Theories in the Origin of Life

Introduction

Biology is known to be the study of life and living organisms. While this discipline, which
seeks to answer the question, “What is Life?”, is already quite complicated subject to
touch upon in scientific and philosophical terms, greater debate arises from the question
of “Where did life come from?. ”Indeed, it seems that this topic has not only instigated a
variety of discussions on what is the first life form on Earth, and when it appeared, but it
has also sparked a long-standing division between religion and science. It is perplexing
how a simple question has given birth to a multitude of hypotheses that aim to present a
unique explanation for Creation and the Origin of life, whether they be supported by
tangible evidences and scientific facts or not. Nevertheless, these theories prove to be
quite interesting and refreshing studies, which will ultimately allow us to comprehend the
beginning of life. While there have been many theories that propose its own ideas on
how life came into existence, here are some of the more popular theories, which are still
being recognized today: Patricia Lijauco

Spontaneous Generation/Abiogenesis

Abiogenesis - or biopoiesis is the study of how biological life arises from inorganic
matter through natural processes

Aristotle (384-322 B.C. )Spontaneous Generation - A He proposed the theory of

popular theory that was held Spontaneous throughout the middle ages until Generation,
when he observed the 19th century, is the hypothesis that some vital force contained
that aphids arise from the dew which in or given to organic matter can falls on plants,
flies from putrid matter, create living organisms from mice from dirty hay, crocodiles
from inanimate objects.

Observations
1. Mice appeared. In Egypt, when the Nile river flooded, along the river fertile mud is left
behind and with it frogs appeared.
2. In Europe, when farmers stored their grains in barns, molds spreads on the grains
and
3. From carcasses of meat in the old times, flies abound everywhere.

Conclusions
1. It was perfectly obvious to people back then that muddy soil gave rise to the frogs.
2. It was obvious to them that the mice came from the moldy grain.
3. The rotting meat that had been hanging in the sun all day was the source of the flies.

Abiogenesis Observations
1. Put dirty shirt or some
2. A dead young rags in an open pot or barrel containing a few bull, was buried grains of
wheat or in an upright some wheat bran, and in 21 days, mice will position so that
appear. There will be its horns adult males and protrude from females present, and they
will be capable of the ground. After mating and a month, a reproducing more mice.
Swarm of bees will fly out of the corpse.

Disproving Abiogenesis Theory

• Francesco Redi, an Italian Physician in 1668 disproved spontaneous generation for
large organisms by showing that maggots arose from meat only when flies laid eggs in
the meat. Redi’s Hypothesis & Findings
• In his hypothesis, “rotten meat does not turn into a fly. Only flies can make more flies.”
• He found that if a flask was closed with a lid so adult flies could not get in, no maggots
developed on the rotting meat within.
• In a flask without a lid, maggots soon were seen in the meat because adult flies had
laid eggs and more adult flies soon appeared.

• 1745, John Needham

• Needham theorized that if he took chicken broth and heated it, all living things in it
would die. After heating some broth, he let a flask cool and sit at a constant
temperature. The development of a thick turbid solution of microorganisms in the flask
was strong proof to Needham of the existence of spontaneous generation.

• Lazzaro Spallanzani (1765) later repeated the experiments of Needham, but removed
air from the flask, suspecting that the air was providing a source of contamination. No
growth occurred in Spallanzanis flasks and he took this as evidence that Needham was
wrong. Proponents of spontaneous generation discounted the experiment by asserting
that air was required for the vital force to work.

An End to the Conflict

• Louis Pasteur ended the debate with his famous swan-neck flask experiment, which
allowed air to contact the broth. Microbes present in the dust were not able to navigate
the tortuous bends in the neck of the flask.

Pasteur’s Experiment
• The swan neck flask experiment. Pasteur filled a flask with medium, heated it to kill all
life, and then drew out the neck of the flask into a long S shape. This prevented
microorganisms in the air from easily entering the flask, yet allowed some air
interchange. If the swan neck was broken, microbes readily entered the flask and grew.

Cosmozic Theory • Also called Panspermia Theory

• Panspermia is a Greek word that translates literally as "seeds everywhere"

• It states that life exists throughout the Universe, distributed by meteoroids, asteroids
and planetoids and that Life on Earth
• Panspermia theory suggests that life was brought to the earth via mechanisms that
include the deflection of interstellar dust by solar radiation pressure and extremophile
microorganisms traveling through space within an asteroid, meteorite or comet.
• extremophile microorganisms are organisms that survive in and even may require
physically or geochemically extreme conditions that are detrimental to the majority of life
on Earth.
• These spores/microorganisms then evolved to other organisms/living things inhabiting
the planet

Proponents of CosmozoicTheory
• Anaxagoras, a Greek Philosopher, was one of the first to propose the concept of
Panspermia
• Berzelius (1834), Richter (1865), Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1871), and Helmholtz (1871)
were among the first to argue the case for panspermia from a scientific standpoint•
Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius (1908) popularized the concept of life originating
from space

Three Variations of Panspermia

• Lithopanspermia or interstellar panspermia
• Ballistic panspermia or interplanetary panspermia
• Directed panspermia

Lithopanspermia
• Also known as interstellar panspermia• impact-expelled rocks from a planets surface
serve as transfer vehicles for spreading biological material from one solar system to
another.
• Assumes microorganisms survive: – the impact ejection process from the planet of
origin – travelling through space, and – landing on a planet in another solar system.

