Mongolia

Flag Coat of arms

Capital Ulan Bator (Ulaanbaatar)

and largest city 47°55′N 106°53′E / 47.917°N 106.883°E

 95% Mongols
Ethnic groups
 4% Kazakhs
(2010[2])

 1% others

 Mongol
Demonym
 Mongolian[nb 1]

Unitary parliamentary constitutional

Government
republic
- President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj
- Prime Minister Norovyn Altankhuyag

Currency Tögrög (MNT)

Mongolia i/mɒŋˈɡoʊliə/ (Mongolian: Монгол улс (help·info)) is a landlocked country in east-

central Asia. It is bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south, east and west.
Ulaanbaatar, the capital and also the largest city, is home to about 45% of the population.
Mongolia's political system is a parliamentary republic.

The area of what is now Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic empires, including the
Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Rouran, the Gökturks, and others. In 1206, Genghis Khan founded the
Mongol Empire, and his grandson Kublai Khan conquered China to establish the Yuan Dynasty.
After the collapse of the Yuan, the Mongols retreated to Mongolia and resumed their earlier
pattern of factional conflict and occasional raids on the Chinese borderlands. In the 16th and 17th
centuries, Mongolia came under the influence of Tibetan Buddhism.

At the end of the 17th century, all of Mongolia had been incorporated into the area ruled by the
Manchu's Qing Dynasty. During the collapse of the Qing Dynasty the Mongols established
Temporary Government of Khalkha in 30 November 1911. On 29 December 1911 Mongolia
declared independence from the Qing Dynasty and this National Liberation Revolution ended the
Manchu's rule that lasted 220 years (153 years after the collapse of the Zunghar Khanate).

The country came under Soviet influence, resulting in the proclamation of the Mongolian
People's Republic as a Soviet satellite state in 1924.[12] After the breakdown of communist
regimes in Europe in late 1989, Mongolia saw its own democratic revolution in early 1990; it led
to a multi-party system, a new constitution of 1992, and transition to a market economy.

At 1,564,116 square kilometres (603,909 sq mi), Mongolia is the 19th largest and the most
sparsely populated independent country in the world, with a population of around 2.9 million
people. It is also the world's second-largest landlocked country after Kazakhstan. The country
contains very little arable land, as much of its area is covered by steppe, with mountains to the
north and west and the Gobi Desert to the south.
Approximately 30% of the population are nomadic or semi-nomadic. The predominant religion
in Mongolia is Tibetan Buddhism, and the majority of the state's citizens are of Mongol ethnicity,
although Kazakhs, Tuvans, and other minorities also live in the country, especially in the west.
About 20% of the population live on less than US$1.25 per day.[13] Mongolia joined the World
Trade Organization in 1997 and seeks to expand its participation in regional economic and trade
regimes.[14] According to a 2011 World Health Organization survey, Mongolia has some of the
worst air pollution in the world, with an annual average of 279 micrograms of "PM10" particles
per cubic metre.[15]

Contents
History
Homo erectus inhabited Mongolia from 850,000 years ago.[16] Modern humans reached Mongolia
approximately 40,000 years ago during the Upper Paleolithic. The Khoid Tsenkher Cave[17] in
Khovd Province shows lively pink, brown, and red ochre paintings (20,000 years ago) of
mammoths, lynx, bactrian camels, and ostriches, earning it the nickname "the Lascaux of
Mongolia". The Mal'ta Venus (21,000 years ago) testifies to the level of Upper Paleolithic art in
northern Mongolia, though Mal'ta is now part of Russia.

Deer stones in Mongolia

Neolithic agricultural settlements (c. 5500–3500 BC) such as

those at Norovlin, Tamsagbulag, Bayanzag, and Rashaan
Khad predated the introduction of horse-riding nomadism, a
pivotal event in the history of Mongolia as it became the dominant lifestyle. Horse-riding
nomadism was first seen in Mongolia during the Copper and Bronze Age Afanasevo culture
(3500–2500 BC) which stretched to the Khangai Mountains in Central Mongolia. The wheeled
vehicles found in the burials of the Afanasevans have been dated to before 2200 BC.[18] Pastoral
nomadism and metalworking became more and more developed with the later Okunev Culture
(2nd millennium BC), Andronovo culture (2300–1000 BC) and Karasuk culture (1500–300 BC),
culminating with the Iron Age Xiongnu Empire in 209 BC. Monuments of the pre-Xiongnu
Bronze Age include deer stones, keregsur kurgans, square slab tombs and rock paintings.

Although cultivation of crops has continued since the Neolithic, it always remained small in
scale compared to pastoral nomadism, which may have first been introduced from the west or
arose independently in the region. The population during the Copper Age has been described as
paleomongoloid in the east of what is now Mongolia, and as europoid in the west.[17] Tocharians
(Yuezhi) and Scythians inhabited western Mongolia during the Bronze Age. The mummy of a
Scythian warrior, which is believed to be about 2,500 years old, was a 30- to 40-year-old man
with blond hair and was found in the Altai, Mongolia.[19] As horse nomadism was introduced into
Mongolia, the political center of the Eurasian Steppe also shifted to Mongolia, where it remained
until the 18th century CE. The intrusions of northern pastoralists (e.g., Guifang, Shanrong,
Donghu) into China during the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC) and Zhou dynasty (1046–256
BC) presaged the age of nomadic empires.

The concept of Mongolia as an independent power north of China is seen in the letter sent by
Emperor Wen of Han to Laoshang Chanyu in 162 BC (recorded in the Hanshu):

The Emperor of China respectfully salutes the great Shan Yu (Chanyu) of the Hsiung-nu
(Xiongnu)...When my imperial predecessor erected the Great Wall, all the bowmen nations on
the north were subject to the Shan Yu; while the residents inside the wall, who wore the cap and
sash, were all under our government: and the myriads of the people, by following their
occupations, ploughing and weaving, shooting and hunting, were able to provide themselves
with food and clothing...Your letter says:--"The two nations being now at peace, and the two
princes living in harmony, military operations may cease, the troops may send their horses to
graze, and prosperity and happiness prevail from age to age, commencing, a new era of
contentment and peace." That is extremely gratifying to me...Should I, in concert with the Shan
Yu, follow this course, complying with the will of heaven, then compassion for the people will
be transmitted from age to age, and extended to unending generations, while the universe will be
moved with admiration, and the influence will be felt by neighbouring kingdoms inimical to the
Chinese or the Hsiung-nu...As the Hsiung-nu live in the northern regions, where the cold
piercing atmosphere comes at an early period, I have ordered the proper authorities to transmit
yearly to the Shan Yu, a certain amount of grain, gold, silks of the finer and coarser kinds, and
other objects. Now peace prevails all over the world; the myriads of the population are living in
harmony, and I and the Shan Yu alone are the parents of the people...After the conclusion of the
treaty of peace throughout the world, take notice, the Han will not be the first to transgress.[20]

7th century finds found 180km from Ulaanbaatar. Kept in Ulaanbaatar. A constant theme in
Mongolian history is relations with China.

Mongolia, since prehistoric times, has been inhabited by nomads who, from time to time, formed
great confederations that rose to prominence. The first of these, the Xiongnu of undetermined
ethnicity, were brought together to form a confederation by Modu Shanyu in 209 BC. Soon they
emerged as the greatest threat to the Qin Dynasty, forcing the latter to construct the Great Wall of
China, itself being guarded by up to almost 300,000 soldiers during marshal Meng Tian's tenure,
as a means of defense against the destructive Xiongnu raids. The vast Xiongnu empire (209 BC-
93 AD) was followed by the Mongolic Xianbei empire (93–234) which also ruled more than the
entirety of present-day Mongolia. The Mongolic Rouran Khaganate (330–555), of Xianbei
provenance, ruled a massive empire before being defeated by the Göktürks (555–745) whose
empire was even bigger (laid siege to Panticapaeum, present-day Kerch, in 576). They were
succeeded by the Uyghur Khaganate (745–840) who were defeated by the Kyrgyz. The
Mongolic Khitans, descendants of the Xianbei, ruled Mongolia during the Liao Dynasty (907–
1125), after which the Khamag Mongol (1125–1206) rose to prominence.

Middle Ages[edit]

Main articles: Mongol Empire, Northern Yuan Dynasty, Zunghar Khanate, and List of medieval
Mongol tribes and clans

This map shows the boundary of 13th century Mongol Empire compared to today's Mongols.
The red area shows where the majority of Mongolian speakers reside today.
Mongol states, 14-17th centuries : 1. Mongolian Khaganate 2. Oirat Khanate 3. Moghulistan 4.
Qara Del

In the chaos of the late 12th century, a chieftain named Temüjin finally succeeded in uniting the
Mongol tribes (belonging to the Shiwei branch of the Mongolic Xianbei) between Manchuria
and the Altai Mountains. In 1206, he took the title Genghis Khan, and waged a series of military
campaigns – renowned for their brutality and ferocity – sweeping through much of Asia, and
forming the Mongol Empire, the largest contiguous land empire in world history. Under his
successors it stretched from present-day Ukraine in the west to Korea in the east, and from
Siberia in the north to the Gulf of Oman and Vietnam in the south, covering some 33,000,000
square kilometres (13,000,000 sq mi),[21] (22% of Earth's total land area) and having a population
of over 100 million people. The emergence of Pax Mongolica also significantly eased trade and
commerce across Asia during its height.[22][23]

After Genghis Khan's death, the empire was subdivided into four kingdoms or Khanates which
eventually became quasi-independent after the Toluid Civil War (1260–1264) caused by
Möngke's death in 1259. One of the khanates, the "Great Khaanate", consisting of the Mongol
homeland and China, became the Yuan Dynasty under Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis
Khan. He set up his capital in present day Beijing but after more than a century of power, the
Yuan was replaced by the Ming Dynasty in 1368, with the Mongol court fleeing to the north. As
the Ming armies pursued the Mongols into their homeland, they successfully sacked and
destroyed the Mongol capital Karakorum among a few other cities, although some of these
attempts were repelled by the Mongols under Ayushridar and his general Köke Temür.[citation needed]

Altan Khan (1507–1582) founded the city of Hohhot, helped introduce Buddhism and originated
the title of Dalai Lama

Castle built in northern Mongolia by Tsogt Taij in 1601.

