Chapter 1 Introduction: Fig 1.1 Benzoic Acid

Chapter 1 Introduction

Benzoic acid , CH
7 O
6 2 (or CH
6 COOH), is a colorless crystalline solid and a simple
5 aromatic
carboxylic acid. The name is derived from
gum benzoin
, which was for a long time its only
known source. Benzoic acid occurs naturally in many plants
and it serves as an intermediate in
the biosynthesis of many .
secondary metabolites Salts of benzoic acid
are used as food preservatives and benzoic acid is an important
precursor for the industrial synthesis of many other organic substances.
The salts and
esters
of benzoic acid are known as benzoates.
Fig 1.1 Benzoic acid

1.1 HISTORY
Benzoic acid was discovered in the sixteenth century. The

dry distillation of gum benzoin was
first described by
Nostradamus (1556), and then by
Alexius Pedemontanum (1560) and
Blaise de
Vigenère
(1596).
Pioneer work in 1830 through a variety of experiences based on

amygdalin
, obtained from bitter
almonds (the fruit of ) oil by
Prunus dulcis Pierre Robiquet and Antoine BoutronChalard, two
French chemists, had produced
benzaldehyde but they failed in working out a proper
interpretation of the structure of amygdalin that would account for it, and thus missed the
identification of the
benzoyl radical CH
7 O. This last step was achieved some few months later
5
(1832) by
Justus von Liebig and
Friedrich Wöhler
, who determined the composition of benzoic
acid.
These latter also investigated how
hippuric acid is related to benzoic acid.
In 1875
Salkowski discovered the
antifungal abilities of benzoic acid, which was used for a long time in
the preservation of benzoatecontaining
cloudberry fruits
. It is also one of the chemical
compounds found in
castoreum
. This compound is gathered from the castor sacs of the North
American Beaver.
1

1.2 MARKET SURVEY

U.S. production capacity is estimated to be 126,000
tonnes per year , much of which is consumed
domestically to prepare other industrial chemicals.

In 2013, beverages and food accounted for nearly 49% of world consumption of benzoic acid in
the form of sodium and potassium benzoate, up from 43% in 2009. This was mainly a result of
increased use in preservation, as packaged food and beverages continue to gain in popularity and
availability. World consumption of benzoic acid in sodium and potassium benzoate is forecast to
grow at an average annual rate of 3.0% during 2013–2018. World consumption of benzoic acid
in benzoate plasticizers continues to grow dramatically, increasing at an average annual rate of
10.7% between 2009 and 2013; this growth was driven largely by replacement of phthalate
plasticizers in an increasing variety of applications. Other major applications include alkyd
resins, benzoyl chloride and animal feed.
The following pie chart shows world consumption of benzoic acid:

Fig 1.2 World Consumption of Benzoic Acid

2

Asia Pacific and Europe accounted for 64% and 22.5%, respectively, of world consumption of
benzoic acid in 2013, followed by North America with nearly 12%. Sodium and potassium
benzoate accounted for most consumption in Asia (where China is the largest world producer
and consumer), Europe, and Central and South America. Benzoate plasticizers accounted for
most consumption in North America and Central and Eastern Europe.
World growth prospects for benzoic acid in food and beverages are significant. The main factors
behind this growth are
1. Improving living standards, particularly in Asia
2. Food safety (preservation); longer shelf lives are anticipated as more food and
readytodrink beverages are consumed days or weeks after production
3. Continuing urbanization
4. Desire for convenience (increased popularity of processed foods and readytodrink
beverages)

Demand growth in Europe and the Americas is largely attributable to increased consumption in
benzoate plasticizers; in both regions, production and demand for benzoate plasticizers are
forecast to grow significantly. This is largely because of use as replacements for phthalate
plasticizers, some of which are being increasingly regulated; these regulations are the main
drivers behind increased demand for benzoate plasticizers.
Asian demand for benzoic acid in benzoate plasticizers is also expected to grow quickly;
however, consumption volumes are smaller than in both Europe and North America. In Asia,
sodium and potassium benzoate and benzoyl chloride are also fastgrowing markets for benzoic
acid. China has become the world's main supplier of benzoyl chloride and sodium
benzoate.Stricter environmental regulations affecting the use of alkyd resins will limit the growth
of benzoic acid in this application.