Ballistic panspermia
• Also known as interplanetary panspermia• impact-expelled rocks from a planets
surface serve as transfer vehicles for spreading biological material from one planet to
another within the same solar system
• Assumes microorganisms survive: – the impact ejection process from the planet of
origin – travelling through space, and – landing on a planet in another solar system.

Directed panspermia
• Proposed by the late Nobel prize winner Professor Francis Crick, OM FRS, along with
British chemist Leslie Orgel in 1973
• the intentional spreading of the seeds of life to other planets by an advanced
extraterrestrial civilization, or the intentional spreading of the seeds of life from Earth to
other planets by humans

Limitations of the Cosmozoic Theory

• The theory assumes that life already exists elsewhere in the Universe and can only
explain the appearance of life on earth. It does not explain origin of life itself nor does it
explain how life could have originated else-where.
• It also does not necessarily suggest that life originated only once and subsequently
spread through the entire Universe, but instead that once started, life may be able to
spread to other environments suitable for replication

Gallery ALH 84001 – meteorite found in Alan Hills, Antartica in 1984. There are claims
that the meteorite may contain evidence of traces of life from Mars, as images from an
electron microscope reveal chain structures in the meteorite fragment.

Creationism/Special Creation Theory

What is the Special Creation Theory About?

Unlike the other theories on the possible origin of life, the Special Creation Theory is not
supported by scientific facts or evidences. However, it is heavily influenced by faith,
specifically by one’s belief of a Supreme Being, who created the heavens and the earth,
including everything in it, from scratch. The term “Creationism” is not limited to the
Christians, as a Creationist can be adhering to a Muslim, Buddhist, or an Islamic belief.
Nevertheless, this study will focus on the more popular notion that the Christian God is
the Creator of the universe and everything that lives within it. In the first chapter of
Genesis, which is the first book of the Bible written by Moses, the story of Creation is
narrated, from the time that the heavens and the earth were formed until the first man
was given life. In terms of the Bible’s timeline, it is said that all of creation was created
within six days. The passages on the next slides are taken from the New International
Version Bible.

History of the Special Creation Theory

The Special Creation Theory is basically a result of the people’s curiosity of how life
initially came to be. At that time, long before the 14th century, Creationism has been
widely accepted (though the term only became popular during the 19thcentury) , most
likely because of the lack of evidences and disciplines, which focus on the disproving of
this belief. This Pre-Scientific Era gave attention to both a literal and allegorical meaning
of the creation narrative in the book of Genesis, which presented the different religions
with a viable explanation on how the world came into existence. It was in the 14th
century when the Renaissance paved the way to modern science, which sought to
disprove this theory, contributing to the development of other theories that aim to
explain when life first came into being. In spite of the introduction of naturalism,
specialization, and skepticism, the religious groups, particularly the Protestant
Reformation, strongly urged its advocates to immerse themselves into the study of the
Bible, as well as to adhere to the conviction that God is the Creator of all things.

History of the Special Creation Theory During the Renaissance era’s development of
the Protoscience

It is surprising how many scientists and philosophers have developed a study, which
seek to study Creation, by using the book of Genesis as the main guide, such as
Carolus Linnaeus’ research on the taxonomy, which he believed will reveal God’s
original plan in the creation of animal species. Disciplines like natural theology,
naturalism, and even the evolution theory first started as a simple study to prove that
the Biblical Creation story is real. It is perplexing how it seems that religion and science
support and influence one another at this particular age. The late 17th century brought
about the Scientific era, which contributed to more questions and arguments against the
Special Creation Theory. Many scientists questioned that if the universe and life have
their beginnings and a living Creator (as the Bible says), then surely this Creator, God,
also has a beginning. As there are no means to prove this, these people relied on their
own experimentations and researches as evidences, creating other theories about life’s
origin, which are leaning toward a scientific sense.

Theory In spite of this Scientific Revolution

The Church held on firmly to its stand on the Special Creation Theory. In 1785,
geologist James Hutton introduced his ideas on Uniformitarianism in his paper entitled,
“Theory of the Earth”, which promoted the thought that the Earth is older than 6000
years old at that time, since great time is required to develop lands from sediments, etc.
With enough evidence and support from fellow geologists, Hutton’s eventually was
accepted by the scientific community. By the 18th and 19th century, a compromise was
made between the religious and scientific community in the form of the Gap Theory,
which accepted the six-day creation, while still insisting that the Earth has already
existed for several ages. Charles Lyrell, clergyman and geologist, wrote the Principles
of Geology series, which supported Hutton’s Uniformitarianism, but still explained that
God created each species individually, but these creatures became extinct because of
their habitat’s evolving nature.