Tuvkhun Monastery built in 1653 by Zanabazar. Here he invented the Soyombo script in 1686.
After the expulsion of the Yuan Dynasty rulers from China, the Mongols continued to rule
Mongolia, also referred to as the Northern Yuan. The next centuries were marked by violent
power struggles among various factions, notably the Genghisids and the non-Genghisid Oirads,
as well as by several Chinese invasions (like the five expeditions led by the Yongle Emperor). In
the early 15th century, the Oirads under Esen Tayisi gained the upper hand, and even raided
China in 1449 in a conflict over Esen's right to pay tribute, capturing the Ming emperor in the
process. However, Esen was murdered in 1454, and the Borjigids recovered.[citation needed]

Batumöngke Dayan Khan and his khatun Mandukhai reunited the entire Mongol nation under the
Genghisids in the early 16th century. In the mid-16th century, Altan Khan of the Tümed, a
grandson of Dayan Khan – but no legitimate Khan himself – became powerful. He founded
Hohhot in 1557 and his meeting with the Dalai Lama in 1578 sparked the second introduction of
Tibetan Buddhism to Mongolia. Abtai Khan of the Khalkha converted to Buddhism and founded
the Erdene Zuu monastery in 1585. His grandson Zanabazar became the first Jebtsundamba
Khutughtu in 1640. The entire Mongolian population embraced Buddhism. Each family kept
scriptures and Buddha statues on an altar at the north side of their ger (yurt). Mongolian nobles
donated land, money and herders to the monasteries. The top monasteries wielded significant
temporal power besides spiritual power.[citation needed]

An image of an early 20th-century Oirat caravan, traveling on horseback, possibly to trade

goods.

The last Mongol Khan was Ligden Khan in the early 17th century. He got into conflicts with the
Manchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and managed to alienate most Mongol tribes. He
died in 1634 on his way to Tibet, in an attempt to evade the Manchus and destroy the Yellow Hat
sect of Buddhism. By 1636, most Inner Mongolian tribes had submitted to the Manchus, who
founded the Qing Dynasty. The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691, thus
bringing all of today's Mongolia under Manchu's rule. After several wars, the Dzungars (the
western Mongols or Oirats) were virtually annihilated during the Qing conquest of Dzungaria in
1757–58.[24]

Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the 600,000 or more Dzungars were destroyed by a
combination of disease and warfare.[25] Outer Mongolia was given relative autonomy, being
administered by the hereditary Genghisid khanates of Tusheet Khan, Setsen Khan, Zasagt Khan
and Sain Noyon Khan. The Jebtsundamba Khutuktu of Mongolia had immense de facto
authority. The Manchus also forbade mass Chinese immigration, allowing the Mongols to keep
their culture. The main trade route during this period was the Tea Road which had permanent
stations located every 25 to 30 kilometres (16 to 19 mi) each of which was staffed by 5–30
chosen families. Urga (present-day Ulaanbaatar) benefited greatly from this overland trade as it
was the only major settlement in Outer Mongolia used as a stopover point by merchants, officials
and travelers on the Tea Road.[citation needed]

Until 1911, the Qing Dynasty maintained control of Mongolia with a series of alliances and
intermarriages, as well as military and economic measures. Ambans, Manchu "high officials",
were installed in Khüree, Uliastai, and Khovd, and the country was subdivided into ever more
feudal and ecclesiastical fiefdoms. Over the course of the 19th century, the feudal lords attached
more importance to representation and less importance to the responsibilities towards their
subjects. The behaviour of Mongolia's nobility, together with the usurious practices of the
Chinese traders and the collection of imperial taxes in silver instead of animals, resulted in
poverty becoming ever more rampant. By 1911 there were 700 large and small monasteries in
Outer Mongolia and 115,000 monks who made up 21% of the population. Apart from the
Jebtsundamba Khutuktu there were 13 other reincarnating high-lamas called 'seal-holding saints'
(tamgatai khutuktu) in Outer Mongolia.

Modern history
The eighth Jebtsundamba Khutuktu

With the fall of the Manchu's Qing Dynasty, Mongolia under the Bogd Khaan declared
independence in 1911. However, the newly established Republic of China considered Mongolia
to be part of its own territory. Bogd Khaan said to Yuan Shikai, the President of the Republic of
China "I established own state before you, the Mongols and Chinese have different origin, our
languages and scripts are different. You're not the Manchu's descents, so how can you think
China is the Manchu's successor?".[26]

The area controlled by the Bogd Khaan was approximately that of the former Outer Mongolia
during the Qing period. In 1919, after the October Revolution in Russia, Chinese troops led by
Xu Shuzheng occupied Mongolia.

However, as a result of the Russian Civil War, the White Russian Lieutenant General Baron
Ungern led his troops into Mongolia in October 1920, defeating the Chinese forces in Niislel
Khüree (Ulaanbaatar) in early February 1921. In order to eliminate the threat posed by Ungern,
Bolshevik Russia decided to support the establishment of a communist Mongolian government
and army. This Mongolian army took the Mongolian part of Kyakhta from Chinese forces on
March 18, 1921, and on July 6 Russian and Mongolian troops arrived in Khüree. Mongolia's
independence was declared once again on July 11, 1921.[27] These events led to Mongolia's close
alignment with the Soviet Union over the next seven decades. It was a National Democratic
Revolution, but not communist.

In 1924, after the Bogd Khaan died of laryngeal cancer[28] or, as some sources claim, at the hands
of Russian spies,[29] the country's political system was changed and a Mongolian People's
Republic was established. In 1928, Khorloogiin Choibalsan rose to power. The early leaders of
the Mongolian People's Republic (1921-1952) were not communists and many of them were
Pan-Mongolists. The Soviet Union thus forcefully established a communist regime in Mongolia
by exterminating Pan-Mongolists later. Soviets recognized the Mongolian People's Party as
"real" communists in the 1960s after the suspicious death of Pan-Mongolist leader Choibalsan.

Damdin Sükhbaatar
Khorloogiin Choibalsan instituted collectivisation of livestock, began the destruction of the
Buddhist monasteries and the Stalinist repressions in Mongolia - resulting in the murder of
monks and others. In Mongolia during the 1920s, approximately one-third of the male population
were monks. By the beginning of the 20th century, about 750 monasteries were functioning in
Mongolia.[30] The Stalinist purges in Mongolia that began in 1937 affected the Republic by
killing more than 30,000 people. Russia stopped Buryats migration to the Mongolian People's
Republic in 1930 to prevent Mongolian reunification. All leaders of Mongolia who did not
recognise Russian demands to perform terror against Mongolians were executed by Russians
including Peljidiin Genden and Anandyn Amar. Choibalsan suspiciously died in Russia in 1952.
Comintern leader Bohumír Šmeral said "People of Mongolia are not important, the land is
important. Mongolian land is larger than England, France and Germany".[26]

Japanese imperialism became even more alarming after the invasion of neighboring Manchuria
in 1931. During the Soviet-Japanese Border War of 1939, the Soviet Union successfully
defended Mongolia against Japanese expansionism. Mongolia fought against Japan during the
Battles of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 and during the Soviet–Japanese War in August 1945 to liberate
Southern Mongolia from Japan and China. The Soviet threat of seizing parts of Inner
Mongolia[citation needed] induced China to recognize Outer Mongolia's independence, provided that a
referendum be held. The referendum took place on October 20, 1945, with (according to official
numbers) 100% of the electorate voting for independence.[citation needed] After the establishment of
the People's Republic of China, both countries confirmed their mutual recognition on October 6,
1949. On January 26, 1952, Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal took power.

While Tsedenbal was visiting Moscow in August 1984, his severe illness prompted the
parliament to announce his retirement and replace him with Jambyn Batmönkh.[citation needed]

The collapse of the Soviet Union strongly influenced Mongolian politics, leading to the peaceful
Democratic Revolution and the introduction of a multi-party system and market economy. A new
constitution was introduced in 1992, and the "People's Republic" was dropped from the country's
name. The transition to market economy was often rocky. The early 1990s saw high inflation and
food shortages.[citation needed] The first election wins for non-communist parties came in 1993
(presidential elections) and 1996 (parliamentary elections). The signing of the Oyu Tolgoi mine
contract is considered a major milestone in modern Mongolian history. The Mongolian People's
Revolutionary Party renamed itself the Mongolian People's Party in 2010.[citation needed]

Geography and climate

The southern portion of Mongolia is taken up by the Gobi Desert, while the northern and western
portions are mountainous.

Bactrian camels by sand dunes in Gobi Desert.

Mongolian ferry Sukhbaatar on Lake Khovsgol in Khovsgol Province.

Riverine forest of the Tuul River near Ulaanbaatar.

At 1,564,116 km2 (603,909 sq mi),[31] Mongolia is the world's 19th-largest country (after Iran). It
is significantly larger than the next-largest country, Peru. It mostly lies between latitudes 41° and
52°N (a small area is north of 52°), and longitudes 87° and 120°E. Although Mongolia does not
share a border with Kazakhstan, its westernmost point is only 38 kilometres (24 mi) from
Kazakhstan.