3

1.3 CURRENT DEMAND AND SUPPLY DETAILS

DEMAND
2006: 141m lbs (64,000 tonnes) ; 2007: 142m lbs; 2011: 154m lbs. Demand equals production
plus imports (2006: 9m lbs 2007: 9m lbs) less exports (2006: 46m lbs 2007: 0)

Fig 1.3 Statistics of US Industries Fig 1.4 Price trend
( Reference : )
http://www.icis.com/resources/news/2008/06/02/9128511/chemicalprofilebenzoicacid

Benzoic acid demand grows in concert with the general economy, primarily due to the demand
for benzoate plasticizers. Growth for benzoic acid through 2011 is forecast at 2%/year. On the
raw material side,
toluene prices have dramatically increased, currently at $3.503.65/gal, as the
price of
crude oil has risen to record highs. The strong demand for gasoline is also contributing
to keeping the price of toluene relatively high
.
Worldwide production capacity is estimated at 700 kt per year. Average operating rate is at max
80% resulting in a production of 560 kt benzoic acid per year. The major outlet (75%) for
benzoic acid is in the production of phenol, which in turn is mainly used to produce caprolactam.

India even imported Benzoic acid. China accounts for the largest exports to India, followed by
Japan and Germany. Average price per kg is 1.12 USD. China accounts for about USD
51,899,331 imports
4

EXPORTS FROM INDIA

On an average, India exports
Benzoic acid with 33,927,743 USD
with a total quantity of 4,181,218
tonnes. United States is the largest
buyer of Benzoic acid accounting for
exports of USD 12,54,882. Followed
by Netherlands and Thailand, which
imported Benzoic acid with USD
5,883,996 and 1,726,982 USD.
Fig 1.5 Exports from India to other countries

Nhava Sheva Sea ( Jawaharlal
Nehru port) in East Mumbai
accounted for 63.5% of exports
followed by Bombay air cargo and
Vizag sea which accounts for
13.9% and 5.8% respectively.
Average price of benzoic acid per
weight is USD 8.11 and average
value per shipment is 28,463 kg.

Fig 1.6 Exports by leading ports in India

5

1.4 PLANT LOCATIONS

Major manufacturers of Benzoic Acid in India :
1. Premier Group of Industries (Mumbai)
2. Halogens Ltd. (Sauli)
3. Sharad Enterprises (Jodhpur)
4. P.C. Chemtech (Rajok)
5. Forber Pharmaceuticals (Mumbai)
6. Sanjay Chemicals (Hyderabad)
7. Ganesh Benzoplast Limited (Mumbai)
8. Triveni Chemicals (Vapi)
9. A.B. Enterprises (Mumbai)

Major manufacturers of Benzoic Acid across the world:
1. TR International Inclusive (Washington)
2. TENGHOU Tenglong Chemicals (Tenugzhou city)
3. Cell mark Chemicals (Beijing)
4. US Chemicals (United States)
5. Shanghai Chemicals (Shanghai)
6. Mc Kinley Resources (Dallas, Texas)
7. Pacific Coast chemicals (Berkeley, California)
8. GFS Chemicals (Columbus)

6

Chapter 2 –
Properties and Uses
2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties

Table 2.1 Physical Properties of Benzoic Acid

Properties of Substance Benzoic Acid

Molecular Weight 122.12 g/mol

Appearance Colourless Crystals

Empirical Formula (Hill's system):
C H
7 O
6 2

Structural Formula: C6H5COOH

Melting Point : 122.1 °C

Boiling Point : 250 °C

3
Density : 1.2659 g/cm (15 °C)
3
1.0749 g/cm (130 °C)

Flash Point (Closed Cup) : 121 °C

Ignition temperature: 570 °C

Solubility in Water 2.9 g/100 mL

Destruction point (°C): 370 °C

Vapour pressure (Torr):
10 (at 133°C)

7

Chemical Properties:
1. Combustible substance, poorly flammable.
2. Not volatile.
3. Easily soluble in boiling water but only slightly in cold water.
4. At high temperatures Benzoic acid can react with oxidizing reagents
5. Properties are based on the fact that each molecule consists of an acidic carboxyl group
attached to an aromatic ring structure. The carboxyl group can undergo reactions to form
products such as salts, esters, and acid halides. The aromatic ring can undergo reactions
such as sulfonation, nitration and halogenation.
Dust Explosiveness :
There is a risk of a dust explosion if the following conditions are met:
1. The substance is given in very finely distributed form (powder, dust).
2. The substance is whirled up in sufficient quantity in the air.
3. An ignition source is present (flame, spark, electrostatic discharge, etc.)
4. Acute or chronic health hazards result from the substance.