Theory In 1859, Charles Darwin published his well-known theory of Evolution in the
Origin of Species.

His work is the most famous paper, which focused on how life forms first existed on
Earth, rather than the usual researches on how Earth came to be. The main gist of his
paper is that all species has a common descent, with man’s gradual evolution from
primates as one of his main examples. Darwin’s death in 1882 didn’t stop his followers
from pursuing further studies on his Evolution theory, in spite of the controversy that
Darwin supposedly became a Christian before he died. The early 20th century brought
new life and hope to the Special Creation Theory, though it came not without drastic
measures. Christian Fundamentalists rejected Darwin’s Theory completely, and
succeeded in banning his Evolution ideals from being taught in schools, in the place of
Genesis’ Creation and Flood stories. This became the beginning of Darwinism’s eclipse,
as many have started to question his belief on natural selection, as well as the
mechanics of evolution. As a result, Creationism became widely accepted again.
History of the Special Creation Theory Nowadays, there’s no doubt that the scientific
and religious communities still have a raging battle to prove the true origin of life, based
on viable evidences and faith in the Bible. Nevertheless, both science and religion give
people the chance to adhere to their own beliefs. Science even goes so far as to allow
people to believe in any god. One probable reason why the Special Creation Theory
has survived the test of time is because of the equal survivability of the Bible. The
traditions and practices that the Churches have also established, in terms of studying
the Bible and looking at it in both the literal and allegorical sense, have also stayed
throughout the centuries, making the Special Creation Theory as one of the most
popular, not to mention widely accepted, theories of how life came into being.

How is the Special Creation Theory Acceptable? The Special Creation Theory is widely
accepted in the Christian community, with BIBLE as the sole basis. In spite of the lack
of evidences, which serve as proof that life was created within six days, Christians have
held on to their faith, as well as to the Scriptures. Simply put, the Christian community
insists that everything you need to know about life is written in the Bible. Since the Bible
is said to be free from errors and non-contradictory, Christians have also quoted the
New Testament as to oppose those people who say that the Creation Theory is only
touched upon in the Old Testament portion.“Through him [Jesus Christ] all things were
made; without him nothing wasmade that has been made.” – John 1:3 (NIV)“.. by his
Son, through whom he made the universe.” – Hebrews 1:2b (NIV)These two verses are
only two verses in the Scriptures that clearly states andrepeats that God is the Creator
of everything, including man.

Biogenesis Theory

• The history of Earth and its life are two concepts that are inseparable. Researchers
and scientists in different disciplines of science are still debating about the history of
Earth and how and where life originated (Campbell et al., 1999). Many theories about
the origin of life on Earth were formulated throughout the years. However, the validation
of the said theories can be difficult because life is incessantly evolving.

Solar Nebula Theory or Nebular Hypothesis

• This theory is the most accepted widely accepted theory that explains the formation
and evolution of the solar system (Coffey, 2010). The said theory was first proposed in
the 18th century by Immanuel Kant, Emanuel Swedenborg and Pierre – Simon Laplace.
In 1755, Kant disputed that gaseous clouds— nebulae, which slowly rotate, gradually
collapse and flatten due to gravity and eventually form stars and planets. Laplace’s
proposed a similar model in which a protosolar cloud (a nebular cloud) contracted and
cooled, flattening and shedding rings of material in the process which later collapsed to
form the planets. Laplace proposed in his text, “The System of the World”, in 1796 a
similar model in which a protosolar cloud (a nebular cloud) contracted and cooled,
flattening and shedding rings of material in the process which later collapsed to form the
planets. Over the course of the 20th century, this model came to be challenged by a
number of theorists who proposed numerous models in an attempt to replace it.
However, none of these attempts were successful and it was not until the 1970’s with
Soviet astronomer Victor Safronov that the modern (and widely accepted) Solar Nebular
Disk Model (SNDM) came into being (Williams, 2010).
• The key idea behind the solar nebula hypothesis is that once a rotating interstellar gas
cloud has commenced gravitational collapse, then the conservation of angular
momentum will force the cloud to develop a massive, central condensation that is
surrounded by a less massive flattened ring, or disk of material. The nebula hypothesis
asserts that the Sun forms from the central condensation, and that the planets
accumulate from the material in the disk. The solar nebula model naturally explains why
the Sun is the most massive object in the solar system, and why the planets rotate
about the Sun in the same sense, along nearly circular orbits and in essentially the
same plane (Net Industries, 2012).