The geography of Mongolia is varied, with the Gobi Desert to the south and with cold and
mountainous regions to the north and west. Much of Mongolia consists of steppes, with forested
areas comprising 11.2% of the total land area,[32] a higher percentage than the Republic of Ireland
(10%).[33] The highest point in Mongolia is the Khüiten Peak in the Tavan bogd massif in the far
west at 4,374 m (14,350 ft). The basin of the Uvs Lake, shared with Tuva Republic in Russia, is a
natural World Heritage Site. Most of the country is hot in the summer and extremely cold in the
winter, with January averages dropping as low as −30 °C (−22 °F).[34] A vast front of cold, heavy,
shallow air comes in from Siberia in winter and collects in river valleys and low basins causing
very cold temperatures while slopes of mountains are much warmer due to the effects of
temperature inversion (temperature increases with altitude).

In winter the whole of Mongolia comes under the influence of the Siberian Anticyclone. The
localities most severely affected by this cold weather are Uvs province (Ulaangom), western
Khovsgol (Rinchinlhumbe), eastern Zavkhan (Tosontsengel), northern Bulgan (Hutag) and
eastern Dornod province (Khalkhiin Gol). Ulaanbaatar is also strongly affected but not as
severely. The cold gets less severe as one goes south, reaching the warmest January temperatures
in Omnogovi Province (Dalanzadgad, Khanbogd) and the region of the Altai mountains
bordering China. A unique microclimate is the fertile grassland-forest region of central and
eastern Arkhangai Province (Tsetserleg) and northern Ovorkhangai Province (Arvaikheer) where
January temperatures are on average the same and often higher than the warmest desert regions
to the south in addition to being more stable. The Khangai Mountains play a certain role in
forming this microclimate. In Tsetserleg, the warmest town in this microclimate, nighttime
January temperatures rarely go under −30 °C while daytime January temperatures often reach
0 °C to 5 °C and locals rarely have the stinging sensations associated with early frostbite.[35][36] In
Mongolia, being exposed to temperatures ranging from −30 °C to −40 °C for more than 60
minutes may increase the risk of frostbite. A strong wind at those temperatures almost certainly
leads to frostbite.

The country is subject to occasional harsh climatic conditions known as zud. The annual average
temperature in Ulaanbaatar is 0 °C, making it the world's coldest capital city.[34] Mongolia is
high, cold, and windy. It has an extreme continental climate with long, cold winters and short
summers, during which most of its annual precipitation falls. The country averages 257 cloudless
days a year, and it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric pressure. Precipitation
is highest in the north (average of 200 to 350 millimeters (7.9 to 13.8 in) per year) and lowest in
the south, which receives 100 to 200 millimeters (3.9 to 7.9 in) annually. The highest annual
precipitation of 622.297mm occurred in the forests of Bulgan Province close to the border with
Russia and the lowest of 41.735mm occurred in the Gobi Desert (period 1961–1990).[37] The
sparsely populated far north of Bulgan Province averages 600mm in annual precipitation which
means it receives more precipitation than Beijing (571.8mm) or Berlin (571mm).

The name "Gobi" is a Mongol term for a desert steppe, which usually refers to a category of arid
rangeland with insufficient vegetation to support marmots but with enough to support camels.
Mongols distinguish Gobi from desert proper, although the distinction is not always apparent to
outsiders unfamiliar with the Mongolian landscape. Gobi rangelands are fragile and are easily
destroyed by overgrazing, which results in expansion of the true desert, a stony waste where not
even Bactrian camels can survive.

Demographics

Ulaanbaatar is the capital and largest city of Mongolia

In settlements, many families live in ger quarters

Mongolia's total population as of July 2007 is estimated by U.S. Census Bureau[38] at 2,951,786
people, ranking at around 138th in the world in terms of population. But the U.S. Department of
State Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs uses the United Nations (UN) estimations[39]
instead of the U.S. Census Bureau estimations. United Nations Department of Economic and
Social Affairs Population Division[40] estimates Mongolia's total population (mid-2007) as
2,629,000 (11% less than the U.S. Census Bureau figure). UN estimates resemble those made by
the Mongolian National Statistical Office (2,612,900, end of June 2007). Mongolia's population
growth rate is estimated at 1.2% (2007 est.).[40] About 59% of the total population is under age
30, 27% of whom are under 14. This relatively young and growing population has placed strains
on Mongolia's economy.

The first census in the 20th century was carried out in 1918 and recorded a population of
647,500.[41] Since the end of socialism, Mongolia has experienced a decline of total fertility rate
(children per woman) that is steeper than in any other country in the world, according to recent
UN estimations:[40] in 1970–1975, fertility was estimated to be 7.33 children per woman,
dropping to about 2.1 in 2000–2005. Recently, however, that trend has been stopped, so in 2005–
2010 period, the estimated fertility value has actually increased to 2.5 and stabilised afterwards at
the rate of about 2.2–2.3 children per woman.

Ethnic Mongols account for about 95% of the population and consist of Khalkha and other
groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. The Khalkha make up
86% of the ethnic Mongol population. The remaining 14% include Oirats, Buryats and others.
Turkic peoples (Kazakhs and Tuvans) constitute 4.5% of Mongolia's population, and the rest are
Russian, Chinese, Korean and American nationalities.[42]

Languages

The official language of Mongolia is Mongolian, and is spoken by 95% of the population. A
variety of dialects of Oirat and Buryat are spoken across the country, and there are also some
speakers of Mongolic Khamnigan. In the west of the country, Kazakh and Tuvan, both Turkic
languages, are also spoken. Mongolian Sign Language is the principal language of the deaf
community.

Today, Mongolian is written using the Cyrillic alphabet, although in the past it was written using
the Mongolian script. An official reintroduction of the old script was planned for 1994, but has
not yet taken place as older generations encountered practical difficulties.[43] The traditional
alphabet is being slowly reintroduced through schools.[44]

Russian is the most frequently spoken foreign language in Mongolia, followed by English,
although English has been gradually replacing Russian as the second language. Korean has
gained popularity as tens of thousands of Mongolians work in South Korea.[45]

Interest in Chinese, as the language of the other neighbouring power, has been growing[citation
needed]
. Japanese is popular among the younger people[citation needed]. A number of older educated
Mongolian citizens speak some German, as they studied in the former East Germany, while a
few speak other languages from the former Eastern Bloc. Besides that, many younger people are
fluent in the Western European languages as they study or work in, among other places,
Germany, France and Italy.[citation needed]

Cuisine

Mongolian cuisine refers to the local culinary traditions of Mongolia and Mongolian styled
dishes. The extreme continental climate has affected the traditional diet, so the Mongolian
cuisine primarily consists of dairy products, meat, and animal fats. Use of vegetables and spices
is limited. Due to geographic proximity and deep historic ties, Mongolian cuisine is also
influenced by Chinese and Russian cuisine. In fact, one of the most popular dishes is called
"buuz", which is a steamed dumplings and it is one of the traditional dishes. Another popular
dish is called "lapsha", a simple noodle dish. The word is actually Russian for noodles.

Religion

Religions in Mongolia
(population aged 15 and above)[46]

Share
Religion Population
%

Non-religious 735,283 38.6

Religious 1,170,283 61.4

Buddhism 1,009,357 53.0

Islam 57,702 3.0

Shamanism 55,174 2.9

Christianity 41,117 2.1

Other religions 6,933 0.4

TOTAL 1,905,566 100.0

Various forms of Tengriism and shamanism have been widely practiced throughout the history of
what is now Mongolia, with such beliefs being common among the nomads of central Asia. They
gradually gave way to Tibetan Buddhism, but shamanism has left a mark on Mongolian religious
culture, and it continues to be practiced. The Kazakhs of western Mongolia traditionally practice
Islam.

Throughout much of the 20th century, the communist government ensured that the religious
practices of the Mongolian people were largely repressed. It targeted the clergy of the Mongolian
Tibetan Buddhist Church, which had been tightly intertwined with the previous feudal
government structures (e.g. from 1911 on, the head of the Church had also been the khan of the
country).[47] In the late 1930s, the regime, then led by Khorloogiin Choibalsan, closed almost all
of Mongolia's over 700 Buddhist monasteries and killed at least 30,000 people, of whom 18,000
were lamas.[48] The number of Buddhist monks dropped from 100,000 in 1924 to 110 in 1990.[47]

The fall of communism in 1991 restored public religious practice. Tibetan Buddhism, which had
been the predominant religion prior to the rise of communism, again rose to become the most
widely practiced religion in Mongolia. The end of religious repression in the 1990s also allowed
for other religions, such as Baha'i Faith and Christianity, to spread in the country. According to
the Christian missionary group Barnabas Fund, the number of Christians grew from just four in
1989 to around 40,000 as of 2008. In May 2013, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
held a cultural program to celebrate 20 years of LDS church history in Mongolia, with 10,900
members, and 16
church buildings in
the country.[49]
There are some
1000 Catholics in
Mongolia and, in
2003, a missionary
from the
Philippines was
named Mongolia's
first Catholic
bishop.[50]

Administrative divisions

Mongolia is divided into 21 provinces (aimags), which are in turn divided into 329 districts
(sums).[51] The capital Ulaanbaatar is administrated separately as a capital city (municipality)
with provincial status. The aimags are:

 Ar  K
kh h
an o
ga v
i d

 Ba  K
ya h
n- ö
Öl vs
gii g
öl
 Ba
ya 
nk
ho  Ö
ng v
or ör
k
 Bu ha
lg n
an ga
i
 Da
rk  S
 ha el
n- en
U ge
ul
 S
 D ü
or k
no h
d ba
at
 D ar
or
no  T
go ö
vi v