En
vironmental and Health Hazards
The primary hazard is the potential for environmental damage if released. Immediate steps
should be taken to limit spread to the environment
Biology and health effects :
Benzoic acid is relatively nontoxic. It is excreted as .
hippuric acid Benzoic acid occurs naturally
as do its esters in many plant and animal species. Appreciable amounts have been found in most
berries (around 0.05%). Ripe fruits of several
Vaccinium species (e.g., ,
cranberryV. vitis
macrocarpon
; V. myrtillus
,
bilberry ) contain as much as 0.03–0.13% free benzoic acid. Among
animals, benzoic acid has been identified primarily in omnivorous or phytophageous species.
8

2.2 Reactions
Reactions of benzoic acid can occur at either the aromatic ring or the carboxylic group:
Aromatic ring

Fig 2.1 Electrophilic Substitution Reaction

Electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction will take place mainly in 3position to the
electronwithdrawing carboxylic group.
The second substitution reaction (on the right) is slower because the first nitro group is
deactivating.Conversely, if an activating group (electrondonating) was introduced (eg alkyl), a
second substitution reaction would occur more readily than the first and the disubstituted product
might not accumulate to a significant extent.
Carboxylic group
All the reactions mentioned for
carboxylic acids
are also possible for benzoic acid.
1. Benzoic acid esters are the product of the acid catalysed reaction with alcohols.
2. Benzoic acid amides are more easily available by using activated acid derivatives
(such as benzoyl chloride) or by coupling reagents used in peptide synthesis like DCC
and DMAP.
3. The more active benzoic anhydride is formed by dehydration using acetic anhydride or
phosphorus pentoxide.
4. Highly reactive acid derivatives such as acid halides are easily obtained by mixing
with halogenation agents like phosphorus chlorides or thionyl chloride.
9

5. Orthoesters can be obtained by the reaction of alcohols under acidic water free
conditions with benzonitrile.
6. Reduction to benzaldehyde and benzyl alcohol is possible using DIBALH,
LiAlH4 or
sodium borohydride.
7. The copper catalysed decarboxylation of benzoate to benzene may be effected by
heating in quinoline. Alternatively, Hunsdiecker decarboxylation can be achieved by
forming the silver salt and heating.
Fig 2.2 Various Reactions of Benzoic Acid

10

2.3 Uses of Benzoic Acid:

1. Benzoic acid is a fungistatic compound that is widely used as a food preservative.
2. Benzoic acid is a
Nitrogen Binding Agent. The mechanism of action of benzoic acid is as
an
Ammonium Ion
Binding Activity.
3. Used to make other chemicals, as a food preservative, and for other uses.
4. Benzoic acid is mainly consumed in the production of
phenol by oxidative
decarboxylation
at 300−400 °C
CH
6 CO
5 H + 1/2 O
2 → C
2 H
6 OH + CO
5 2
The temperature required can be lowered to 200 °C by the addition of catalytic amounts
of copper(II) salts. The phenol can be converted to
cyclohexanol
, which is a starting
material for
nylon
synthesis.
5. Precursor to plasticizers:
Benzoate
plasticizers
, such as the glycol, diethylenegylcol, and triethyleneglycol esters,
are obtained by
transesterification of
methyl benzoate with the corresponding
diol
.
Alternatively these species arise by treatment of benzoylchloride with the diol. These
plasticizers are used similarly to those derived from
terephthalic acid
ester.
6. Precursor to sodium benzoate and related preservatives
Acidic food and beverage like

fruit juice (
citric acid
), sparkling drinks (
carbon dioxide
),
soft drinks ( ),
phosphoric acid pickles (
vinegar
) or other acidified food are preserved with
benzoic acid and benzoates.
Typical levels of use for benzoic acid as a preservative in
food are between 0.05–0.1%.
7. Medicinal :
Benzoic acid is a constituent of