The stages of solar nebula theory

• Originally a large cloud of dust and gas (75% H and 24% He) became unstable. The
densest part of the cloud started to collapse under the force of gravity Gravity pulled the
dust and gas toward the center of the cloud, causing the cloud to take on a spherical
shape.
• As the size (radius) of the cloud decreased, the collapsing cloud increased its rate of
rotation. The principle on which this conclusion is based is a law of physics called “the
conservation of angular momentum”. The effect is similar to that of an ice skater who
must pull in his or her arms in order to increase his or her rate of spin.
• The increased rotation of the cloud caused the cloud to change shape. It became
flattened at the rotational poles. Thus the once spherical cloud became disk shaped.
This rotating disk of dust and gas became the “solar nebula”. Most of the matter in the
collapsing cloud ended up in a central bulge
• As the cloud collapsed, gravitational energy was released, heating the central portion
of the nebula where a protosun formed.
• Meanwhile, condensation was occurring within the disk surrounding the protosun.
Because temperatures within the disk varied with distance from the center of the
nebula, different materials condensed at different locations within the disk. Closer to the
center, where temperatures were high, high temperature condensates such as iron and
silicates formed. Farther from the center, where temperatures were low, hydrogen,
water and other low temperature condensates formed.
• Collisions between the newly condensed particles caused larger bodies called
planetesimals to accrete. This accretion process continued eventually forming the
planets and moons. This violent and cataclysmic process of planetary formation is today
evidenced by the cratered surfaces of Mercury and our Moon. The recent collision
between comet Shoemaker-Levy and Jupiter also gave us a glimpse at what probably
happened on a much grander scale when the solar system was very young.
• The heat generated by these impacts and by radioactive decay of elements resulted in
molten planets which subsequently became differentiated.
• The evolving star at the center of the solar nebula passed through a T-Tauri star at
which point it released bursts of energy. These bursts swept light elements such as
hydrogen out of the outer solar system and into the outer solar system where it is swept
up by the distant jovian planets.
• The young protosun got hot enough to ignite the hydrogen its core. Thermonuclear
reactions in the core are what distinguish a “sun” from a protosun.
• The terrestrial planets evolved their secondary (Venus and Mars) and tertiary (Earth)
atmospheres.
* Miller – Urey Experiment This experiment is conducted in 1953 by Stanley Miller under
the supervision of Harold Urey; the first experiment to test the Oparin-Haldane theory
about the evolution of prebiotic chemicals and the origin of life on Earth. Figure 1. The
Miller – Urey experiment
• A mixture of methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and water vapor, to simulate the version of
Earths primitive, reducing atmosphere proposed by Oparin, was introduced into a 5-liter
flask and energized by an electrical discharge apparatus to represent ultraviolet
radiation from the Sun. The products were allowed to condense and collect in a lower
flask which modeled a body of water on the Earths surface. Heat supplied to this flask
recycled the water vapor just as water evaporates from lakes and seas, before moving
into the atmosphere and condensing again as rain.• After a day of continuous operation,
Miller and Urey found a thin layer of hydrocarbons on the surface of the water. After
about a week of operation, a dark brown scum had collected in the lower flask and was
found to contain several types of amino acids, including glycine and alanine, together
with sugars, tars, and various other unidentified organic chemicals (The Encyclopedia of
Science, N.D.).
From Coacervates to Heterotrophs to Autotrophs
Formation of Complex Organic Compounds
• The smaller and simpler organic compounds that were formed initially in the earth,
gradually started combining among themselves to form complex organic compounds.
Simple sugars combined among themselves to form complex polysaccharides such as
starch and cellulose. Fatty acids and glycerol molecules combined to form lipids. Amino
acids combined among themselves to form polypeptides and proteins. Purines and
pyrimidines combined with simple sugars and phosphates to form nucleotides, which in
turn combined to form nucleic acids. Heat of the sun probably provided the energy
required for the formation of complex organic compounds.
• Haldane suggested that due to the accumulation of complex organic molecules, the
sea ultimately became a sort of hot, dilute soup where in, the molecules collided,
reacted and aggregated to form more complex molecules.

Formation of Molecular Aggregates

• It is suggested that the large organic molecules formed abiotically in the primitive earth
came together spontaneously and due to intermolecular attraction, formed large
colloidal aggregates called Coacervates. An envelope of water molecules formed
around each such aggregate due to the hydrophilic nature of some of these
compounds. A membrane of fatty acids protected and enclosed these molecules,
increasing the chances of chemical reactions. Gradually, breakdown and building up
reactions started for which the energy required was provided by the breakdown
reactions. The coacervates selectively absorbed proteins and other materials from the
ocean resulting in their active growth. The coacervates not only started growing rapidly
but also started multiplying.