 D  U
un vs
dg
ov  Z
i av
k
 G ha
ov n
i-
Al
tai

 G
ov
isü
m
be
r

 K
he
nti
i

Major cities

Largest cities or towns of Mongolia

2008
Ran Ran Provinc
Name Province Pop. Name Pop.
k k e
 Ulaanbaat Ulaanbaat 1,340,0 Sükhbaat 19,6
1 11 Selenge
ar ar 00 ar 26
Sainshan Dornog 25,2
2 Erdenet Orkhon 86,866 12
d ovi 10
Darkhan- Dalanzad Ömnög 16,8
3 Darkhan 74,300 13
Uul gad ovi 56
Choibalsa Arkhan 16,3
4 Dornod 38,150 14 Tsetserleg
n gai 00
Zavkha 16,2
Ulaanbaatar 5 Mörön Khövsgöl 36,082 15 Uliastai
n 40 Darkhan
Govi- 15,8
6 Khovd Khovd 28,601 16 Altai
Altai 00
Bayan- Züünkha 15,0
Erdenet 7 Ölgii 27,855 17 Selenge
Ölgii raa 00
Bayankho Bayankho Öndörkh 14,8 Choibalsan
8 26,252 18 Khentii
ngor ngor aan 00
Arvaikhee Övörkhan 14,5
9 25,622 19 Zuunmod Töv
r gai 68
Baruun- Sükhba 12,9
10 Ulaangom Uvs 21,406 20
Urt atar 94

Economy

Exports of Mongolia, 2000–2010

Economic activity in Mongolia has traditionally been based on herding and agriculture, although
development of extensive mineral deposits of copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, and gold
have emerged as a driver of industrial production.[53] Besides mining (21.8% of GDP) and
agriculture (16% of GDP), dominant industries in the composition of GDP are wholesale and
retail trade and service, transportation and storage, and real estate activities.[53] The grey economy
is estimated to be at least one-third the size of the official economy.[53] As of 2006, 68.4% of
Mongolia's exports went to the PRC, and the PRC supplied 29.8% of Mongolia's imports.[54]

Mongolia is ranked as lower middle income economy by the World Bank.[55] 22.4% of the
population lives on less than US$1.25 a day.[13] GDP per capita in 2011 was $3,100.[14] Despite
growth, the proportion of the population below the poverty line was estimated to be 35.6% in
1998, 36.1% in 2002–2003, 32.2% in 2006.[56]

Because of a boom in the mining sector, Mongolia had high growth rates in 2007 and 2008
(9.9% and 8.9%, respectively).[53] In 2009, sharp drops in commodity prices and the effects of the
global financial crisis caused the local currency to drop 40% against the U.S. dollar. Two of the
16 commercial banks were taken into receivership.[53] GDP growth in 2011 was expected to reach
16.4%. However, inflation continued to erode GDP gains, with an average rate of 12.6%
expected in Mongolia at the end of 2011.[53] Although GDP has risen steadily since 2002 at the
rate of 7.5% in an official 2006 estimate, the state is still working to overcome a sizable trade
deficit. The Economist expects this trade deficit of 14% of Mongolia's GDP to transform into a
surplus in 2013.[57]

Mongolia was never listed among the Emerging markets countries until February 2011 when
Citigroup analysts determined Mongolia to be one of Global Growth Generators countries which
being countries with the most promising growth prospects for 2010–2050.[58] The Mongolian
Stock Exchange, established in 1991 in Ulaanbaatar, is among the world's smallest stock
exchanges by market capitalisation.[59][60] In 2011, it had 336 companies listed with a total market
capitalization of US$2 billion after quadrupling from US$406 million in 2008.[61] Mongolia made
a significant improvement on the ease of doing business in 2012, moving up to rank 76
compared with 88 last year in the "Doing Business" report by the International Finance
Corporation (IFC).[62]

Mineral industry

Minerals represent more than 80% of Mongolia's exports, a proportion expected to eventually
rise to 95%.[57] About 3,000 mining licences have been issued.[57] Mining is continuing to rise as a
major industry of Mongolia as evidenced by number of Chinese, Russian and Canadian firms
opening and starting mining business in Mongolia.[14]

In summer 2009 the government negotiated an "Investment Agreement" with Rio Tinto and
Ivanhoe Mines to develop the Oyu Tolgoi copper and gold deposit,[53] the biggest foreign-
investment project in Mongolia, expected to account for one-third of Mongolia's GDP by 2020.
[57]
In March 2011, six big mining companies prepared to bid for the Tavan Tolgoi area, the
world's largest untapped coal deposit. According to Erdenes MGL, the government body in-
charge of Tavan Tolgoi, ArcelorMittal, Vale, Xstrata, U.S. coal miner Peabody, a consortium of
Chinese energy firm Shenhua and Japan's Mitsui & Co, and a separate consortium of Japanese,
South Korean and Russian firms are the preferred bidders.[64]

Agriculture

In 2002, about 30% of all households in Mongolia lived from breeding livestock.[65] Most herders
in Mongolia follow a pattern of nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralism. Due to the severe 2009–
2010 winter, Mongolia lost 9.7 million animals, or 22% of total livestock. This immediately
affected meat prices, which increased twofold; GDP dropped 1.6% in 2009.[53]

Infrastructure[edit]
Science and technology[edit]

See also: Telecommunications in Mongolia

Energy[edit]

See also: Mongolia Energy Corporation

Transportation[edit]

Main article: Transportation in Mongolia

Train in Zamyn-Üüd station in Dornogovi aimag

While the Mongolian horse continues to be revered as the national symbol, they are fast being
replaced by motorized vehicles.

The Trans-Mongolian Railway is the main rail link between Mongolia and its neighbors. It
begins at the Trans-Siberian Railway in Russia at the town of Ulan-Ude, crosses into Mongolia,
runs through Ulaanbaatar, then passes into China at Erenhot where it joins the Chinese railway
system. A separate railroad link connects the eastern city of Choibalsan with the Trans-Siberian
Railway. However, that link is closed to passengers after the Mongolian town of
Chuluunkhoroot.[66]

Mongolia has a number of domestic airports with some of them having international status.
However, the main international airport is Chinggis Khaan International Airport, located
approximately 20 km (12 mi) from downtown Ulaanbaatar. Direct flight connections exist
between Mongolia and South Korea, China, Thailand, Hong Kong, Japan, Russia, Germany,
Kyrgyzstan, and Turkey. MIAT Mongolian Airlines is Mongolia's national air carrier operating
international flights, while other domestic air carriers such as Eznis Airways, AeroMongolia and
Hunnu Airlines are serving both domestic and regional routes.

Many overland roads in Mongolia are only gravel roads or simple cross-country tracks. There are
paved roads from Ulaanbaatar to the Russian and Chinese border, from Ulaanbaatar east- and
westward (the so-called Millenium Road), and from Darkhan to Bulgan. A number of road
construction projects are currently underway. Mongolia has 4,800 km of paved roads, with
1,800 km of that total completed in 2013 alone.[67]

Education

During the state socialist period, education was one of the areas of significant achievement in
Mongolia. Illiteracy was virtually eliminated, in part through the use of seasonal boarding
schools for children of nomadic families. Funding to these boarding schools was cut in the
1990s, contributing to slightly increased illiteracy.

Primary and secondary education formerly lasted 10 years, but was expanded to 11 years. Since
the 2008–2009 school year, new first-graders are using the 12-year system, and a full transition
to the 12-year system will not occur until the 2019–2020 school year, when the current third-
graders graduate.[68]

As of 2006, English is taught in all secondary schools across Mongolia, beginning in fourth
grade.

Mongolian national universities are all spin-offs from the National University of Mongolia and
the Mongolian University of Science and Technology.

Health

Since 1990, key health indicators like life expectancy and infant and child mortality have
steadily improved, both due to social changes and to improvement in the health sector. However,
serious problems remain, especially in the countryside.[69] According to a 2011 study by the
World Health Organization, Mongolia's capital city of Ulaanbaatar has the second-most fine
particle pollution of any city in the world.[70] Poor air quality is also the largest occupational
hazard, as over two thirds of occupational disease in Mongolia is dust induced chronic bronchitis
or pneumoconiosis.[71]

Average childbirth (fertility rate) is around 2.25[38]–1.87[40] per woman (2007) and average life
expectancy is 68.5 years (2011).[13] Infant mortality is at 1.9%[72]–4%[73] and child mortality is at
4.3%.[74]

The health sector comprises 17 specialized hospitals and centers, 4 regional diagnostic and
treatment centers, 9 district and 21 aimag general hospitals, 323 soum hospitals, 18 feldsher
posts, 233 family group practices, 536 private hospitals, and 57 drug supply
companies/pharmacies. In 2002, the total number of health workers was 33,273, of whom 6823
were doctors, 788 pharmacists, 7802 nurses, and 14,091 mid-level personnel. At present, there
are 27.7 physicians and 75.7 hospital beds per 10,000 inhabitants.

Politics
Main article: Politics of Mongolia

State Great Khural chamber in session

Mongolia is a parliamentary republic. The president is directly elected. The people also elect the
deputies in the national assembly, the State Great Khural, which chooses the prime minister, who
nominates the Cabinet in consultation with the president. The Khural confirms the ministers.
Mongolia's constitution guarantees a number of freedoms, including full freedom of expression
and religion. Mongolia has a number of political parties, the biggest are the Mongolian People's
Party and the Democratic Party.

The People's Party — known as the People's Revolutionary Party between 1921 and 2010 —
formed the government of the country from 1921 to 1996 (in a one-party system until 1990) and
from 2000 to 2004. From 2004 to 2006, it was part of a coalition with the Democrats and two
other parties, and after 2006 it was the dominant party in two other coalitions. The party initiated
two changes of government from 2004 until it lost power in a 2012 election. The Democrats
were the dominant force in a ruling coalition between 1996 and 2000, and an almost-equal
partner with the People's Revolutionary Party in a coalition between 2004 and 2006. An election
of deputies to the national assembly on 28 June 2012 resulted in no party having an overall
majority;[75] however, as the Democratic Party won the largest number of seats,[76] its leader,
Norovyn Altankhuyag, became prime minister on 10 August 2012.[77]

The President of Mongolia has a largely symbolic role but can block the Parliament's decisions
and appoint judges and justice of courts and appoint ambassadors abroad. The parliament can
respond by overruling that veto by a two-thirds majority vote. Mongolia's constitution provides
three requirements for taking office as president; the candidate must be a native-born Mongolian,
be at least 45 years old, and have resided in Mongolia for five years before taking office. The
president must also formally resign his or her party membership. Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, a two-
time former prime minister and ex-member of the Democratic Party was elected as president on
May 24, 2009 and inaugurated on 18 June that year.[78] Elbegdorj was re-elected on 26 June 2013
and was inaugurated on 10 July 2013 for his second term as president.[79]

Mongolia uses a unicameral parliamentary system in which the president has a symbolic role and
the government chosen by the legislature exercises executive power. The legislative arm, the
State Great Khural, has one chamber with 76 seats and is chaired by the speaker of the house. It
elects its members every four years by general elections. The State Great Khural is powerful in
the Mongolian government with the president being largely symbolic and the prime minister
being chosen by the parliament from among its own membership.

