Journal of Cleaner Production 145 (2017) 74e84

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

GHG mitigation potential of solar industrial process heating in

producing cotton based textiles in India
Ashish K. Sharma*, Chandan Sharma, Subhash C. Mullick, Tara C. Kandpal
Center for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, HauzKhas, New Delhi 110016, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A preliminary attempt to estimate the potential of solar process heating in producing cotton based
Received 24 October 2016 textiles in India as well as the amount of greenhouse gases likely to be mitigated consequently has been
Received in revised form made. To begin with, all the processes involved in the production of cotton based textiles (yarn and cloth)
13 December 2016
that require thermal energy have been identified. Also an assessment of availability of solar radiation as
Accepted 30 December 2016
well as the ambient conditions at various locations with clusters of cotton based textile units in the
Available online 31 December 2016
country has been made. Subsequently, the solar collector area required for meeting the process heating
demand has been estimated. Further, corresponding useful thermal energy delivery of solar industrial
Keywords:
Solar industrial process heating
process heating systems at identified locations has been estimated. The process heating potential in term
Cotton based textiles production in India of useful thermal energy requirements in cotton based textile production is estimated at 191 PJ annually.
Useful energy delivery The estimated values of annual solar fractions for the identified locations with clusters of cotton based
GHG mitigation potential textile units range between 0.22 and 0.32 for systems without storage and in between 0.20 and 0.60 for
SIPH system having provision of thermal storage for collection of energy that would otherwise be
dumped. Solar process heating in cotton based textile industry in India have a potential to mitigate 2457
e7648 thousand tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions annually depending on the location and the pro-
vision of a storage component or otherwise.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Textile industry contributes 14% to overall industrial produc-
tion and 4% to the gross domestic product of India (CCPL, 2015).
Cotton, synthetic and blended fibers are the major raw materials
of textile industry in India. About 70% of the overall textile pro-
duction in India is from cotton, though other fibers such as silk,
jute, wool etc. are also being used in limited amounts (CITI, 2015;
CCPL, 2015). Production of cotton textiles from raw cotton (fiber)
to processed cloth involves a series of operations. These operations
(spinning, weaving, and processing) are either carried out in
composite mills or individual production units. Composite mills
are the production units where spinning, weaving and processing
are carried out in the same premises. State wise breakup of cotton
yarn production in both composite and spinning mills in India is
presented in Table 1 (CITI, 2015). On the other hand, fabric and
cloth production is mainly takes place in small and medium size
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: aksharmanith@gmail.com (A.K. Sharma).
weaving (power looms, hand looms, hosiery) and processing units
(Table 1).
Energy has a significant share in the overall cost of textile pro-
duction (Orzuk, 2005). In textile industry, energy is used in both
electrical and thermal forms. Electricity is used for lighting, air
conditioning and operating motor drives; whereas, thermal energy
is used for process heating applications such as dyeing, bleaching,
and other finishing operations of textile production. A substantial
fraction of energy demand in the textile production is for process
heating and most of it is required at low and intermediate tem-
peratures between 50- 200
C (Kalogirou, 2003). With use of state
of the art solar collector technologies, solar energy can be efficiently
harnessed to provide heat at these temperatures (Appendix A).
Several studies aiming to assess the process heating potential of
solar energy in the textile industry have been reported in the
literature (Adel et al., 2001; Claudia et al., 2008; Lauterbach et al.,
2012; Fuller, 2011). Case studies and details of the solar energy
systems for process heating in textile processing were discussed by
(Gupta, 1989). In this study performances of solar energy based
systems such as solar Kier, solar fabric dryer, solar water heater and
solar ovens have been determined. The study indicates that the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.12.161
0959-6526/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 A.K. Sharma et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 145 (2017) 74e84 75

Table 1 mentioned initiatives, one of the critical requirements is having

Production of cotton based textiles (yarn and cloth) in India (2012). proper information about realistic potential of solar process heating
State/UT Cotton Yarn (million kg per annum) in India and also about niche locations in the country where initial
Composite mills Spinning mills Total production
interventions can be made. It is also important to undertake a
comparative evaluation of commercially available solar thermal
Andhra Pradesh 0 166 166
technologies so as to provide useful information for making an
D and Nagar Haveli 13 52 65
Gujarat 9 150 159 appropriate choice. Textile industry is also included in the scope of
Haryana 0 100 100 above mentioned programs of Government of India.
Himachal Pradesh 0 82 82 It is with thus background that preliminary attempt to esti-
Karnataka 0 46 46
mate the potential of solar process heating for textile industry in
Kerala 0 26 26
Madhya Pradesh 6 195 201 India is undertaken in this study. Also corresponding estimates of
Maharashtra 12 242 254 using solar process heating in terms of reduction in the GHG
Punjab 40 408 448 emissions in textile industry in India has been made in this paper.
Rajasthan 2 106 108 It may be noted that cotton is the predominant raw material
Tamil Nadu 50 1317 1367
(fiber) used in the textile industry in India. Approximately 70% of
Others 4 100 104
Total 136 2990 3126 yarn and nearly 50% of cloth production in India is based on
Annual production of cotton based cloths (million m2) cotton (CITI, 2015). Therefore, in the present study of GHG
Production units Power looms Hand looms Hosiery emissions mitigation potential of solar industrial process heating
12,027 6021 10,798
(SIPH) in textile industry in India only cotton based textile pro-
duction has been considered.