Formation of First Cells (Protobionts)

• The coacervates were in a state of dynamic equilibrium, constantly taking in new
materials from the oceans and releasing degraded materials. Thus, they had all the
basic properties of life such as metabolism, growth and reproduction. However, they
lacked the complexity of molecular organization, catalytic proteins (enzymes) and
precise control of nucleic acids. Later, the nucleic acids are said to have taken control of
coacervate and the process of replication became precise in the due course of time.
With the nucleic acids being established as the genetic material, the coacervates got
transformed into the primitive living systems which have been called as protobionts or
eobionts.
• Some of the proteins in protobionts are said to have developed the ability to catalyse
chemical reactions, thereby functioning as the first enzymes. The formation of enzymes
greatly enhanced the rate of synthesis of various molecules in the protobionts.
• In the course of time, the protobionts became enclosed by a protein lipid membrane,
allowing the accumulation of some molecules and the exclusion of others. This property
improved the ability of protobionts to survive and compete with others. With the
processes of metabolism, growth and reproduction becoming regular, precise and
regulated, the first cells or organisms were formed. The termprogenote has been
suggested by Carl Woese to describe the first cell which served as the ancestor of all
the forms of life existing today.
• The first forms of life developed among the organic molecules, in the oxygen free
atmosphere. Hence, they presumably obtained energy by the fermentation of organic
compounds. They were heterotrophs, requiring ready-made organic compounds as
food.
• Chemoheterotrophs-They were prokaryotic like bacteria. They were anaerobes. They
must have been dependent on the organic molecules present in the broth for body
building and obtaining energy.
• Chemoautotrophs-They were unable to synthesize organic molecules from inorganic
raw materials, with the help of chemical energy obtained by the degradation of chemical
compounds present in the sea.
• Photoautotrophic-The next step was to development of pigment molecules chlorophyll.
It would absorb solar energy and convert it into chemical energy. This process is termed
as photosynthesis. The earliest formed organisms were photoautotrophic bacteria. They
were anaerobic and did not produce O2 as byproduct during photosynthesis, because
they did not use water as a reagent.
Aerobic Photoautotrophs• They evolved 3300 to 3500 million years ago. They were like
present day cyanobacteria and could release O2 into the atmosphere because they
used water as the reagent. Thus, the whole reducing atmosphere changed to an
oxidising atmosphere.
• Autotrophs are said to have arisen much later in the primitive earth due to a mutation
in the primitive heterotrophs. The appearance of autotrophs, particularly photo
autotrophs changed the situation. The appearance of photosynthetic organisms resulted
in the release of free molecular oxygen into the atmosphere gradually transforming it
into an oxidizing type from the existing reducing type

Adaptation Modes for Survival

• 1. Nutritional Adaptation• The first primitive cells called premonera were believed to be
basically aquatic and heterotrophs, which derived food from their environment. Some of
them most probably exhibited mutations in their nucleic acids. The nature of the
mutations should have led to the development of new metabolic reactions which
eventually led to the evolution of autotrophs (Rivero & Cao, 2005)

• Autotrophs – organisms that have the capacity to produce their own food from an
inorganic source of carbon through photosynthesis (light) or chemosynthesis (chemical)
(Campbell et al., 1999).
• Photosynthesis - is the process of converting light energy to chemical energy and
storing it in the bonds of sugar (Carter, 1996).• Chemosynthesis - is the process by
which certain microbes create energy by mediating chemical reactions.

2. Structural Adaptation
• The first heterotrophs and autotrophs were in all probability prokaryotic, simple one –
celled organisms. Bacteria and cyanobacteria are present day prokaryotes. Eukaryotes
are believed to evolve from prokaryotes through endosymbiosis and invaginations
(Rivero & Cao, 2005).
• Endosymbiosis - a type of symbiosis in which one organism lives inside the other, the
two typically behaving as a single organism. It is believed to be the means by which
such organelles as mitochondria and chloroplasts arose within eukaryotic cells.•
Invagination - an infolding of the outer layer of cells of an organism or part of an
organism so as to form a pocket in the surface, as in the embryonic development of a
gastrula from a blastula.

The Domains of Life

• The three-domain system, which classifies life on the planet into three different
domains - Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryote, was put forth by American microbiologist
and physicist Carl Woese in 1990. Basically, it is a biological classification of the three
domains of life based on the differences in their 16S rRNA genes. Other popular
biological classification systems include the two-empire system - also referred to as the
super-domain system, and the six-kingdom system.
• Archaea Domain: Archaea are prokaryotic cells which are typically characterized by
membranes that are branched hydrocarbon chains attached to glycerol by ether
linkages. The presence of this ether containing linkages in Archaea adds to their ability
of withstanding extreme temperature and highly acidic conditions. Extreme halophiles -
i.e. organisms which thrive in highly salty environment, and hyperthermophiles - i.e. the
organisms which thrive in extremely hot environment, are best examples of Archaea.
• Bacteria Domain: Even though bacteria are prokaryotic cells just like Archaea, their
membranes are made of unbranched fatty acid chains attached to glycerol by ester
linkages. Cyanobacteria and mycoplasmas are the best examples of bacteria. As they
dont have ether containing linkages like Archaea, they are grouped into a different
category - and hence a different domain. There is a great deal of diversity in this
domain, such that it is next to impossible to determine how many species of bacteria
exist on the planet.
• Eukarya Domain: Eukaryote are eukaryotic cells which have membranes that are
pretty similar to that of bacteria. Eukaryote are further grouped into Kingdom Protista
(algae, protozoans, etc.), Kingdom Fungi (yeast, mold, etc.), Kingdom Plantae
(flowering plants, ferns, etc.) and Kingdom Animalia (insects, vertebrates, etc.). Not all
Eukaryotes have a cell wall, and even if they do they dont contain peptidoglycan as
bacteria do. While cells are organized into tissues in case of kingdom Plantae as well as
kingdom Animalia, the presence of cell walls is only restricted to the members of
kingdom Plantae.• Each of these three domains of life recognized by biologists today
contains rRNA which is unique to them, and this fact in itself forms the basis of three-
domain system. While the presence of nuclear membrane differentiates the Eukarya
domain from Archaea domain and Bacteria domain - both of which lack nuclear
membrane, the distinct biochemistry and Figure 3, The three RNA markers differentiate
Archaea and domains of life Bacteria domains from each other The Five Kingdoms of
Life within the Domain Eukarya