Foreign relations[edit]

Main article: Foreign relations of Mongolia

A Mongolian soldier, with an SA-7 man-portable air-defense system on the Pacific Alaskan
Range Complex during Red Flag-Alaska 07-3 in Alaska, United States.

Mongolia maintains positive relations and has diplomatic missions in many countries such as
Russia, the People's Republic of China, India, North and South Korea, Japan, and the United
States. The government has focused a great deal on encouraging foreign investments and trade.

Mongolia has embassies in Almaty, Ankara, Bangkok, Berlin, Beijing, Brussels, Budapest,
Cairo, Canberra, Warsaw, Washington, D.C., Vienna, Vientiane, Havana, New Delhi, Kuwait
City, London, Moscow, Ottawa, Paris, Prague, Pyongyang, Seoul, Sofia, Stockholm, Tokyo,
Hanoi, and Singapore, a consulate in Irkutsk and Ulan-Ude, and diplomatic missions to the
United Nations in New York City and in Geneva.[80]

U.S. President Barack Obama issued a statement on the presidential election in Mongolia on 27
June 2013, the same day of the result of 2013 Mongolian presidential election was announced.[81]
In his statement, President Obama congratulated Mongolian President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj on
his success in the election and noted: "Through its impressive democratic achievements and its
progress on economic liberalization, Mongolia serves as a significant example of positive reform
and transformation for peoples around the world."[82] The United States Senate passed Resolution
number 192 supporting Mongolia's democracy and economic development on President
Elbegdorj's sworn in day on 18 June 2009.[83]

Military[edit]

Main article: Mongolian Armed Forces

Mongolia supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and has sent several successive contingents of
103 to 180 troops each to Iraq. About 130 troops are currently deployed in Afghanistan. 200
Mongolian troops are serving in Sierra Leone on a UN mandate to protect the UN's special court
set up there, and in July 2009, Mongolia decided to send a battalion to Chad in support of
MINURCAT.[84]

From 2005 to 2006, about 40 troops were deployed with the Belgian and Luxembourg
contingents in Kosovo. On November 21, 2005, George W. Bush became the first-ever sitting
U.S. President to visit Mongolia.[85] In 2004, under the Bulgarian chairmanship, The Organisation
for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), invited Mongolia as its newest Asian Partner. In
August, 2011, U.S. vice president Joe Biden made the first visit by a sitting vice president to
Mongolia since Henry Wallace toured the region in 1944.[86]

Culture[edit]
Main article: Culture of Mongolia

The ornate symbol in the leftmost bar of the national flag is a Buddhist icon called Soyombo. It
represents the sun, moon, stars, and heavens per standard cosmological symbology abstracted
from that seen in traditional thangka paintings.
Visual arts[edit]

Sita (White) Tara by Öndör Gegeen Zanabazar. Mongolia, 17th century

Before the 20th century, most works of the fine arts in Mongolia had a religious function, and
therefore Mongolian fine arts were heavily influenced by religious texts.[87] Thangkas were
usually painted or made in applique technique. Bronze sculptures usually showed Buddhist
deities. A number of great works are attributed to the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, Zanabazar.

In the late 19th century, painters like "Marzan" Sharav turned to more realistic painting styles.
Under the Mongolian People's Republic, socialist realism was the dominant painting style,[88]
however traditional thangka-like paintings dealing with secular, nationalist themes were also
popular, a genre known as "Mongol zurag".

Among the first attempts to introduce modernism into the fine arts of Mongolia was the painting
Ehiin setgel (Mother's love) created by Tsevegjav in the 1960s. The artist was purged as his work
was censored.

All forms of fine arts flourished only after "Perestroika" in the late 1980s. Otgonbayar Ershuu is
arguably one of the most well-known Mongolian modern artists in the Western world, he was
portrayed in the film "ZURAG" by Tobias Wulff.[89]

Architecture

Main article: Architecture of Mongolia

A ger in front of the Gurvan Saikhan Mountains

Gandantegchinlen Khiid Monastery has many Buddhist architecture temples

Ulaanbaatar Opera House

The traditional Mongolian dwelling is known as a ger. In the past it was known by the Russian
term yurt, but this is changing as the Mongolian term becomes better known among English-
speaking countries. According to Mongolian artist and art critic N. Chultem, the ger was the
basis for development of traditional Mongolian architecture. In the 16th and 17th centuries,
lamaseries were built throughout the country. Many of them started as ger-temples. When they
needed to be enlarged to accommodate the growing number of worshippers, the Mongolian
architects used structures with 6 and 12 angles[clarification needed] with pyramidal roofs to approximate
to the round shape of a ger. Further enlargement led to a quadratic shape of the temples. The
roofs were made in the shape of marquees.[90] The trellis walls, roof poles and layers of felt were
replaced by stone, brick, beams and planks, and became permanent.[91]

Chultem distinguished three styles in traditional Mongolian architecture: Mongolian, Tibetan and
Chinese as well as combinations of the three. Among the first quadratic temples was Batu-
Tsagaan (1654) designed by Zanabazar. An example of the ger-style architecture is the lamasery
Dashi-Choiling in Ulaanbaatar. The temple Lavrin (18th century) in the Erdene Zuu lamasery
was built in the Tibetan tradition. An example of a temple built in the Chinese tradition is the
lamasery Choijing Lamiin Sume (1904), which is a museum today. The quadratic temple
Tsogchin in lamasery Gandan in Ulaanbaatar is a combination of the Mongolian and Chinese
tradition. The temple of Maitreya (disassembled in 1938) is an example of the Tibeto-Mongolian
architecture.[90] Dashi-Choiling monastery has commenced a project to restore the temple and the
80 feet (24 m) sculpture of Maitreya.

Music[edit]

Main article: Music of Mongolia

Musician playing the traditional Mongolian musical instrument morin khuur

The music of Mongolia is strongly influenced by nature, nomadism, shamanism, and also
Tibetan Buddhism. The traditional music includes a variety of instruments, famously the morin
khuur, and also the singing styles like the urtyn duu ("long song"), and throat-singing (khoomei).
The "tsam" is danced to keep away evil spirits and it was seen the reminiscences of shamaning.

The first rock band of Mongolia was Soyol Erdene, founded in the 1960s. Their Beatles-like
manner was severely criticized by the Communist censorship. It was followed by
Mungunhurhree, Ineemseglel, Urgoo, etc., carving out the path for the genre in the harsh
environment of Communist ideology. Mungunhurhree and Haranga were to become the pioneers
in the Mongolia's heavy rock music. Haranga approached its zenith in the late 1980s and 1990s.
The leader of Haranga, famous guitarist Enh-Manlai, generously helped the growth of the
following generations of rockers. Among the followers of Haranga was the band Hurd. In the
early 1990s, group Har-Chono put the beginning for Mongolia's folk-rock, merging elements of
the Mongolian traditional "long song" into the genre.

By that time, the environment for development of artistic thought had become largely liberal
thanks to the new democratic society in the country. The 1990s saw development of rap, techno,
hip-hop and also boy bands and girl bands flourish at the turn of the millennium.

Media[edit]

Main article: Media of Mongolia

Mongolian media interviewing the opposition Mongolian Green Party. The media has gained
significant freedoms since democratic reforms initiated in the 1990s.

Mongolian press began in 1920 with close ties to the Soviet Union under the Mongolian
Communist Party, with the establishment of the Unen ("Truth") newspaper similar to the Soviet
Pravda.[92] Until reforms in the 1990s, the government had strict control of the media and
oversaw all publishing, in which no independent media was allowed.[92] The dissolution of the
Soviet Union had a significant impact on Mongolia, where the one-party state grew into a multi-
party democracy, and with that, media freedoms came to the forefront.

A new law on press freedom, drafted with help from international NGOs on August 28, 1998 and
enacted on January 1, 1999, paved the way for media reforms.[93] The Mongolian media currently
consists of around 300 print and broadcasting outlets.[94]

Since 2006, the media environment has been improving with the government debating a new
Freedom of Information Act, and the removal of any affiliation of media outlets with the
government.[95][96] Market reforms have led to an increasing number of people working in the
media year on year, along with students at journalism schools.[95]

In its 2013 World Press Freedom Index report, Reporters Without Borders classified the media
environment as 98th out of 179, with 1st being most free.[97]

Sports

Naadam is the largest summer celebration

The main national festival is Naadam, which has been organised for centuries and takes place
over three days in the summer, consists of three Mongolian traditional sports, archery, horse-
racing (over long stretches of open country, not the short racing around a track practiced in the
West), and wrestling, traditionally recognized as the Three Manly Games of Nadaam. In modern-
day Mongolia, Nadaam is held on July 11 to July 13 in the honour of the anniversaries of the
National Democratic Revolution and foundation of the Great Mongol State.

Another very popular activity called Shagaa is the "flicking" of sheep ankle bones at a target
several feet away, using a flicking motion of the finger to send the small bone flying at targets
and trying to knock the target bones off the platform. At Naadam, this contest is very popular and
develops a serious audience among older Mongolians.