small textile processing units in India can benefit substantially from
solar energy use due to relatively lower daily energy requirements.
Feasibility of integration of high temperature solar energy in a
textile factory of Prato was assessed by Ennio et al. (2011). In this
study a model of the parabolic trough based solar process heating
plant (without storage) was developed and estimations for useful
energy delivery have been made. Estimated results suggested that
solar process heating in the selected factory can save 40 to 50
percent of natural gas annually. In the context of India, studies
regarding the process heating potential of solar energy in the in-
dustrial sector also include the textile industry (ABPS, 2011; GIZ,
2011). For example, to meet the hot water demand of textile in-
dustry in India a solar collector area requirement of 97,144 m2 has
been estimated (ABPS, 2011). In the study of GIZ, it has been esti-
mated that solar process heating in textile industry in India can
replace 386 kilotons of oil equivalent (ktoe) of fossil fuels annually.
It is worth mentioning that, studies carried out in the context of
textile industry in India were mainly focused on low temperature
(50e100
C) applications such as hot water generation and boiler
feed water heating. However, in textile industry, thermal energy at
higher temperatures may also be required for various applications.
Use of solar energy based system with integration of existing
conventional systems has also been reported in the literature
(Hafner et al., 2014). Therefore, considering the use of solar energy
for meeting the entire thermal energy requirement of textile in-
dustry (50e150
C), need for a substantial change in the estimation
potential may be observed. Also in the reported studies on the
estimation of SIPH potential of textile industry, performance of
solar collectors at different locations has not been internalized in
the approach used for estimating the potential. Some attempts of
integrating solar process heating systems in textile industry have
also been reported in the literature. Use of these solar concentrators
for providing process heat has also been reported in the literature
(Bhosale et al., 2008; Garcia et al., 2015; Sharma et al., 2016a,b).
Government of India with support from several multilateral and
other internal agencies such as United Nation Development Pro-
gram (UNDP), United Nation Industrial Development Organization
(UNIDO) and Global Environment Facility (GEF) etc. has initiated an
ambitious program for enhanced solar energy utilization in the
industrial sector of the country. While the program with UNDP
aims at promoting use of concentrating solar collector’s technolo-
gies for meeting the process heating demand in the industries. The
initiative with UNIDO essentially focuses on providing support
measures for the same. For the desired success in the above
2. Processes involved and typical energy use in cotton based
textile production
Manufacturing of cotton based textile (yarn, fabric and cloth)
involves a series of operations. These include (i) spinning (where
raw fiber (cotton) is turned into yarn), (ii) the weaving process
(where the yarn is woven into fabric and (iii) Processing. Detail of
the processes (Fig. 1) involves in the production of raw material
(fiber) to finished cloth is described in the following paragraphs.
2.1. Spinning
Spinning is a process which convert raw fiber into yarn or
thread. In a spinning mill the fibers are prepared and twisted to
form the yarn. Electricity is the major type of energy used in
spinning mills, though in the production of dyed yarn, substantial
amount of process heat in form of hot water is also required for
sizing and dyeing processes.
2.2. Weaving
Weaving is the most common method used for producing fab-
rics from yarns. The process is carried out on a loom (power loom,
shuttle loom handloom etc.) which interlaces lengthwise yarns and
convert them into a fabric. Electricity is the primary source of en-
ergy utilized in the weaving operation. Un-processed woven fabric
that comes out of weaving operation is called grey fabric that is
further processed before finally being traded in the market.
2.3. Processing
Processing or sometimes called as wet processing or chemical
processing refers to the series of processes that convert the woven
fabric into a usable material that is finished fabric or cloth. Finishing
is the major energy consuming operation because it uses a large
amount of thermal energy. In a typical composite textile mill 80% of
overall energy is utilized in the finishing operation. Processes such
as de-sizing, dyeing, bleaching mercerizing final finishing, drying
etc. require heat in the range of 40e140
C (Hasanbeigi and Prince,
2012). Steam and hot water are the main heat transfer media those
are directly or indirectly being used. The major processes involved
in the wet processing operation of cotton fabrics or cloth are pre-
sented in Fig. 1 with each of them briefly described in the following
paragraphs.
76 A.K. Sharma et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 145 (2017) 74e84
Raw Material
Blowing
(Cotton fiber)
Grey
De-sizing
Fabric
Scouring Bleaching
Fig. 1. A schematic of processes involved in the production of cotton based textiles.
2.3.1. De-sizing
The size is removed for preparing fabric for dyeing and finishing.
This process is called de-sizing. de-sizing is carried out by treating
the fabric in the solution of acid, such as acid, alkali or oxidizing
agents at temperatures up to 90
C and then rinsing them with
fresh water.
2.3.2. Scouring
Scouring is an alkaline treatment that removes fats and waxes,
and solubilizes materials from cotton fiber. Scouring gives fabrics a
high and even wettability to be bleached successfully. Scouring
process use steam and detergents such as highly alkaline chemicals
and caustic soda to remove oils and minerals. High temperatures
between 90
C and 110
C and long retention times up to 12 h are
used to ensure thorough saturation and cleaning. In most cases
scouring is followed by washing to remove impurities.
2.3.3. Bleaching
Bleaching is a chemical treatment employed for the removal of
natural coloring matter from the fabric. Cotton fabrics are normally
bleached with hydrogen peroxide before dying. This process is
carried out to improve the ground colour of the fabric and to pro-
vide uniform base for subsequent processes. Bleaching process is
carried out at wide range of temperatures. Cotton based fabrics are
bleached at 80e95
C in bath processes. The bleaching time is
generally between 2 and 5 h. In a pressurized high temperature
apparatus cotton fabric can also be bleached at temperatures of
110e130
C in only 1e2 h.
2.3.4. Dyeing
A treatment of cotton fabric with a strong caustic alkaline so-
lution in order to improve the luster, hand and to increase its luster
and affinity for dyes is known as mercerizing. The fabric is
immersed in a cold sodium hydroxide solution, and is later
neutralized in acid. The process causes a permanent swelling of the
fabric and thus increases its luster. Mercerizing requires tempera-
tures in the range of 60
Ce70
C. After mercerizing dyeing is car-
ried out. It is the process of coloring fabrics with either natural or
synthetic dyes. Dyeing requires temperatures in the range of
70
Ce90
C.
2.3.5. Finishing
All the processes through which the cotton fabric is passed after
scouring bleaching, and dyeing called finishing. Finishing includes
Carding Combing Drawing
Weaving Yarn Dyeing
Finished
Dyeing Finishing
Cloth
heat-setting, napping, embossing, pressing, calendaring and the
application of chemicals that change the character of the fabric. The
term finishing is also sometimes used to refer collectively to all
processing operations mentioned above. Finishing plants are
thermal energy intensive, requiring large quantities of hot water
ranging from 40
C to 100
C and steam.
2.4. Typical thermal energy use in cotton based textile production
Energy use in textile production depends on various factors such
as the form of the product being processed, the machine type, the
specific process type, the state of the final product, etc. As described
in the section 1, thermal energy is consumed in spinning (condi-
tioning and dying of yarn) and processing operations of cloth
production. In composite textile mills substantial amount of elec-
tricity and process heat is required. Therefore, most of the com-
posite mills in India have their own cogeneration plants for meeting
the energy demand (BEE, 2014). Also, due to strict guidelines of
Indian government to reduce the fossil fuel consumption other
ones are also gradually shifting to cogeneration. Thermal energy
consumption in fabric processing is 70e80% of the total energy
consumption (Hasanbeigi, 2010). Specific thermal energy con-
sumption in spinning and processing operations of cotton based
textiles (yarn and fabric processing) is presented in Table 2.
Thermal energy requirement of spinning and processing of
fabrics, mostly met with the low and intermediate pressure water
and steam boilers. Specifications of boilers being used in some of
the existing textile processing units in India are presented in
Table 3. In case of process heating in textile individual spinning and
fabric processing units in India mostly the use of petroleum prod-
ucts (furnace, oil, high speed diesel and LPG) and biomass feed
stocks such as wood, rice husk, and nutshell have been reported
(ABPS, 2011).
3. Methodology adopted for potential estimation
The methodology used (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3.) in this study for esti-
mating the GHG emissions mitigation potential of solar process
heating in cotton based textile industry in India involves (a) esti-
mation of the annual thermal energy requirements of yarn and
fabric (cloth) processing (i.e. gross SIPH potential) (b) identification
of locations with cluster of cotton based individual spinning mills
and processing units in the country and checking of solar resource
availability at these locations, (c) performance assessment of solar
 A.K. Sharma et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 145 (2017) 74e84 77