Theory of Catastrophism

• Catastrophism has been developed in the seventeenth and eighteenth century.

• A prominent British theologian, Bishop James Ussher (1581-1656) added
together the ages of people in the Bible and calculated that Earth must have
been created in 4004 B.C.
• Calculation implied that all of the features of Earth's surface must be less than
6,000 years old and were therefore, formed as the result of violent upheavals or
catastrophes.
Baron Georges Cuvier (1769-1832), a French anatomist, tried to reconcile the
fossil record with Biblical
• Cuvier stated thst different groups of fossil organisms were created and then
became extinct as the result of geologic catastrophes, the last of which was the
great flood described in the Bible.
• Each catastrophe, according to Cuvier, killed the fossilized organisms and
deposited the sediment that solidified the rock surrounding the fossils.

Definition of Catastrophism

Etymology:
The word catastrophism comes from catastrophe + -ism 1865-1870.
Catastrophism is the idea thst many of Earth's crustal features formed as a result of
past cataclysmic activity.
In other words, the Earth's surface has been scarred by catastrophic natural disasters.
• For example, a catastrophist might conclude that the Rocky Mountain were
created in a single rapid event such as a great earthquake rather than by
imperceptibly slow uplift and erosion.

THE STORY OF HUMAN EVOLUTION

Hominid refers to a member of the human family, Hominidae, which consist of all
species from pont where the human line splits from apes towards present day humans.
Habitual bipedal locomotion ( movement on two legs ), an upright position, and a large
brain that has lead to tool use, language, and culture characterize hominid.
The precursors of the modern human being Humans appeared late in Earth’s history
The earliest ancestors of humans (hominids) diverged from apes about 8 million years
ago. First Europeans: approx. 780,000 years ago.

Stages of Human Development

“Paleolithic” --> “Old Stone” Age 2,500,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE Made tools
hunting (men) & gathering (women) small bands of 20-30 humans NOMADIC
(moving from place to place) Humans during this period found shelter in caves.
Cave paintings left behind.

“Neolithic” “New Stone” Age 10,000 BCE – 4,000 BCE Gradual shift from:
Nomadic lifestyle settled, stationery lifestyle. Hunting/Gathering
agricultural production and domestication of animals.

The Agricultural Revolution

8,000 BCE – 5,000 BCE
Agriculture developed independently in different parts of the world. SLASH-AND-BURN
Farming.

Humans have evolved from 2 species:

1. Australopithecine species
2. Homo Species

Stage1. Australopithecines
 Generally refer to any species in the related genera Australopithecus and
Paranthropus.
 Occurred in the Plio-Pleistocene era
 The genus Homo (humans, appear about 2.4 million years ago with Homo
habilis) appear to be descended from australopithecine ancestors, more
precisely from Kenyanthropus platyops branching off Australopithecus some 3.5
million years ago.
 Bipedal and dentally similar to humans
 Brain size not much larger than modern apes
 Lacking the encephalization characteristics of the genus Homo.

A. Australopithecus Afarensis
One of the earliest of modern man’s ancestors. They lived between 3.2 to 4
million years ago in eastern Africa. Fossils are found in Tanzania and Ethiopia.
B. Australopithecus Africanus
Lived between 2.3 to 3.0 million years ago, mostly in South Africa although
remains have been found else where. First discovered by Raymond Dart in 1925.
They are direct descendent of A. afarensis.
C. Paranthropus Robustus
First appeared about 1.8 million years ago and disappeared around 1 million
years ago. This species was first discovered and named by Dr. Robert Broom.
They mostly lived in eastern Africa.
D. Paranthropus Boisei
Lived from around 1.3 million years to about 2.2 million years ago. The first
specimen was discovered by Mary Leaky in 1959. Found in East Africa, Kenya
and Tanzania.