Riders during Naadam festival

Horse riding is especially central to Mongolian culture. The long-distance races that are
showcased during Naadam festivals are one aspect of this, as is the popularity of trick riding.
One example of trick riding is the legend that the Mongolian military hero Damdin Sükhbaatar
scattered coins on the ground and then picked them up while riding a horse at full gallop.

Mongolian wrestling is the most popular of all Mongol sports. It is the highlight of the Three
Manly Games of Naadam. Historians claim that Mongol-style wrestling originated some seven
thousand years ago. Hundreds of wrestlers from different cities and aimags around the country
take part in the national wrestling competition.

Other sports such as table tennis, basketball, and association football are becoming increasingly
popular. More Mongolian table tennis players are competing internationally.

Naidangiin Tüvshinbayar won Mongolia's first ever Olympic gold medal in the men's 100-
kilogram class of judo.[98]

Association football is also played in Mongolia. The Mongolia national football team began
playing again in the 1990s; it has yet to qualify for a major tournament. The Mongolia Premier
League is the top domestic competition.

Several Mongolian women have excelled in pistol shooting: Otryadyn Gündegmaa is a silver
medalist of the 2008 Olympic Games, Munkhbayar Dorjsuren is a double world champion and
Olympic bronze medal winner (now representing Germany), while Tsogbadrakhyn Mönkhzul is,
as of May 2007, ranked third in the world in the 25 metre pistol event.[99]

Festivals[edit]

Mongolia holds many traditional festivals throughout the year and are mostly celebrations of
Mongolian culture. Naadam Festival is the largest festival, celebrated in every town and village
across the country. It features three sporting events: wrestling, archery and horse racing, amongst
other traditional games and exhibits. The Eagle Festival draws about 400 eagle hunters on
horseback, including the world famous traveler Мөнхбаярт Батсайхан (Munkhbayart
Batsaikhan), to compete with their birds. The Ice Festival and the Thousand Camel Festival are
amongst many other traditional Mongolian festivals

Regions
The country can be categorized into five distinct regions based on culture and geography. These
regions are further divided into 21 provinces and one special municipality.
Mongolia regions
Central Mongolia
includes Ulaanbaatar and the popular tourist region of Arkhangai
Eastern Mongolia
Gobi
a mostly desert region in southern Mongolia
Northern Mongolia
Western Mongolia
home of Lake Uvs Nuur and Tavan Bogd Mountains

Cities
 Ulaanbaatar - the capital and starting point for most travel in Mongolia

 Erdenet - Mongolia's second largest city and home to one of the world's biggest copper
mines and a famous carpet factory

 Hovd - historic city at the crossroads of traditional Mongol and Kazakh culture

 Mörön - capital of Hövsgöl province

 Ölgii - Kazakh city in Mongolia's far western corner of Bayan-Ölgii province

 Tsetserleg - capital of Arkhangai province

 Karakorum - ancient Mongol capital established by Genghis Khan

 Uliastai- capital of Zavhan province

 Ondorkhaan- capital of Khentii province

 Dalanzadgad- capital of South Gobi province

Holidays and festivals[edit]

Naadam festival celebrations.

Mongolia is home to the "three manly sports": wrestling, horse racing, and archery, and these are
the same three sporting events that take place every year at the Naadam festival.

Naadam is the National Holiday of Mongolia celebrated on 11-13 Jul. During these days all of
Mongolia watches or listens to the whole event which takes place in the capital city of
Ulaanbaatar through Mongolia's National Television and Radio. Many other smaller Naadam
festivals take place in different aimags (provinces) around the country throughout the month of
July, and it is at these Naadam festivals that you are able to get a much closer look at the action.

It is believed that Naadam celebrations started with the rise of the Great Mongolian Empire as
Chinggis (also known as Genghis) Khan's strategy to keep his warriors strictly fit. After the fall
of the empire, the contests were held during religious festivals, and since the communist
revolution it was celebrated on its anniversary.

The legend says that in old times a woman dressed like a man won a wrestling competition once.
That is why open chest and long sleeve wrestling costumes, called "zodog", are meant to show
that every participant is male. Wrestlers wear short trunks, "shuudag", and Mongolian boots,
"gutal". The yellow stripes on the tails of wrestlers' hats will indicate the number of times the
wrestler became a champion in Naadam.

Only Naadam gives official titles to the wrestlers. Mongolian wrestling tournaments have 9 or 10
rounds depending on the number of 512 or 1024 wrestlers registered for the competition that
year. If the wrestler wins 5 rounds, he will be awarded the title "Nachin" (bird), 6 rounds -
Hartsaga (hawk), 7 rounds - Zaan (elephant), 8 rounds - Garuda (Eagle), 9 rounds - Arslan (lion)
and 10 - Avarga (Titan).

In 2006, Zaan (Elephant) Sumyabazar won 9 rounds that made him Garuda but that year 1024
wrestlers had 10 rounds which he won all. This entitled him to Avarga. Or Arslan (Lion) must
win 2 in a row to become Avarga (Titan). The titles are for life. If Avarga (Titan) keeps winning
at Naadam more and more attributes will be added to his title.

There are no weight categories in Mongolian Wrestling tournaments but there is a time limit of
30 min, if the wrestlers can not overthrow each other, referees use lots for better position which
often settles the match. One who falls or his body touches the ground loses the match.

Mongolian Wrestling matches are attended by seconds whose role is to assist their wrestlers in
all matters and to encourage them to win by spanking on their buttocks. They also sing praise
songs and titles to the leading wrestlers of both wings, west and east, after 5 and 7 rounds. The
referees monitor the rules but the people and the fans are the final judges. They will speak and
spread the word of mouth about who is who till the next year.

 The Golden Eagle Festival in Ölgii on the first weekend of October is the largest
gathering in the world of eagle hunters. The event typically has 60 to 70 Kazakh eagle
hunters displaying their skills. The events include having their golden eagles fly to them
on command and catching a fox fur being pulled being a horse from a perch on a nearby
mountain. The event also features traditional Kazakh games like Kokpar (tug-of-war over
a goat carcass while on horseback), Tiyn Teru (a timed race to pick up a coin on the
ground while on horseback), and Kyz Kuar ("girl chase," is a race between a man and
woman where the woman whips the man while he tries to hold on). The festival also has
a traditional Kazakh concert, camel race, and displays of Kazakh art. A smaller eagle
festival is held on 22 Sep in the nearby village of Sagsai.

 Nauryz Festival also in Ölgii is the traditional new years celebration of Kazakhs held on
22 March. There is a parade, concert, and horse races during the several days of
celebrating. Though most of the celebration involves visiting friends and relatives to eat
Nauryz Koje (soup) and boiled mutton and horse meat

Mongolia – Cooking and Food

Overview of Mongolian Cuisine History

The Mongolian cuisine is not one of the cuisines that is known world wide, and more than that, it
has a bad reputation, because of the low number of ingredients that are used.

Most of the Mongolian dishes are based on mutton, yak milk and even horse milk. The mutton is
either boiled, filled with various ingredients, stewed, cooked with oil and flour or prepared with
noodles. It represents the national dish of Mongolia, but it is rarely appreciated by the tourists,
because of its smell. Most of those who have visited Mongolia criticize the odor of this food for
many weeks, after the visit has ended. However, this food helps the roaming Mongols to survive
the cold climate of their country, during the winters. It contains fat and proteins, which are
essential for this fact. In Mongolia, spices are used in low quantities and sometimes, the dishes
may lack the condiments.

Besides yak and horse milk, there are other Mongolian beverages that are important. The dried
milk curd is sometimes served along with mutton based dishes. The milk is also used to prepare
the two best known Mongolian alcoholic drinks. Nermalike, is similar to vodka and it is
extracted from yoghurt. Airag is prepared from horse milk, through fermentation. Also, non-
alcoholic drinks are consumed in this country. The most important beverage of this kind is suutei
tsai. This is a tea made from hot water, butter, rice, high quantities of salt, yak milk and tea. The
Mongolians believe that this drink helps the digestion and they consume it before the meals.

In addition to the mutton dishes, one can choose foods based on horsemeat, which has a greater
popularity in the Western parts of the country. Marmot is also consumed and the games that were
organized in order to catch these animals have a long history. The vegetables are rarely used in
the Mongolian dishes. The greens cannot be cropped, due to the cruel climatic conditions.

The Guanz are the places located in the main cities where foods are served. Here, the workers
can eat foods at low prices. The Mongolians eat the most food at breakfast and at lunch. The
dishes that are served at these meals are in the most cases the traditional foods.

Cuisines of Mongolia
The Mongolian cuisine is overall characterized by simplicity. This fact was determined by the
low number of the ingredients that are used when preparing Mongolian dishes. Also, the small
variety of the ingredients is a consequence of the climatic conditions of the country. Because of
the hard and long winters, Mongolians cannot crop many vegetables and their meals are mostly
based on meats - mutton, marmot and horsemeat predominate.

The Mongolian cuisines does not differ much from one region to another, across the country.
However, the dishes that are prepared in the Inner Mongolia are believed to be better than those
who are cooked in the Northern part of the country.

Buuz is a traditional style of folded dumplings, shaped in hot oil.

Preparation Methods for Mongolian Cooking

The Mongolian cooking methods did not develop very much, in time. Of course, at the
beginning, Mongolians even used to consume raw meat. The next stage of the Mongolian cuisine
presented warriors that fried the meat and the greens on their shields which were placed over the
fire. This is a fact that nowadays does not apply on the Mongolian cuisine anymore. The
preparation techniques that are utilized in Mongolia recently are though rudimentary. Many
ingredients are either boiled, steamed or cooked under pressure. Meat is sometimes cut in slices
and put on skewers. Other times. it is grilled.
However, one of the cooking techniques that prevailed through centuries is rock cooking. Stones
are placed inside animals in order to prepare them faster and to maximize the temperature.
Another way refers to placing hot stones in hermetic metal bowls that contain the meat. It must
be appreciated that the Mongolians tried to diversify their cuisine by using more techniques
while the number of the ingredients is very small.