Table 2
Thermal energy use in yarn production and fabric processing operations of cotton based textile production.

Operation Range of specific thermal energy consumption (MJ/kg) Average thermal energy consumption (MJ/kg) Heat transfer medium Reference

Yarn Production 4.50e5.60 5.05 Hot water (LNBL, 2005)

4.55e5.66 5.10 Hot water (IPCC, 2007)
Fabric processing 52.5e67.5 60.0 Steam (Hasanbeigi, 2010)
45.75e62.7 54.2 Steam (UNIDO, 2009)
54e63 58.5 Steam (IPCC, 2007)

Table 3
Details of boilers used in textile industry in India.

Capacity (kg/h) Pressure (bar) Operating Temp. (
C) Reference

3000 10.54 177 (BEE, 2011)

2000 10.00 180
600 10.00 180 (BEE, 2014)
200 10.00 180 (BEE, 2010)
6000 10.50 182 (BEE, 2013)
8000 10.00 180 (BEE, 2013)

Fig. 3. A schematic of the methodology adopted for estimating the performance of

SIPH systems and the GHG emissions mitigation potential of solar process heating in
the production of cotton textiles.

Fig. 2. A schematic of methodology adopted in the study for SIPH potential estimation.
process heating systems at representative locations and (d) esti-
mation of GHG mitigation potential of solar process heating. Brief
description of each one of the above mentioned steps is presented
in the following paragraphs.
3.1. Estimation of the useful thermal energy requirement in cotton
yarn and fabric processing
Annual useful thermal energy requirement of yarn produced
from cotton (excluding composite mills) is estimated by using the
average thermal energy requirements of spinning operation
(Table 2) and production data of cotton yarn as listed in Table 1.
Annual thermal energy requirement (MJ) of cotton yarn pro-
duction in the country (ATERyp) can be estimated as
X
n
ATERyp ¼ STERyp ðAPCYi Þ (1)
i¼1
with APCYi representing the annual production of cotton yarn(in
kilograms) in the ith state of the country, and STERyp the specific
thermal energy requirement of yarn production in(MJ/kg).
Cotton cloth in India is produced in hand looms, power looms
and hosiery units. Therefore using the amount of cloth produced in
these units in the year of 2012 (Table 1) and average thermal energy
requirement of cotton processing (Table 2), annual thermal energy
requirement of cotton based fabric processing in the country
(ATERcf,p) can be estimated as
h   i  
ATERcf;p ¼ Cf ðAPCCh:l: Þ þ APCCpl: þ ðAPCChos: Þ  STERcf;p
(2)
with APCCh.l representing the annual production of cotton based
cloth(in million m2) in handloom units, APCC,p.l. The annual pro-
duction of cotton cloths in power loom units, APCC,hos.. The annual
production of cotton cloth in the hosiery units in India, STERcf,p the
specific thermal energy requirement for processing of cotton fabric
to cloth (MJ/kg) and Cf the conversion factor used for converting m2
of cotton fabric to their corresponding mass in kilograms (0.1 kg per
m2 of cloth, in this study). In principle, annual thermal energy re-
quirements in yarn and fabric production also represent the gross
potential of solar industrial process heating in the cotton based
textile production in India.
A certain amount of cotton yarn produced from spinning mills
may not be undergoes for dyeing operation, and could have differed
specific thermal energy requirement. Since, data regarding the
share of dyed and un-dyed cotton yarn has not been available so in
the present analysis, it has been assumed that the entire amount of
cotton yarn produced in the spinning mills undergoes through
78 A.K. Sharma et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 145 (2017) 74e84
dyeing process. Similarly, specific thermal energy consumption of
cotton cloth that is produced in power loom, handlooms and ho-
siery units may also vary. Although, in the present analysis due to
unavailability of detailed data, it has been assumed that cotton
cloth produced in handlooms, power looms and hosiery units un-
dergo through a processing operation with the same amount of
specific thermal energy consumption. As mentioned earlier, com-
posite textile mills in India have cogeneration plants for meeting
the electric and thermal energy requirements. Since cogeneration
itself is an advance and efficient mode of energy utilization, also the
same operates at higher temperatures, therefore use of solar based
process heating systems in these units has not been included in the
estimation of SIPH potential.
3.2. Assessment of solar resource availability at some representative
locations with clusters of cotton based textile units
State wise locations with clusters of cotton based textile mills
(spinning and processing) have been identified and the corre-
sponding data regarding the annual cumulative values of Global
Horizontal Irradiance (GHI), Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI), annual
average ambient temperature (Ta) and annual average wind speed
at these locations has been obtained from the weather data source
of the software (Meteonorm (2014). Data for these representative
locations with clusters of cotton based textile mills is presented in
Appendix B.
3.3. Estimation of useful energy delivery and solar fraction of SIPH
systems
Performance of any solar process heating system mainly de-
pends on (a) operating temperatures of the process, (b) perfor-
mance characteristics of solar collector being used and (c)
availability of solar radiation (DNI in case of concentrator based
systems and GHI in case of stationary collectors) and climatic
conditions (e.g. ambient temperature, wind speed) at the location
of use. In spinning mills, where yarn is produced, hot water at lower
temperatures is required. Solar energy can be efficiently harnessed
to provide the same with use of flat plate collector (FPC) and
evacuated tube collector (ETC) (Muneer et al., 2008). Therefore, in
the present analysis, SIPH systems based on these collector tech-
nologies have been considered to meet the process heat re-
quirements of yarn production. Further, at each identified location
with clusters of textile mills, performance of these technologies (in
terms of useful energy delivery and solar fraction) for delivering
process heat at required temperatures has been assessed.
In case of fabric processing, hot water/steam is required at
relatively higher temperatures and pressures as compared to that