Stage 2. Homo Species

It is the genus that includes modern humans and species closely related to them. The
genus is estimated to be about 2.3 to 2.4 million years old evolving from
australopithecine ancestors with the appearance of homo habilis.
4,000,000 BCE – 1,000,000 BCE Hominids --> any member of the family of two-
legged primates that includes all humans. Australopithecines An Apposable Thumb

HOMO HABILIS ( “Man of Skills” ) found in East Africa. created stone tools.

Stage 3. Homo Erectus

1,6000,000 BCE – 30,000 BCE HOMO ERECTUS ( “Upright Human Being” )

BIPEDALISM Larger and more varied tools --> primitive technology First hominid to
migrate and leave Africa for Europe and Asia. First to use fire ( 500,000 BCE )

Stage 4. Homo Sapiens

200,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE HOMO SAPIENS ( “Wise Human Being” )

Neanderthals ( 200,000 BCE – 30,000 BCE )
Cro-Magnons ( 40,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE )
The first skull The skull of Neanderthal man NEANDERTHALS discovered in Neander
valley, German(1856 Made clothes from animal skins Live in caves and tents.

Theories on prehistory and early man constantly change as new evidence comes to
light. - Louis Leakey, British paleoanthropologist

Stage 5. Cro-Magnon

CRO-MAGNONs: Homo sapiens sapiens ( “Wise, wise human” ) By 30,000 BCE

they replaced Neanderthals.

8,000 BCE – 5,000 BCE Agriculture developed independently in different parts of the
world. SLASH-AND-BURN Farming Middle East 8,000 BCE India 7,000 BCE Central
America 6,500 BCE China 6,000 BCE Southeast Asia 5,000 BCE

Modern humans arose about 200,000 years ago Homo sapiens fossils date to 200,000
years ago. Human evolution is influenced by a tool-based culture. There is a trend
toward increased brain size in hominids. Australopithecus afarensis Homo habilis Homo
neanderthalensis Homo sapiens

Humans share a common ancestor with other primates Primates are mammals with
flexible hands and feet, forward-looking eyes and enlarged brains. Primates evolved
into prosimians and anthropoids. – Prosimians are the oldest living primates. – They
are mostly small and nocturnal.

– Anthropoids are humanlike primates. They are subdivided into the New World
monkeys, Old World monkeys, and hominoids.
– Hominoids are divided into hominids, great apes, and lesser apes.
– Hominids include living and extinct humans.

What differentiates Ape from Man?

Critical Characteristics: Large brain Foramen magnum Dentition
– Teeth Bipedal skeletal structure & musculature S-shaped spinal column [not C] pelvic
structure [shortening-bowl shaped] muscular (gluteal & hamstring) lengthening of lower
limb [femur] changes in feet to become weight-bearing structures.

Brain Size Human vs. Chimp • modern man 1000 - 2000 cc • chimps 280 - 400 cc

Foramen Magnum • The hole at base of skull through which spinal cord passes •
Position of foramen magnum strong indicator of the angle of the spinal column to the
head • Habitual bipedalism
Dentition / Teeth • Reduction in size of incisors & canines – Ape canines displays of
aggression and as defensive weapons • Premolar & molar with flat occlusal wear
pattern Chimpanzee Human

Gorilla vs. Human Skeleton Comparisons • Shape and position of the skull • Relative
size of the neck • Relative length of the arm • Relative length and shape of pelvis •

Posture especially shape of the spine – C-shaped vs. S-shaped

Skeletal Structure Upper legs angled inward from hip joints position knees to better
support body during upright walking [apes sway from side to side] A = femur b = tibia c
= weight-bearing axis

Comparison of Pelvis Structure Human Ilium shorter and broader allows hip muscles to
steady the body during each bipedal step Human Pelvis • position of big toe • Foot
shorter – less flexible toes more rigid lever for pushing off with each step • Arch
shock absorber Chimpanzee Pelvis

Comparison of some soft tissue involved in biomechanical differences between chimps

and humans [American Museum of Natural History webpage] • Humans 2 of 3
semicircular canals [balance] specialized to stabilize head • Less muscle between head
and shoulders in humans – Chimps have to fight gravity to hold heads up while walking
on all fours – Our head just sits on our necks • Humans more gluteus maximus
muscle – Stabilizes femur into pelvis and helps keeps trunk and leg moving together. •
Achilles tendon and tendon of arch of the foot larger in humans – In running act like
springs, absorbing and releasing energy
Bipedalism • Bipedal means walking on two legs. – foraging – carrying infants and food
– using tools • Walking upright has important adaptive advantages.

Advantages of Bipedalism 1st stood upright then got smart Freeing hands –
advantageous for carrying food or tools Improved vision in grasslands Reduce body’s
exposure to hot sun Hunting or weapon use Feeding from bushes and low branches –
easier when standing and moving upright between closely spaced bushes.

Human variation

Human Variation and Adaptation

What is the race concept, and why have anthropologists rejected it?
• How does natural selection work on contemporary and recent human populations?
• Does biological adaptation occur during an individual’s lifetime?