Whitfield's ointment which is used for the treatment of
fungal skin diseases such as ,
tinea , and
ringworm .
athlete's foot Benzoic acid is also used
as an
expectorant
,
analgesic
, and
antiseptic
.
11

8. Benzoyl chloride :
Benzoic acid is a precursor to

benzoyl chloride
, CH
6 C(O)Cl by treatment with
5 thionyl
,
chloride phosgene or one of the
chlorides of phosphorus
. is an important starting
material for several benzoic acid derivatives like
benzyl benzoate
, which is used in
artificial flavours
and
insect repellents
.
8. In teaching laboratories, benzoic acid is a common standard for calibrating a
bomb
calorimete
r
9) Industry Uses
a) Adhesives and sealant chemicals
b) Agricultural chemicals (nonpesticidal)
c) Intermediates
d) Lubricants and lubricant additives
e) Paint additives and coating additives not described by other categories
f) Plasticizers
10. Consumer Uses
g) Adhesives and Sealants
h) Agricultural Products (nonpesticidal)
i) Antifreeze and Deicing Products
j) Building/Construction Materials not covered elsewhere
k) Electrical and Electronic Products
l) Floor Coverings
m) Lubricants and Greases
n) Paints and Coatings
o) Personal Care Products
p) Plastic and Rubber Products not covered elsewhere
q) Toys, Playground, and Sporting Equipment

12

Chapter 3 Literature Survey
3.1 Different Manufacturing Processes

3.1.1 Industrial preparations
Benzoic acid is produced commercially by
partial oxidation of
toluene with
oxygen
. The process
is catalyzed by
cobalt or
manganese
naphthenates
. The process uses cheap raw materials, and
proceeds in high yield.
Fig 3.1 Partial Oxidation of Toluene
Benzoic acid is almost exclusively manufactured by the

cobalt catalyzed liquidphase air
oxidation of
toluene
. In a typical modern process the oxidation is conducted at 165 deg C and 0.9
MPa. The reaction heat is removed by external circulation of the contents of the reactor. The
pressure of the liquid discharged from the reactor is reduced to atmospheric, and unreacted
toluene is recovered. Benzoic acid is purified by rectification. The bottom residue is extracted to
recover the
cobalt catalyst. The exhaust gas is cooled to recover most of the
toluene
, purified,
and vented.
3.1.2 Historical Preparation

The first industrial process involved the reaction of
benzotrichloride (trichloromethyl benzene)
with
calcium hydroxide in water, using
iron or iron salts as . The resulting
catalyst calcium
benzoate is converted to benzoic acid with
hydrochloric acid
. The product contains significant
amounts of chlorinated benzoic acid derivatives. For this reason, benzoic acid for human
consumption was obtained by dry distillation of gum benzoin. Foodgrade benzoic acid is now
produced synthetically.
13

3.1.3 Laboratory Synthesis
Benzoic acid is cheap and readily available, so the laboratory synthesis of benzoic acid is mainly

practiced for its pedagogical value. Benzoic acid can be purified by recrystallization from water
because of its high solubility in hot water and poor solubility in cold water. The avoidance of
organic solvents for the recrystallization makes this experiment particularly safe.

By hydrolysis

Like other
nitriles and ,
amides benzonitrile and
benzamide can be hydrolyzed to benzoic acid or
its conjugate base in acid or basic conditions.
Synthesis 1

1)

2)
Synthesis 2

1)

2)

3)
14

Synthesis 3
1)
2)
From benzaldehyde

The baseinduced
disproportionation of , the
benzaldehyde Cannizzaro reaction
, affords equal
amounts of benzoate and ; the latter can be removed by
benzyl alcohol distillation
.
From bromobenzene

Bromobenzene can be converted to benzoic acid by "carbonation" of the intermediate
phenylmagnesium bromide
.
From benzyl alcohol
Benzyl alcohol is refluxed with potassium permanganate or other oxidizing reagents in water.
The mixture is hot filtered to remove manganese dioxide and then allowed to cool to afford
benzoic acid.