required yarn production. In this case, based on the specifications of
a typical boiler being used in the textile processing unit (Table 3) a
solar processing, heating system that can provide an outlet tem-
perature of 180
C and a pressure of 10.55 bar has been modelled.
Two solar concentrator technologies (Arun 160 parabolic dish, and
parabolic trough) have been considered to supply the required
process heat.
Further, at each representative location with clusters of textile
mills estimates for the performance of SIPH system in terms of
useful energy delivery and solar fraction have been made. Specifi-
cations of process heat requirement, of steam and hot water gen-
eration systems and design parameters of SIPH systems such as
operating temperatures, performance equations of the collectors
etc. being considered here in the present analysis are listed in the
Table 4.
The area of solar collector field (ASCf) required to meet the
process heating demand at a given location for pre-defined
operating conditions (temperature and pressure) can be estimated
as
PHRh
ASCf ¼ (3)
ðhc ÞðGHId Þ
where PHRh represents the rate of process heat requirement
(kWth), GHId the chosen design value of GHI assumed to be incident
on the aperture of the solar collector (W/m2). hC the thermal effi-
ciency of solar energy utilization of solar collector at required
conditions of process heating and chosen value of design GHI. In
case of solar concentrator based systems that can only make use of
direct component of incident solar radiation, the required collector
area can be determined by using equation (3) with the GHId
replaced with the design value of direct normal irradiance (DNId).
At the design value of GHI the SIPH system (using FPC or ETC)
would produce its nominal (rated) thermal output. Similarly, at the
design value of DNI a solar concentrator based SIPH system would
deliver its nominal output. Whenever the intensity of available
solar radiation is less than the chosen value of GHId or DNId, the
output of the SIPH system would be less than its nominal value,
thus necessitating the use of an auxiliary backup or have a provi-
sion of thermal storage. On the other hand, if the available insola-
tion (GHI or DNI) is more than the design value, the SIPH system
will produce more output than its nominal capacity. In such a case,
the extra amount of thermal energy collected can either be stored
for use during off - sunshine hours or during time of the day when
insolation is less than the corresponding design value or it would
have to dumped.
In the present study, two types of SIPH systems i.e. (i) Systems
without any provision for thermal storage and, (ii) systems with
provision of thermal energy storage have been considered and
analysed. In a system having no provision of storage n, an auxiliary
backup is expected to supplement the energy delivered by the solar
energy based system when the insolation is below the design value
of GHI or DNI. On the other hand, for hours with higher insolation
(above GHId or DNId) the excess energy produced by the solar en-
ergy system is assumed will have to be dumped In systems with
provision of thermal storage, any excess energy produced by the
solar energy system would be stored. In this study, it has been
assumed that the excess amount of thermal energy will be stored in
insulated water tank or steam accumulators. A schematic diagram
of the selected system is presented in Fig. 4. It may be noted that
there would be losses from the thermal energy storage systems and
the same need to taken into account while estimating the annual
amount of useful thermal energy delivered by the solar energy
based industrial process heating system. In the present analysis
losses associated with direct storage of thermal energy as pres-
surized hot water have been considered and internalized in esti-
mating the potential. The effects of designing the systems for
different design values of insolation on the outputs of both types of
SIPH systems (based on stationary and concentrator solar collec-
tors) have been studied for systems without and with provision of
thermal energy storage.
A schematic diagram depicting the approach followed for esti-
mating the useful thermal energy delivery from solar industrial
process heating systems in textile industry is presented in Fig. 3.
Having obtained the required collector area for a chosen design
value of Insolation (GHId or DNId) the next step is to estimate the
annual energy likely to be delivered by the system at different lo-
cations. For this purpose, hourly values of the corresponding
insolation and ambient temperature at each identified location
were obtained using Meteonorm 7.1 (Meteonorm, 2014). A Pro-
gramme was developed using Microsoft Excel that uses the hourly
data of solar resource and ambient temperature, characteristics of
 A.K. Sharma et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 145 (2017) 74e84 79

Table 4
Values of input parameters used in the analysis.

Parameter Symbol (s) Unit Value Reference

(A) Parameters for estimating the useful thermal energy requirement of cotton based textiles production
Annual production of cotton yarn APCY Million kg 2990 (CII, 2013)
Annual production of cotton cloth in hand looms APCCh.l. Million m2 6021
Annual production of cotton cloth in power looms APCCp.l. Million m 12,027
Annual production of cotton cloth in hosiery units APCChos. Million m 10,798
Specific thermal energy requirement of cotton yarn production STERyp MJ/kg 6 (Hasanbeigi, 2010)
Specific thermal energy requirement of cotton fabric processing STERcf,p MJ/kg 60 (LNBL, 2005)
conversion factor used for converting m2 of cotton fabric to the kilogram unit Cf Factor 0.1
(B) Parameters for estimating the collector area requirement and useful energy delivery of SIPH System
FPC and ETC based SIPH systems (for cotton yarn production)


Intel Temperature Ti C 15


Outlet Temperature To C 80
Efficiency Equations: Flat plate collector(FPC) h¼0.732e3.411*(TmTa/I0.294*(TiTa)2/I (FPC, 2013)
Evacuated Tube Collector (ETC) h¼0.62e0.395*(TmTa/Ie0.002*(TiTa)2/I (ETC, 2014)
Concentrator based SIPH systems (for cotton fabric processing)


Intel temperature Ti C 50 (BEE, 2014)


Outlet temperature To C 180


Mean fluid temperature Tm C 115
%
Efficiency of thermal energy storage 70 (ETSAP, 2013)


