematically defined regular surface
with specific dimensions. The geoid, on the other hand, coincides with that surface to which the oceans
would conform over the entire Earth if free to adjust to the combined effect of the Earth's mass attraction
(gravitation) and the centrifugal force of the Earth's rotation. As a result of the uneven distribution of the
Earth's mass, the geoidal surface is irregular and, since the ellipsoid is a regular surface, the separations
between the two, referred to as geoid undulations, geoid heights, or geoid separations, will be irregular as
well.

The geoid is a surface along which the gravity potential is everywhere equal and to which the direction of
gravity is always perpendicular (see equipotential surface). The latter is particularly important because
optical instruments containing gravity-reference leveling devices are commonly used to make geodetic
measurements. When properly adjusted, the vertical axis of the instrument coincides with the direction of
gravity and is, therefore, perpendicular to the geoid. The angle between the plumb line which is
perpendicular to the geoid (sometimes called "the vertical") and the perpendicular to the ellipsoid
(sometimes called "the ellipsoidal normal") is defined as the deflection of the vertical. It has two
components: an east-west and a north-south component.[5]

Earth rotation and Earth's interior

Determining the exact figure of the Earth is not only a geodetic operation or a task of geometry, but is
also related to geophysics. Without any idea of the Earth's interior, we can state a "constant density" of
5.515 g/cm³ and, according to theoretical arguments (see Leonhard Euler, Albert Wangerin, etc.), such a
body rotating like the Earth would have a flattening of 1:230.

In fact the measured flattening is 1:298.25, which is more similar to a sphere and a strong argument that
the Earth's core is very compact. Therefore, the density must be a function of the depth, reaching from
about 2.7 g/cm³ at the surface (rock density of granite, limestone etc. – see regional geology) up to
approximately 15 within the inner core. Modern seismology yields a value of 16 g/cm³ at the center of the
Earth.

Global and regional gravity field

Also with implications for the physical exploration of the Earth's interior is the gravitational field, which
can be measured very accurately at the surface and remotely by satellites. True vertical generally does not
correspond to theoretical vertical (deflection ranges up to 50") because topography and all geological
masses disturb the gravitational field. Therefore, the gross structure of the earth's crust and mantle can be
determined by geodetic-geophysical models of the subsurface.

Volume

Earth's volume is approximately 1,083,210,000,000 km3 (2.5988×1011 cu mi).[6]

Oblate Spheroid
The Earth's True Shape
The Earth is not a perfect sphere. Due to it's rotation, the Earth (like all rotating planets) has a slightly
distorted shape. The rotational momentum tends to force the matter to bunch up in the middle. In the case
of the Earth, this "middle" is the equator.

Oblate Spheroid
The true shape of the Earth called an Oblate Spheroid. The term "Oblate" refers to it's slightly oblong
appearance. The term "Spheroid" means that it is almost a sphere, but not quite. One of the most
important things to remember about the Earth's shape is that it is only very slightly oblate. The diameter
from the North Pole to the South Pole (the shortest diameter) is approximately 12,714 km. The equatorial
diameter (the longest diameter) is approximately 12,756 km. This is not a big difference, but it does make
the Earth not quite a sphere.

Evidence of the Earth's True Shape

There is a substantial amount of evidence which supports the conclusion that the earth is a slightly oblate
spheroid. Three examples of such evidence are:

 Most obviously, pictures taken from space provide evidence of the Earth's shape. The Earth is so
close to being a perfect sphere that when viewed from any point in space the Earth appears
spherical. If accurate measurements are performed, however, it can be shown that the Earth is not
quite a perfect circle.
 Very accurate measurements of the positions of the stars also provide evidence of the Earth's
shape. The position of the stars (and Sun) appear to change as we move over great distances on
the earth's surface. The most notable example of this involves the changing positions of the North
Star (Polaris).

Precise gravity measurements also support the conclusion that the Earth is not perfectly spherical. The
pull of gravity on an object changes as the distance of the object from the center of the earth changes. The
further an object gets from the center of the Earth, the less it weighs. If the Earth were a perfect sphere,
then objects would weigh exactly the same any place on Earth (as long as they were at the same
elevation). In reality, the weight of an object varies as it changes it's position on the Earth's surface. At the
equator, where the Earth's diameter is greatest, objects weigh a little less. At the Poles, where the Earth's
diameter is the least, objects weight a little more.

Relief
The Earth's surface has many different elevations. The changing elevations of the land (mountains,
canyons, etc.) are called relief. Even though these features may seem quite impressive to us, they are
insignificant when compared with the size of the Earth. Even the tallest mountain, Mount Everest, has a
height that is only about .07% the diameter of the Earth! The bottom line is that the Earth is really very
smooth.

Models of the Earth

Models are representations of objects that aid in our understanding. If we were to choose a scale model of
the Earth, what objects would make a good miniature Earth? We might be tempted to choose an oblate
object to show the true shape, but that would be inaccurate! Since the Earth is so slightly oblate, and the
Earth's relief is so insignificant in comparison with its size, the best scale models of the Earth would
actually be very round and very smooth. Billiard balls, marbles, ping pong balls, and other smooth
spheres are the best representation of the Earth's true appearance.