Race: A Discredited Concept in Biology

• Historically, scientists approached the study of human biological diversity in two ways:
– Racial classification, now largely rejected – Explanatory approach that focuses on
understanding specific differences.
Racial classification is the attempt to assign humans to discrete categories
(purportedly) based on common ancestry. Biological differences are real, important and
apparent but not a source to categorize people into race groups.

Race refers to a geographically isolated subdivision of a species –Human populations

have not been isolated enough from one another to develop into discrete groups.

Phenotypic traits (skin color) have been used for racial classification.
White Black Yellow – This overly simplistic classification was compatible with the
political use of race during the colonial period. – Race kept white Europeans separate
from African, Asian, and Native American subjects.

Races Are Not Biologically Distinct

Problems with using a tripartite scheme

– “Color based” racial labels are not accurate • Caucasoid, Negroid, Mongoloid
– Many populations don’t fit neatly into any one of the three “great races.”
– No single trait can be used as a basis for racial classification.
– Phenotypic similarities and differences do not necessarily have a genetic basis.

Genetic Markers Don’t Correlate with Phenotype

– The analysis of human DNA indicates that 94 % of human genetic variation occurs
within “races”.
– There is only 6 % variation between conventional geographic “racial” groupings
(Africans, Asians and Europeans).
– There is much greater variation within each of traditional “races” than between them.
–Phenotypical similarities and differences are not precisely or necessarily correlated
with genetic relationships.
–Because of environment that affects individuals during growth and development, the
range of phenotypes characteristic of a population may change without any genetic
change.

• Traditional racial classification assumes biological characteristics are determined by

heredity and were stable over many generations.

• Role of natural selection in producing variation in skin color illustrates an explanatory

approach to human biological diversity.

Explaining Skin Color

• Skin color biological trait is influenced by several genes.

– Melanin: a natural sun screen produced by skin cells responsible for pigmentation
– By screening out ultraviolet (UV) radiation from sun, melanin offers protection against
a variety of maladies, including sunburn and skin cancer.

How can we explain the geographic distribution of skin color?

• Prior to the16th century, very dark skinned populations lived in the tropics: a belt
extending about 23 degrees north and south of the equator.
– Outside the tropics, skin color tends to be lighter.
– Melanin confers a selective advantage on darker-skinned people living in the tropics.

• Geographic distribution of skin color involved effects of UV on folate.

• Folate is needed for cell division and the production of new DNA.
• Folate deficiency can cause male sterility.
• The discussion of skin color shows that, common ancestry is not the only reason for
biological similarities.
• Natural selection makes a major contribution to variations in human skin color, as well
as to many other human biological differences and similarities.

Human Biological Adaptation

• Abundant evidence exists for human genetic adaptation and evolution through
selection working in specific environments
• With thousands of human genes known, new genetic traits are being discovered every
day.

Genes and Disease

• According to the World Health Report, tropical diseases affect more than 10 percent of
the world’s population.
–Malaria: 350 million to 500 million people
–Schistosomiasis (snail fever): more than 200 million
–Filariasis: 120 million

• Microbes were the major selective agent for humans, particularly before the arrival of
modern medicine.
– After food production emerged 10,000 years ago, infectious diseases posed a
mounting risk and became the foremost cause of human mortality.
– ABO blood groups vary in their resistance to disease.
• Smallpox had been a major threat to humans and a determinant of blood frequencies
until 1977.

• The A B 0 blood groups have figured in human resistance to smallpox.

• People with A or AB blood type are more susceptible to smallpox than are people with
type B or type 0.
• Associations between A B 0 blood types and noninfectious disorders also have been
noted.
• Type 0 – duodenal and gastric ulcers.
• Type A – stomach and cervical cancer and ovarian tumors.
• However, since these noninfectious disorders tend to occur after reproduction has
ended, their relevance to adaptation and evolution through natural selection is doubtful.

Facial Features

• Natural selection also affects facial features.

– Long noses seem to be adaptive in arid areas and cold environments.
– Thomson’s Nose Rule: There is an association between nose form and temperature
for those who have lived for many generations in the areas they now inhabit.

Size and Body Build

• Bergmann’s rule: The smaller of two bodies similar in shape has more surface area
per unit of weight. Within the same species of warm-blooded animals, populations
having smaller individuals are found more in warm climates.
• Allen’s rule: Relative sizes of protruding body parts increase with temperature.

Phenotype Differences

• Tropical climates- slender bodies with long limbs are advantageous.

• North polars – Eskimos with short limbs and stocky bodies.
• Altitudes also affects phenotypes.

Lactose Tolerance

• Another difference between human groups.

• Lactose tolerence is important factor for survival when other foods are scarce and milk
is available.
• Lactose tolerance appears to be one of many aspects of human biology governed both
by genes and by phenotypical adaptation to environmental conditions.
Prepared by Group1: Submitted to

Cristoto B. Caluya Jr. Ms. Ellen Grace B. Ugalde

Alvin Oiguan
Virgilio Velonza Jr.
Manilyn Bagorio
Ronalyn Gacad