Average ambient temperature Ta C As per the location
Efficiency Equations: Arun 160 h ¼ 0.65e0.40*(TmTa)/I (Bhosale et al., 2008)
Parabolic Trough h¼0.71e0.3581*(TmTa/Ie0.0019*(TmTa)2/I (PTC, 2014)
(C) Parameters for estimating the GHG emissions mitigation potential
Calorific value of furnace oil CV MJ/kg 39.6 (CEA, 2005)
Carbon fraction in furnace oil CF Fraction 0.84
Efficiency of fuel utilization hf Fraction 0.70 (UNEP, 2006)
Emission factors of furnace oil CH4 and N2O EFij,oxec Fraction 0.03,0.02 (DOE, 2014)
Global warming potentials (GWP) relative to CO2 CO2 1 (IPCC, 2007)
CH4 21
N2O 310

Fig. 4. Schematics of SIPH systems (with and without provision for thermal storage).

solar collector and the temperature required for process heating for
determining the hourly values of useful thermal energy produced
by the system. By taking into account the amount of energy likely to
be dumped or stored in the systems with provision of storage, the
estimate for the total annual amount of useful thermal energy likely
to be delivered have been obtained. This exercise is repeated for all
locations considered in the study. The solar fraction for each loca-
tion has been estimated and an average value of the same (SFa) has
been used for estimating the greenhouse gases mitigation potential
of SIPH systems in the next subsection.
3.4. GHG mitigation potential of SIPH in cotton based textile
production in India
The gross amount of GHG emissions likely to be mitigated
resulting from the use of solar energy for process heating in a
cotton based textile industry would depend upon (i) the type and
(ii) the amount(s) of fuel(s) substituted. As mentioned in Section 2,
in spinning mills the electricity consumption has a major share in
the overall energy use while thermal energy requirements are
relatively lower and the same are met with the use of electric
heaters or oil/wood fired boilers. The fabric processing units
generally depend on biomass/oil fired boilers to meet their thermal
energy demand. In the present study an attempt to analyze the fuel
mix of various textile clusters in India (BEE, 2010; BEE, 2014). It has
been observed that majority of textile processing units use furnace
oil or biomass based boilers. However, authentic data regarding
their share in satisfying the thermal energy requirement is not
available. Therefore, in this study, three different scenarios for the
combinations of biomass and furnace oil use in cotton based textile
industry have been considered.
Being a carbon neutral source, in the estimation of GHG miti-
gation potential the use of biomass has not been internalized. In
addition to the amount of CO2 emissions mitigated, other GHG
emissions (CH4, N2O) that are likely to be mitigated with the
replacement of fossil fuels by harnessing solar energy for industrial
process heating have also been estimated.
The annual gross amount (in thousand tonnes) of CO2 emissions
80 A.K. Sharma et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 145 (2017) 74e84

mitigated (ACM) with the use of SIPH in cotton based textile in-
dustry is estimated using the following expression
  
44 X  ðCFi Þ Fco;i
ACM ¼ ATERc;tp ðSFa Þ Fphd;i
12 ðhi Þ ðCVi Þ
i
where Fphd,i represents the fraction of process heating demand met
by ith fuel, SFa the average solar fraction provided by the SIPH
system at any location, CVi the calorific Value of ith fuel (MJ/kg), CFi
the carbon fraction in ith fuel, Fco,i the fraction of carbon oxidized in
the combustion of ith fuel and, hI the efficiency of utilization of
ithfuel in the boiler. It is worth mentioning that in this study only
two fuels have been considered that are being saved with the use of
SIPH- furnace oil and biomass. The other GHG emissions (CH4 and
N2O) mitigated with the adoption of the solar industrial process
heating in cotton based textile industry in India are estimated using
the following expression
  ðCV Þ  EF !
X   i ijoxec
Eij ¼ ATERc;t;p ðSFa Þ Fphd;i
1000
i selected locations with clusters of cotton based textile mills are
where Eij (tonnes) represents the amount of emissions of jth gas
(methane or nitrous oxide, from ith fuel, EFij, oxec the emission
factor for jth gas for ith fuel.
It is worth mentioning that, the net annual amount of GHG
emissions mitigated would depend upon the annual equivalent of
the GHG emissions embodied in the manufacturing of SIPH sys-
tems. In the present study the same has not been taken into
account.
4. Results and discussion
Using the approach presented in section 3, an attempt to esti-
mate the potential of SIPH in the cotton based textile industry in
India and the corresponding potential for mitigation of GHG
emissions has been made. The values of various input parameters
used in the estimation of potential of SIPH and of corresponding
GHG mitigation potential are listed in Table 4.
Estimates of annual thermal energy requirements based on
existing reported production and thermal energy use of cotton yarn
production (equation (2)) have been presented in Table 5. Thus, in
principle, a total of 18.20 PJ of thermal energy can be supplied with
the use of solar energy for meeting the process heating demand of
(4)
cotton yarn production in India. The states in which large potential
of SIPH is estimated include Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana, Rajasthan and Tamilnadu.
Annual thermal energy requirements in the processing of cotton
based fabrics (that is produced in the handlooms power looms and
hosiery units) have also been presented in the Table 5. The annual
thermal energy requirement for process heating in all three types of
cotton based production units is estimated at 173 PJ. Thus, the total
annual thermal energy requirement, including the process heating
demand for yarn production is estimated at 191 PJ. This is the gross
potential of SIPH in the cotton based textile production in India and
SIPH systems can, in principle, be designed to satisfy this demand.
Estimated values of collector area requirements, and corre-
sponding values of solar fractions (with respect to useful energy
delivery) of the SIPH systems corresponding to three chosen values
(5) of GHId (500 W/m2, 700 W/m2 and 900 W/m2) at some of the
presented in Table 6. In case of cotton yarn production, FPC and ETC
based SIPH systems with and without provision of thermal energy
storage have been considered. In case of systems without storage, at
a design GHI value of 500 W/m2, the solar fraction of SIPH systems
is higher (0.30 for FPC and 0.32 for ETC based system) whereas, at a
design GHI value of 900 W/m2 the corresponding solar fractions are
found to be 0.22 and 0.24 respectively. As expected, at lower values
of deign GHI, a significant fraction of useful thermal provided by the
solar collectors would be in excess and hence would have to be
dumped in the absence of a storage system. However, in the case of
SIPH system with thermal energy storage, the excess amount of
energy is stored and even with accounting for the losses from the
storage, higher values of solar fractions (0.23e0.56) for all values of
design insolation have been estimated. It has also been observed
that between two collector technologies (FPC and ETC) considered
for meeting the process heating demand for yarn production, the
performance of SIPH systems based on evacuated tube collectors is
relatively better.
In concentrator based SIPH systems, solar fractions of SIPH

Table 5
Estimates of gross SIPH potential in cotton based textile production in India (excluding composite mills).