By Amanda Briney

Earth, with average distance of 92,955,820 miles (149,597,890 km) from the sun, is the third planet and
one of the most unique planets in the solar system. It formed around 4.5-4.6 billion years ago and is the
only planet known to sustain life. This is because factors like its atmospheric composition and physical
properties such as the presence of water over 70.8% of the planet allow life to thrive.

Earth is also unique however because it is the largest of the terrestrial planets (one that is composed of a
thin layer of rocks as opposed to those that are mostly made up of gases like Jupiter or Saturn) based on
its mass, density, and diameter. Earth is also the fifth largest planet in the entire solar system.

Earth's Size

As the largest of the terrestrial planets, Earth has an estimated mass of 5.9736 × 1024 kg. Its volume is
also the largest of these planets at 108.321 × 1010km3.

In addition, Earth is the densest of the terrestrial planets as it is made up of a crust, mantle and core. The
Earth's crust is the thinnest of these layers while the mantle comprises 84% of Earth's volume and extends
1,800 miles (2,900 km) below the surface. What makes Earth the densest of these planets however is its
core. It is the only terrestrial planet with a liquid outer core that surrounds a solid, dense inner core.
Earth's average density is 5515 × 10 kg/m3. Mars, the smallest of the terrestrial planets by density, is only
around 70% as dense as Earth.

Earth is classified as the largest of the terrestrial planets based on its circumference and diameter as well.
At the equator, Earth's circumference is 24,901.55 miles (40,075.16 km). It is slightly smaller between the
North and South poles at 24,859.82 miles (40,008 km). Earth's diameter at the poles is 7,899.80 miles
(12,713.5 km) while it is 7,926.28 miles (12,756.1 km) at the equator. For comparison, the largest planet
in Earth's solar system, Jupiter, has a diameter of 88,846 miles (142,984 km).

Earth's Shape

Earth's circumference and diameter differ because its shape is classified as an oblate spheroid or ellipsoid,
instead of a true sphere. This means that instead of being of equal circumference in all areas, the poles are
squished, resulting in a bulge at the equator, and thus a larger circumference and diameter there.

The equatorial bulge at Earth's equator is measured at 26.5 miles (42.72 km) and is caused by the planet's
rotation and gravity. Gravity itself causes planets and other celestial bodies to contract and form a sphere.
This is because it pulls all the mass of an object as close to the center of gravity (the Earth's core in this
case) as possible.

Because Earth rotates, this sphere is distorted by the centrifugal force. This is the force that causes objects
to move outward away from the center of gravity. Therefore, as the Earth rotates, centrifugal force is
greatest at the equator so it causes a slight outward bulge there, giving that region a larger circumference
and diameter.

Local topography also plays a role in the Earth's shape, but on a global scale its role is very small. The
largest differences in local topography across the globe are Mount Everest, the highest point above sea
level at 29,035 ft (8,850 m), and the Mariana Trench, the lowest point below sea level at 35,840 ft (10,924
m). This difference is only a matter of about 12 miles (19 km), which is very minor overall. If equatorial
bulge is considered, the world's highest point and the place that is farthest from the Earth's center is the
peak of the volcano Chimborazo in Ecuador as it is the highest peak that is nearest the equator. Its
elevation is 20,561 ft (6,267 m).
Geodesy

To ensure that the Earth's size and shape is studied accurately, geodesy, a branch of science responsible
for measuring the Earth's size and shape with surveys and mathematical calculations is used.

Throughout history, geodesy was a significant branch of science as early scientists and philosophers
attempted to determine the Earth's shape. Aristotle is the first person credited with trying to calculate
Earth's size and was therefore, an early geodesist. The Greek philosopher Eratosthenes followed and was
able to estimate the Earth's circumference at 25,000 miles, only slightly higher than today's accepted
measurement.

In order to study the Earth and use geodesy today, researchers often refer to the ellipsoid, geoid and
datums. An ellipsoid in this field is a theoretical mathematical model that shows a smooth, simplistic
representation of the Earth's surface. It is used to measure distances on the surface without having to
account for things like elevation changes and landforms. To account for the reality of the Earth's surface,
geodesists use the geoid which is a shape that is constructed using the global mean sea level and as a
result takes elevation changes into account.

The basis of all geodetic work today though is the datum. These are sets of data that act as reference
points for global surveying work. In geodesy, there are two main datums used for transportation and
navigation in the U.S. and they make up a portion of the National Spatial Reference System.

Today, technology like satellites and global positioning systems (GPS) allow geodesists and other
scientists to make extremely accurate measurements of the Earth's surface. In fact it is so accurate,
geodesy can allow for worldwide navigation but it also allows researchers to measure small changes in
the Earth's surface down to the centimeter level to obtain the most accurate measurements of the Earth's
size and shape.