Special Equipment for Mongolian Cooking

Mongolians, besides having special preparation manners, also have special cooking tools. Most
of them are used for preparing the meat dishes. Some are not typical to Mongolia, but have been
inherited from the other Asian countries. As evidence stands the wok. Also, long knives that
might be similar to swords are used in the Mongolian cuisine.

However, here are a few kitchen utensils you might want to use:

 Skewers

 Wok

The so called "Mongolian Hot Pot" is almost completely unknown in Mongolia today, even
though some sources think it was originally invented in the area.

Mongolian Food Traditions and Festivals

Mongolia is a poor country, when referring to the food festivals and traditions. The most
important event that takes places in this country is named Tsagaan Sar, which is organized in
order to celebrate the lunar new year. Many times the Mongolians have disagreed the fact that
they, and furthermore, their traditions might have Chinese roots. This event is a good occasion
for the Mongolians to show the national dishes. There are also rituals that are related to this
festival. For example, in the third day of this event, a shamanistic sacrifice takes place. The
festival is believed to be connected to both shamanism and Lamaism

Mongolian Culture : Arts, language, Food, Tsagaan Sar & Nadaam

Mongolian traditionals arts : paintings, folklorics musics & dances and
literatures
 Ascendancy of Tibetan Buddhism and nomadism is visible in
Mongolia's paintings, music and literature. Tsam dances,
influenced by nomadism and shamanism, are performed to
expel evil spirits. Outlawed during communism, they are
coming back on stage and to ritual ceremonies again.

Traditional music involves a wide range of instruments and

singing styles. In Mongolian khoomi singing, carefully trained
male voices produce harmonic overtones from the depth of
the throat, releasing several notes at once.

Traditional music and dance performances are not complete without a touch
of contortionism, an ancient Mongolian body art.

Khalkha : the Mongolian's language

Khalkha Mongolian, the official language, is a member of the Ural-Altaic

family of languages, which includes Finnish, Turkish, Kazak, Uzbek and
Korean.

Since 1944, the Russian Cyrillic alphabet has been used in written
Mongolian. The country produced a huge literature, almost none of which is
known to European language speakers.

Only recently have scholars translated the most important text of all -
Mongolyn Nuuts Tovchoo (The Secret History of the Mongols) - which
celebrates Mongolia's days of prominence and glory.

Mongolian's traditional foods and drinks

Most famous Mongolian recipes

An old Mongolian saying advices: “Keep breakfast for yourself, share lunch
with your friend and give dinner to your enemy”.

The biggest and most important meals for Mongolians are breakfast and
lunch, which usually consist of boiled mutton with lots of fat and flour and
maybe some dairy products or rice.
Kazakhs in western Mongolia add variety to their diets with horsemeat.

Mongolians are big tea drinkers and the classic drink is süütei tsai (tea
with milk). Men who refuse to drink arkhi (vodka) are usually considered
wimps. Herders make their own unique home brewed airag, which is
fermented mare's milk with an alcoholic content of about 3%.

Many Mongolians distil it further to produce shimiin arkhi, where the

alcohol content is boosted to around 12%.

Tsagaan Sar : the Mongolian celebration of the year

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Ih Idee
History …

Tsagaan Sar (the white month), the first month of spring, has been
one of the most important celebrations of Mongols for centuries. This is a
time of the year when winter passes away and spring comes in.

The Great Chingis Khaan played an important role to make Tsagaan

Sar a State ceremony. In 1207, at the Mouse hour of the first day of the Year
of the Red Rabbit, the Great Khaan, wearing all his new clothes, prayed to
Blue Sky and Vast Land, paid respect to the elderly and visited his Oulen
mother. In 1216, the year of the Red Mouse, the Khaan issued a decree to
award people on the day of Tsagaan Sar with gold and clothing materials
taken from the State reserve. The Khaan also decreed to award a special
title to anyone who is over 120 years old and to release prisoners on the
day of Tsagaan Sar except those convicted of the 5-cruelty case.

In 1723, the "Mongol Tsaaz" (Mongol Law) stated that all governors
and noblemen were obliged to wear a "Jinst Malgai" (special ceremony hat
of the high society) and a "Zaht deel" (deel with a collar) on the day of
Tsagaan Sar and to pray in front of the Ministry 9 times with 3 praying
words each time. Tsagaan Sar is considered the beginning of the lunar
calendar year.

In 1911, the political and religious leader of Mongolia Bogd Khaan

approved a new State flag featuring Soyombo (the national symbol) on
yellow background. He ordered that all government houses, ministries, the
army and monasteries keep this flag raised outside their compounds from
the 30th day of the last month of winter to the 15th day of Tsagaan Sar. In
other times, the flag was to be kept inside the compounds.

Despite restrictions of Tsagaan Sar during the communist time,

thousand years old traditions were never given up and informal
celebrations continued among family and relatives especially in the
countryside. Since 1990, with democratic changes in the country, Tsagaan
Sar has become a nationwide celebration of people.

How Mongolians celebrate Tsagaan Sar …

Tsagaan Sar is a celebration of New Year, addition of age and safe

ending of winter for animals. Tsagaan Sar is a festival of white food (food
with white color – milk and diary products, rice, etc.) Tsagaan Sar
represents a heartfelt spirit of people. On this day, people clean their body
and mind from all bad things and start a new fresh clean life. Tsagaan Sar is
the day when people express respect to elder people and relatives, renew
friendship and sympathy to each other and reconfirm family ties. Family
and relatives gather together.

The Tsagaan Sar eve or the last day of winter is called "Bituun",
which means "full darkness". It is a single night when no moon is visible in
the sky. On this day people eat to be really full. It is believed that if you stay
hungry, you will be hungry all the coming year around. All the Bituun
ceremony is supposed to start when it gets dark outside.

On the first day of the new year, people get up early before sunrise,
wear new clothes, open the "Orkh" (ger’s top window cover) and make a
fire. Tsagaan Sar signifies the beginning of spring. Although steppes are still
covered with snow, the scent of spring is already in the air. The coming
year’s weather is analyzed based on animals' mood and behavior as well as
other signs of nature. All men go to the top of a nearby hill or mountain
carrying food and make a pray to the Nature and the State. Then, men go
to certain directions prescribed by the Buddhist horoscope. This ceremony
is called “muruu gargakh”, which means “starting your footprints”. It is
believed important to start your way in the right direction on the first day of
the new year as prescribed by your lunar horoscope in order to be lucky all
year round.

With the sunrise, the greeting ceremony starts inside the family. The
oldest person stays in "Hoimor" (ger’s northern side) and younger family
members greet him or her first and then greet each other. The younger
greets the older by extending arms with palms up and holding the older’s
arms from underneath. Everybody greets each other except husband and
wife. Usually, people hold "Khadag" (long and narrow piece of yellow, white
or blue silk with a spiritual meaning) in their arms.

When the greeting ceremony is over, everyone sits behind the table
and starts exchanging "Khoorog" (a snuff bottle made usually of semi-
precious stones and filled with finely pulverized tobacco). The typical
greeting words are "Daaga dalantai, byaruu bulchintai, sureg mal targan
orov uu?", which can be translated as “Does your 2-year old horse have
enough fat on the withers (means good health), does your 2-year old yak
have enough muscles (means good power), did all your animals pass winter
safely?" and "Sar shinedee saihan orov uu? Nas suuder hed hurev?", which
is used to ask an old person about his/her good health and age as people
are proud of old age. Exchanging Khoorog means expressing friendly
intentions to each other and is usually the starting point of introducing a
stranger. Exchanging Khoorog creates a warm atmosphere between people
and makes the start of a friendly talk that helps to learn the true heart of
the stranger. People eat lot of "Booz" (steamed Mongolian dumplings) and
drink "Airag" (fermented mare’s milk). When the ceremony finishes in the
family, the hosts give presents to each person. The present symbolizes a
wish for wellbeing, health, wealth and power. Everyone moves to the next
family starting with the next oldest person's ger first. The Tsagaan Sar
celebration can continue for a month, but the first, second and third days
are the most important.

Food and drinks…

Following the traditions of centuries, every family prepares the

Tsagaan Sar Plate, which is the main food decoration of the table. It consists
of "Ih Idee" (big plate) and "Baga idée" (small plate). "Ul boov" (Mongolian
traditional biscuit) are put in layers on the big plate. The number of layers
should be odd. Traditionally, grandparents have 7 layers of Ul boov, parents
– 5 layers, and young couples – 3 layers. "Uuts", sheep’s back and tail, is a
 must on the table. Bigger and fatter tail is considered more delicious. Airag
is the important drink during Tsagaan Sar, however, "Shimiin arkhi" (milk
vodka) and regular vodka accompany food as well.

DO NOT during Tsagaan Sar…

- Do not wear a black color deel

- Do not drink too much alcohol
- Do not spend overnight in another ger (not at home)
- Do not leave animals at the pasture overnight (animals should be close to
ger)
- Do not greet your husband or wife
- Do not do a haircut
- Do not embroil or fix old clothes
- Do not get anything from another ger
- Do not kiss during greetings (old people may kiss their children and
grandchildren)

Tsagaan Sar in Ulaanbaatar…

Tsagaan Sar is a thriving holiday season in Ulaanbaatar. It has been
an official nationwide celebration since 1990. Today, it is one of the most
favorite holidays for UB people.
The Tsagaan Sar national wrestling championship is held in the wrestling
palace. It is one of the most important wrestling events where the winner
earns the next title (the other one is the Naadam, July 11-12, wrestling). UB
is full of heavy traffic during the Tsagaan Sar days. Everybody wears new
national costumes and goes out to visit relatives, friends and family. Early in
the morning, UB streets are full of people who “start their footprints”. The
main Buddhist monastery Gandan holds the Tsagaan Sar prayer, which is
visited by President and Prime Minister.