(a) Yarn production

State/UT Annual production of cotton yarn (million kg/annnum) Annual useful thermal energy requirement (ATERyp) (GJ/annum)

Andhra Pradesh 166 1,010,940

Dadra and Nagar Haveli 52 316,680
Gujarat 150 913,500
Haryana 100 609,000
Himachal Pradesh 82 499,380
Karnataka 46 280,140
Kerala 26 158,340
Madhya Pradesh 195 1,187,550
Maharashtra 242 1,473,780
Punjab 408 2,484,720
Rajasthan 106 645,540
Tamilnadu 1317 8,020,530
Others 100 609,000
Total 2990 18,209,100

(b) Thermal energy requirement for fabric processing in India

Production units Annual production of cotton cloths (million kg/annnum) Annual useful thermal energy requirement (ATERcf,p) (TJ/annum)

Power looms 602 36,126

Hand looms 1203 72,162
Hosiery 1080 64,788
Total 2885 173,076
 A.K. Sharma et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 145 (2017) 74e84 81

Table 6 Table 7
Performance of SIPH systems in production of cotton yarn at selected locations. Performance of SIPH systems in cotton fabric processing at selected locations.

Location Collector area (m2) Solar Fraction Solar Fraction Location Collector area for Solar Fraction Solar Fraction
for GHId(W/m2) (without storage) (with storage) for design DNI (W/m2) (without storage) (with storage) for
value of for GHId (W/m2) GHId (W/m2) value of for Design DNI Design DNI (W/
value of value of (W/m2) value of m2) value of

500 700 900 500 700 900 500 700 900 500 700 900 500 700 900 500 700 900

Flat plate collector based SIPH System Arun 160 Dish based SIPH System
Secunderabad 2883 1841 1353 0.3 0.25 0.21 0.52 0.31 0.21 Secunderabad 1423 1017 791 0.28 0.24 0.2 0.43 0.26 0.20
Guntur 2883 1842 1354 0.31 0.25 0.21 0.51 0.31 0.21 Guntur 1423 1017 791 0.3 0.24 0.2 0.42 0.26 0.20
Solapur 2871 1838 1351 0.32 0.25 0.21 0.55 0.31 0.21 Solapur 1423 1016 790 0.3 0.26 0.22 0.47 0.29 0.22
Erode 3041 1830 1347 0.31 0.27 0.22 0.59 0.34 0.23 Erode 1424 1017 791 0.29 0.27 0.23 0.50 0.31 0.24
Sangali 2899 1849 1357 0.32 0.28 0.23 0.55 0.36 0.24 Sangali 1425 1018 792 0.3 0.25 0.22 0.46 0.28 0.22
Salem 2945 1868 1367 0.31 0.26 0.22 0.58 0.33 0.22 Salem 1424 1017 791 0.3 0.26 0.22 0.49 0.30 0.23
Karur 2902 1850 1358 0.32 0.27 0.23 0.58 0.35 0.23 Karur 1422 1016 790 0.28 0.27 0.23 0.49 0.30 0.23
Madurai 2841 1825 1344 0.32 0.28 0.23 0.57 0.35 0.24 Madurai 1423 1016 791 0.32 0.25 0.21 0.47 0.29 0.22
Surat 2870 1837 1351 0.31 0.27 0.22 0.58 0.35 0.23 Surat 1424 1017 791 0.32 0.28 0.24 0.51 0.31 0.24
Bhavnagar 2904 1851 1359 0.33 0.28 0.23 0.58 0.35 0.24 Bhavnagar 1424 1017 791 0.31 0.28 0.24 0.51 0.32 0.24
Ahmadabad 2901 1850 1358 0.33 0.28 0.23 0.55 0.35 0.24 Ahmadabad 1424 1017 791 0.31 0.27 0.23 0.48 0.30 0.23
Ludhiana 2894 1847 1356 0.32 0.27 0.22 0.50 0.34 0.23 Ludhiana 1426 1018 792 0.33 0.26 0.21 0.44 0.28 0.21
Panipat 2969 1877 1372 0.31 0.26 0.2 0.57 0.30 0.21 Panipat 1426 1018 792 0.33 0.29 0.24 0.52 0.32 0.25
Pali 2969 1877 1372 0.32 0.27 0.22 0.57 0.34 0.23 Pali 1424 1017 791 0.33 0.29 0.24 0.51 0.32 0.24
Bhilwara 2918 1857 1362 0.31 0.28 0.23 0.53 0.35 0.23 Bhilwara 1425 1018 792 0.29 0.25 0.21 0.44 0.28 0.21
Bellary 2941 1866 1349 0.33 0.26 0.21 0.59 0.32 0.21 Bellary 1424 1017 791 0.31 0.27 0.23 0.50 0.31 0.24
Mysore 2890 1845 1355 0.30 0.28 0.23 0.58 0.36 0.24 Mysore 1428 1020 793 0.28 0.25 0.22 0.49 0.30 0.23
Average Solar Fraction (SFa) 0.32 0.26 0.22 0.56 0.34 0.23 Average Solar Fraction (SFa) 0.30 0.26 0.22 0.48 0.30 0.23
Evacuated tubular collector based SIPH System Parabolic trough based SIPH system
Secunderabad 2786 1928 1473 0.33 0.27 0.22 0.55 0.32 0.22 Secunderabad 1325 947 736 0.23 0.2 0.17 0.36 0.23 0.17
Guntur 2789 1928 1473 0.32 0.27 0.23 0.56 0.32 0.23 Guntur 1325 946 736 0.24 0.2 0.17 0.36 0.23 0.17
Solapur 2786 1927 1472 0.32 0.27 0.22 0.56 0.31 0.23 Solapur 1324 946 736 0.21 0.16 0.13 0.24 0.16 0.13
Erode 2781 1924 1471 0.33 0.29 0.24 0.58 0.34 0.24 Erode 1326 947 737 0.26 0.23 0.2 0.44 0.28 0.20
Sangali 2794 1930 1475 0.34 0.30 0.25 0.65 0.36 0.25 Sangali 1328 949 738 0.2 0.16 0.12 0.23 0.16 0.12
Salem 2806 1936 1478 0.33 0.28 0.24 0.61 0.33 0.24 Salem 1326 947 737 0.25 0.23 0.19 0.62 0.27 0.20
Karur 2794 1931 1475 0.34 0.29 0.25 0.64 0.36 0.25 Karur 1324 945 735 0.26 0.23 0.2 0.42 0.27 0.20
Madurai 2774 1923 1470 0.34 0.30 0.25 0.64 0.36 0.25 Madurai 1325 946 736 0.24 0.21 0.18 0.40 0.26 0.15
Surat 2785 1926 1472 0.34 0.29 0.24 0.62 0.35 0.25 Surat 1326 947 737 0.28 0.25 0.21 0.45 0.29 0.21
Bhavnagar 2795 1931 1475 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.64 0.35 0.25 Bhavnagar 1326 947 737 0.29 0.25 0.21 0.46 0.29 0.22
Ahmadabad 2794 1930 1475 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.65 0.35 0.25 Ahmadabad 1326 947 737 0.28 0.24 0.2 0.42 0.27 0.20
Ludhiana 2792 1929 1474 0.34 0.29 0.24 0.61 0.34 0.24 Ludhiana 1329 949 738 0.21 0.15 0.12 0.22 0.15 0.12
Panipat 2812 1939 1480 0.33 0.27 0.22 0.56 0.31 0.22 Panipat 1329 949 738 0.29 0.26 0.21 0.45 0.29 0.21
Pali 2812 1939 1480 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.62 0.35 0.25 Pali 1327 948 737 0.24 0.18 0.14 0.27 0.18 0.14
Bhilwara 2799 1933 1476 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.57 0.35 0.25 Bhilwara 1328 948 738 0.26 0.22 0.18 0.39 0.25 0.19
Bellary 2805 1936 1478 0.33 0.28 0.23 0.64 0.32 0.23 Bellary 1326 947 736 0.26 0.23 0.2 0.43 0.28 0.20
Mysore 2791 1929 1474 0.34 0.30 0.25 0.65 0.36 0.25 Mysore 1331 951 740 0.25 0.22 0.19 0.44 0.28 0.20
Average Solar Fraction (SFa) 0.30 0.26 0.22 0.48 0.30 0.23 Average Solar Fraction (SFa) 0.25 0.21 0.18 0.39 0.24 0.18

systems (with and without provisions of thermal energy storage)
were estimated in the range of 0.22e0.48 and 0.18e0.39 for Arun
Dish 160 and parabolic trough based system, respectively (Table 7).
It has been observed that performance of SIPH systems based on
Arun Dish 160 is relatively better than the system based on para-
bolic trough solar collector. These results indicate that with the use
of SIPH systems, (without storage) approximately 30% of the pro-
cess heating demand of cotton based textile production can be met
annually and with the provision of thermal energy storage at for a
lower value of design insolation (500 W/m2) almost 60% of the
process heating demand can be met with the SIPH system. As ex-
pected, for systems designed for higher values of design insolation
(900 W/m2) an addition of storage does not result in any substantial
increase in the solar fraction. . The SIPH potential estimated using
the average value of the solar fraction (SFa) estimated for the ETC
and Arun 160 dish based SIPH systems (Tables 6 and 7) is presented
in Table 8. The estimates confirm a large potential for harnessing
solar energy to meet the process heating demand in cotton based
textile industry. While in cotton yarn production the annual SIPH
potential is estimated varies in the range 4e10 PJ depending on
whether the excess energy is dumped or is stored in an appropri-
ately sized storage system. The estimates of corresponding values
for SIPH in fabric processing vary in range 38e83 PJ.
Table 9 presents the estimates of GHG emissions likely to be
mitigated with the use of solar industrial process heating systems
in cotton based textile production in India for the three scenarios
considered for the fuel mix used for process heating in cotton
based textile industry. Even with a substantial share of the process
heating demand assumed to be met with carbon neutral biomass,
the annual GHG emissions mitigation potential is significantly
large thus meriting careful attention of policy makers for taking
initiatives towards promoting SIPH in textile industry. Also adop-
tion of SIPH in cotton based textile industry has the potential of
saving furnace oil consumption in the range of 617e1440 tonnes
annually, depending upon the share of process heating demand
met with the furnace oil. Therefore, solar process heating in cotton
based textile industry in India has a potential to mitigate
2457e7648 thousand tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions annu-
ally depending on the location and the provision of a storage
component or otherwise. It may be also noted that in the overall
GHG emissions mitigation potential the share of N2O is also
significantly large.
5. Concluding remarks
Cotton based textile production (yarn and cloth) in India has a
large potential for solar process heating to meet its thermal energy
demand. Annual solar process heating potential, in terms of useful
82 A.K. Sharma et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 145 (2017) 74e84

Table 8
Estimates of annual useful thermal energy delivered by solar process heating systems.

Yarn production (ETC based SIPH system)

State Annual useful thermal energy delivered (GJ) without Annual useful thermal energy delivered (GJ) with thermal
thermal storage at design insolation (W/m2) value of storage at design insolation (W/m2) value of

500 700 900 500 700 900

Andhra Pradesh 323,501 262,844 222,407 566,126 343,720 232,516

Dadra and Nagar Haveli 101,338 82,337 69,670 177,341 107,671 72,836
Gujarat 292,320 237,510 200,970 511,560 310,590 210,105
Haryana 194,880 158,340 133,980 341,040 207,060 140,070
Himachal Pradesh 159,802 129,839 109,864 279,653 169,789 114,857
Karnataka 89,645 72,836 61,631 156,878 95,248 64,432.2
Kerala 50,669 41,168 34,835 88,670 53,836 36,418
Madhya Pradesh 380,016 308,763 261,261 665,028 403,767 273,136
Maharashtra 471,610 383,183 324,232 825,317 501,085 338,969
Punjab 795,110 646,027 546,638 1,391,443 844,805 571,485
Rajasthan 206,573 167,840 142,019 361,502 219,484 148,474
Tamilnadu 2,566,570 2,085,338 1,764,517 4,491,497 2,726,980 1,844,721
Others 194,880 158,340 133,980 341,040 207,060 140,070
Total 5,826,912 4,734,366 4,006,002 10,197,096 6,191,094 4,188,093
Fabric processing (Arun 160 Dish based SIPH system)
Hand looms 10,837,800 9,392,760 7,947,720 17,340,480 10,837,800 8,308,980
Power looms 21,648,600 18,762,120 15,875,640 34,637,760 21,648,600 16,597,260
Hosiery Units 19,436,400 16,844,880 14,253,360 31,098,240 19,436,400 14,901,240
Total 51,922,800 44,999,760 38,076,720 83,076,480 51,922,800 39,807,480

Table 9
Annual GHG emissions mitigation potential of SIPH in the production of cotton based textiles in India.