Mongolian traditional summer festival : Naadam

Nadam is the Mongolian traditional summer festival. The full name of the
festival is Eriin Gurvan Naadam translated as the Three Men's Games.
The word "Naadam" comes from the word "naadah" which means "to play".
 The main Naadam festival is held every year on the 11th and 12th of July.
Local mini naadams can be held in different parts of the country on different
occasions throughout the summer.

Naadam has been celebrated for many hundreds of years. Initially, it was a
celebration of some major events such as childbirth, wedding or victory in a
war. Since 1922, Naadam has become the celebration of the Anniversary of
Mongolia's Independence.

National wrestling is the pride of Naadam. Mongolians prefer it to all other

sports. There are 9 wrestling rounds. Higher-ranking wrestlers enjoy the
right to choose their opponents during the final rounds. Singing preludes
the wrestling tournament. Winners of the first 5 rounds are awarded the
title of Nachin (the Falcon), of 7 rounds the title of Zaan (the Elephant) and
of all 9 rounds the title of Arslan (the Lion). The highest title Avarga (the
Giant) is awarded to a wrestler who wins Naadam wrestling for 2 or more

consecutive times.

Archery is the second most important event in Naadam. It is a very old

sport and is
distinguished from other countries by the fact that the archers must aim at
a multitude
of surs or small felt balls of the size of a fist tied up with leather straps that
form a target wall. The one who hits the most is the winner. Women and
children as well as men take part in this competition.

Naadam horse races are a long-standing tradition mentioned in the Secret

History of the Mongols, a 13th century literary classic, and in the writings of
the famous Marko Polo. Time has not changed the rules and conditions of
the horse races. The horses race across the wide smooth steppe. The races
are classified by the horse age. 1 year old horses are called Daaga, 2 years
old - Shudlen, 3 years old - Khyazaalan, 4 years old - Soyolon, 5 years
old and above - Ikh nas or adult horses. The distance increases with the
age of the horse. For Ikh nas, the distance is one urtuu or 30 kilometers. 5-
10 years old boys and girls, sometimes as young as 3 years old, ride the
horses. Tribute is paid to the horse’s performance rather than to horse
riders.

A song is sung in honor of the winning horse as well as for the 1 year old
horse that comes last. The young horse that came last earns the “title” of
Bayan Khodood (Full Stomach) meaning that it was too heavy during the
race. It is not the horse that is blamed for the failure but its master who did
not train it properly. The song does not sound offensive to the young rider
either. The singer sings that the rider was too young while the race track
was strewn with stumbling stones and pits and that at the next Naadam the
horse's fame will rise like the sun to glitter like the gold.

Mongolian Nomadic life

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For 3 000 years, the people of the steppes have adopted a pastoral way
of life moving in the search of best pastures and campsites. They live by
and for their livestock, in the forefront of which the horse undoubtedly was
the first animal domesticated in these infinite meadows. Today,
approximately half of Mongolia’s population is still roaming the vast
plains living in the ger and moving their campings several times a year on
the grounds with no fence. Nomadic life thrive in summer and survives in
winter. Considering climatic conditions, especially during winter, such
lifestyle may seem to the outside world to be a very hard way of living.
However, Mongolians have developed for centuries such qualities as
strength and resilience that are essential for survival in this harsh nature,
which is their cherished homeland.

The number of nomads has significantly decreased over the last years.
Nomads move to the capital city being compelled by the necessity to
search for means of subsistence or attracted by city lights and perceived
advantages of urban life. After the last terrible winters many nomadic
families lost all their herds that were the source of living. Such situation
requiring an emergency aid resulted in large rural-to-urban migration,
especially from the west of the country, driving nomadic herders as well as
stockbreeders from small rural towns towards the suburbs of the capital
city.

Traditionally, Mongolian nomads raise 5 species of livestock known as the 5

muzzles: horses, cows or yaks, sheep, goats and camels. Reindeers are
raised by the Tsaatan people who live in the northwest areas around the
lake Khovsgol bordering the Russian Siberia.

Mongolia is the land of the horse. Any nomad can ride as well as he or
she can walk or run.
Small Mongolian horses are incredibly resistant. They live all year around in
semi-wild herds, gathered only for the draft and the capture. They are
partially watched over by herdsmen to defend only against the wolves in
winter.
Apart from being used for riding and inheritance, the horse gives the
nomads their preferred drink - airag, which is fermented and slightly
alcoholized mare’s milk. Mongolians of any ages drink liters of airag in
summer praising its virtues for health and the digestive tract !
Airag of certain areas is more famous as compared to others. The taste
depends on the grazing grounds and the skillfulness of the maker. If it is
relevant to make a comparison, one can say that airag has approximately
the same cultural and social importance as wine can have in France.
Horses are definitely on the high when they are involved for the annual
race of Naadam. Ridden by young racers, they demonstrate all their
strength and beauty for the pride of their owner and breeder and the glory
goes to the horse and the owner than to the particular rider.

Yaks and cows bring meat, leather and milk, which is used for making a
variety of diary products such as yoghurt, cheese and aaruul (or dried
cheese) that constitute the main diet of nomads during the summer
months. Aaruul, which represents cheese balls of different shapes and sizes
dried on the roof of the ger, is especially popular and is consumed all year
round.

Sheep is the most universal animal used for meat and milk, the basic food
of nomadic lifestyle, skins and wool for clothing and felt for ger covering.

Goats are more difficult to raise than sheep, but they are appreciated for
their meat and especially cashmere, goat’s down, one of the highly valued
natural fibers. Mongolia is one of the largest producers and exporters of the
finest quality cashmere in the world.
 Two-humped Bactrian camels are used in Gobi for meat, milk, wool as well
as for riding and as a carrier for long distance movements.

Nomadic families often gathered in groups move generally in the radius

of 50 to 100 kilometers, at least twice a year, in spring (May) and at the
beginning of winter (October). However, more significant displacements are
sometimes necessary in the search of better pastures. Uvuljuu or winter
camps are located in areas that are naturally sheltered from wind and are
equipped with barns for the animals to stay for the night.

Nomads devote all of the day to caring after their animals – watching over,
milking, shearing, or combing – to produce felt and felt clothes, cheese and
other dairy products. Horses are raised and looked after by men but are
milked by women.
Nomads use a pole-lasso or uurga to gather the herds and to capture the
horses.

The ger, the traditional mongolian home

Yurt is the usual term for the Mongolian felt tent or ger, but this word is not
very much appreciated by Mongolians themselves because it is of Turkish
origin and was used by the Western invaders and the last of them - the
Russians.

The majority of Mongolians in rural areas, even Mongolians in urban

downtown, live in these comfortable tents that nowadays are sometimes
very well equipped with all "modern amenities". Ger is the truly universal
traditional dwelling that has been adapted over the centuries to the
realities of nomadic life in harsh steppes. It is incredibly warm in winter
and cool in summer and is resistible to powerful winds without being fixed
in the ground. Is is easily dismountable and transportable that is so
important for nomads during their regular migrations.

Ger consists of a wooden frame and is covered with felt. It weighs from 150
to 300 kgs and can be assembled and dismantled in approximately 2 hours.

The interior organization of ger is identical everywhere: the door faces the
south, the men’s place is in the west part, the north side is the place for
honoured guests or old people as well as the place for the family altar, the
east side is the women’s territory. The stove occupies the center of the ger

Top 8 Most Popular Food in Inner Mongolia

Roast Lamb
Roast lamb is the traditional Mongolian food, which is specially prepared when a dinner party is held in
honor of the distinguished guests or a great celebration is held. The roast lamb, which looks golden red
and tastes quite delicious, is laid on a square wooden dish.

　　

Instant-Boiled Mutton

Instant-boiled mutton, also called the Mongolian Fire Pot, was created in the Yuan Dynasty. Choose
mutton from the back, rear legs or tail of a killed sheep. Cut the mutton into slices. The boiled mutton is
fresh and tender, not greasy.

　　

Cooked Mutton

This is the delicacy which the Mongolian people like best. It is only prepared for the special occasions,
such as offering sacrifices to gods or ancestors, holding weddings or celebrating the elder‘s birthday.
When the dinner party begging, it is customary for the Mongolian people to cut a piece of meat from the
fat tail first and have a taste of it.

　　

Finger Mutton

This dish is the traditional food which the Mongolian people have liked best for thousands of years.
People often use their fingers to take the meat while eating. That‘s why the dish is called finger mutton.

　　

Butter

It is also called yellow butter. Butter is nutritious and unique in flavor, is suitable for both the Chinese
food and the Western food.

　　

Milk Tea

Milk tea is the traditional hot drink the Mongolian people like best. It is made by boiling the water with
brick tea and fresh milk. People usually put a little salt into the milk when they drink it. Sometimes the
local people put a little butter or stir-fried millet into the milk tea.

　　

Shaomai

haomai is a local delicacy, which has a long history in Hohhot. The visitors who come to Hohhot always
have a taste of shaomai. Shaomai is characteristic of unique technique, fine raw materials, nice and thin
wrappers, delicious fillings and all necessary ingredients and seasoning. The hot shaomai taken just out
of the steamer gives out pleasing smell. It looks like a small soft bag when it is picked up with chopsticks,
and looks like a small pancake when it is placed on the plate. It is delicious in taste and pleasing in form.

　　

Naked Oat Flour

Naked oat flour is processed out of naked oats. The naked oats, which is a low-yield, cold-resisting and
salt-alkali-resisting crop with a short mature period, contain high protein, fat and many kinds of trace
elements, such as iron, calcium and phosphorus.The naked oat flour is processed in a special way. The
food of various kinds can be made out of the naked oat flour. They are well received by the local people.

　　
Buckwheat Flour

Buckwheat flour is processed out of buckwheat. The flour can be made into noodles and some other
kinds of food. Putting some mutton gravy into the noodle, people find the food quite delicious