Scenario Fuel mix (%) Operation Annual GHG emissions mitigation potential (thousand tonnes)

Without thermal storage with the design value of With provision of thermal storage with the design
insolation as 700 W/m2 value of insolation as 700 W/m2

Furnace oil Biomass CO2 CH4 N2O Total CO2, equivalent CO2 CH4 N2O Total CO2, equivalent

I 70 30 Yarn production 226 0.58 0.49 390 273 0.70 1.31 471
Fabric Processing 3092 7.90 6.68 5332 4162 10.64 12.40 7177
Total 3318 8.48 7.17 5722 4435 11.34 13.71 7648
II 50 50 Yarn production 161 0.41 0.35 278 201 0.51 0.43 347
Fabric processing 2209 5.65 4.77 3809 2973 7.60 6.42 5127
Total 2370 6.06 5.12 4087 3174 8.11 6.85 5474
III 30 70 Yarn production 97 0.25 0.21 167 97 0.25 0.21 167
Fabric processing 1325 3.39 2.86 2285 1784 4.56 3.85 3076
Total 1425 3.64 3.08 2457 1881 4.81 4.06 3243

energy requirement, has been estimated at 191 PJ. The annual SIPH
potential reduces to 173 PJ if the process heat requirement is
restricted to the fabric processing only. In both cases, with and
without provision of thermal energy storage (yarn production and
fabric processing) the solar energy based process heating systems
are estimated to meet 20e60% of the total process heating demand
annually.
The estimates presented in this paper are based on the
assumption of the availability of adequate space (roofs and/or
open space) for installation of solar collectors. However, prior to
installation of SIPH systems in the cotton based textile industry,
detailed site specific survey would be necessary. Moreover, this
study considered merely four types of solar collector technolo-
gies. Several other solar collector designs (mainly concentrating
type) such as Compound Parabolic Concentrator, Scheffler Dish,
and Linear Fresnel reflector may also be used for this purpose.
Also the values of available GHI, DNI and other climatic parame-
ters depend upon the location. As a consequence, the choice of
design DNI or GHI as well as the performance of the SIPH system
may also vary at different locations. Since the chosen value of
design insolation (GHI or DNI as applicable) directly affects the
solar collection area, the useful thermal energy delivered as well
as the amount of GHG emissions likely to be mitigated, the same
needs to be carefully decided for each location and each specific
process heating requirement. The process heating requirement
for yarn production can be met with relatively more mature and
lower cost solar collector technologies (i.e. FPC and ETC) while for
fabric processing operations require solar concentrators that are
relatively costlier and yet to attain large scale commercial
maturity.
Adoption of SIPH in cotton based textile industry has the po-
tential of saving furnace oil consumption in the range of
617e1440 tonnes depending upon the share of process heating
demand met with the furnace oil. Also from the perspective of
mitigation of greenhouse gases from the cotton based textile in-
dustry, the SIPH appears to be highly attractive as an annual
mitigation in the range of 2457e7648 thousand tonnes of
greenhouse gas emissions is possible depending on the location
and the provision of a storage component or otherwise. The re-
sults of this study are directly relevant for the initiatives taken by
the Government of India under its National Solar Mission in
identifying suitable locations in the country and also for assessing
the contribution that can be expected from the solar energy based
process heating systems.
 A.K. Sharma et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 145 (2017) 74e84 83

Appendix A

Table A1
Details of solar collectors with operating temperature and possible use in SIPH

Solar collector Operating temperature Example of matching industrial processes

(
C)

Flat plate 30e100 Heat treatment in food processing, washing, cleaning, in milk processing, blanching, dying in textile
Evacuated tube 50e100 Drying, degreasing in textiles boiler feed water heating in industries Pasteurization and sterilization in milk
processing
Compound parabolic 60e240 distillation, drying in pharmaceutical and chemical baking of paints and drying in automobile
concentrator
Parabolic trough 60e300 Paper drying in paper industry plastic pallets drying of glass fibres pasteurization of milk,
Arun 160 up to 300 evaporation and tickling in pharmaceutical, tempering drying in food processing and beverages
Linear Fresnel reflector (LFR) up to 300 Paper drying in paper industry plastic pallets drying of glass fibres pasteurization of milk, textile processing

Appendix B

Table B1
Solar radiation and other climatic variables at identified locations with clusters of cotton based textile units in India.

Location Latitude (
N) Longitude (
E) GHI (kWh/m2/annum) DNI (kWh/m2/annum Ta (
C) Wind speed (m/s)

Secunderabad 17.45 78.5 1891 1548 27.4 3.21

Guntur 1638 80.44 1877 1528 27.7 2.45
Solapur 17.68 75.92 1981 1682 28.1 2.15
Erode 11.35 77.73 2082 1847 27.1 3.67
Sangali 16.86 74.56 1969 1716 26.1 3.53
Salem 11.65 78.16 2067 1841 27.0 2.53
Karur 10.95 78.08 2066 1794 26.1 3.57
Madurai 9.90 78.10 2024 1747 27.0 3.54
Surat 21.17 72.83 2069 2005 28.3 3.12
Bhavnagar 21.76 72.15 2073 2032 27.7 3.54
Ahmadabad 23.03 72.58 1994 1837 27.0 3.12
Ludhiana 30.91 75.85 1866 1669 27.3 3.69
Panipat 29.39 76.97 2057 2184 27.2 2.55
Pali 25.77 73.3 2043 2144 25.6 3.12
Bhilwara 25.35 74.67 1901 1864 26.1 2.89
Bellary 15.15 76.91 2082 1897 27.3 3.18
Mysore 20.27 73.02 2017 2017 24.4 3.97

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