15

3.2 Process Flowsheet

Fig 3.2 Process flow diagram

3.3 Selection of Process

The process selected for this project is Partial Oxidation of Toluene in presence of catalyst. We
have selected this process as it has proven more economical and also is efficient with the current
industrial production, so this is the best process we had.
This process is strongly influenced by a
number of factors, such as temperatures, pressures, and the nature of the catalyst used.
Appropriate selection of these factors is important, as selection influences the reaction trend, the
reaction velocity, and the overall technical and economic balance of the production, both in
terms of yield and catalyst consumption, and also from the point of view of the intricacy and
costs of installation and upkeep.

16

3.4 Detailed description of Process
In a continuous process of producing benzoic acid wherein toluene is oxidized in an oxidation
zone in the presence of Cobalt catalyst at a temperature in the range of 250 to 450 F. and a
pressure in the range of 50 to 300 p.s.i.g. with an oxygencontaining gas in the presence of a
heavy metal oxidation catalyst to obtain a reaction mixture having 15 to 25% by weight benzoic
acid.
A method for producing benzoic acid is disclosed which comprises forming a dispersion
comprising oxygencontaining gas bubbles dispersed in toluene, wherein the bubbles have a
mean diameter less than 1 micron. The dispersion is then subjected to reaction conditions
comprising a pressure of less than about 1013 kPa and a temperature of less than about 160° C.,
whereby at least a portion of the toluene is partially oxidized to form benzoic acid. The present
procedure generally relates to apparatus and methods for producing benzoic acid via gas/liquid
phase partial oxidation of toluene and more particularly to the acceleration of such reactions by
high shear mixing.

High Shear Mixing device :
In accordance with certain embodiments of the invention, a method is provided producing
benzoic acid, which comprises forming a dispersion comprising oxygencontaining gas bubbles
dispersed in toluene liquid phase, wherein the bubbles have a mean diameter less than 1 micron;
and subjecting the dispersion to reaction conditions comprising pressure of less than about 1013
kPa and temperature of less than about 160° C.and to high shear mixing at a tip speed of at least
22.9 m/sec (4,500 ft/min)., whereby at least a portion of the toluene is partially oxidized to form
benzoic acid. In some embodiments, the gas bubbles have a mean diameter of less than 400 nm,
and in some embodiments they are no more than 100 nm.The high shear device reduces the mass
transfer limitations on the reaction and thus increases the overall reaction rate. In cases where it
is desirable to react two or more raw materials of different phases (e.g. solid and liquid; liquid
and gas; solid, liquid and gas), one of the limiting factors in controlling the rate of reaction
involves the contact time of the reactants.
17

Fig 3.3 High Shear Mixing Device
In the case of heterogeneously catalyzed reactions there is the additional rate limiting factor of
having the reacted products removed from the surface of the catalyst to enable the catalyst to
catalyze further reactants.
HSD is capable of highly dispersing or transporting oxygen into a
main liquid phase comprising toluene or xylene, in some cases together with a soluble catalyst or
catalyst slurry, with which it would normally be immiscible, at conditions such that at least a
portion of the oxygen reacts with the toluene to produce a product stream comprising benzoic
acid.
High shear device is a multistage mixer whereby the shear rate (which varies
proportionately with tip speed and inversely with rotor/stator gap) varies with longitudinal
position along the flow pathway.
Packed Bed Reactor:
Reactor in which a multiphase reaction can be propagated to carry out the conversion
reaction(s). A catalyst inlet line is to be connected to reactor for receiving a catalyst solution
While increasing the reaction pressure, may increase reaction rate, it also increases wear of the
materials constituting the reactors, the pipings, and the mechanical parts of the plant, as well as
any ancillary devices.
The reaction product stream comprising unconverted liquid toluene,
benzoic acid, benzaldehyde, and other derivatives and byproducts exits reactor vessel
.
18

Heat Transfer devices:
Heating/cooling capabilities of reactor, other external or internal heat transfer devices for heating
or cooling a process stream are also contemplated in variations of the embodiments. Some
nonlimiting examples of such heat transfer devices are shell, tube, plate, and coil heat
exchangers.

Pump :
Pump is configured for either continuous or semicontinuous operation, and may be any suitable
pumping device that is capable of providing greater than 203 kPa (2 atm) pressure, preferably
greater than 304 kPa (3 atm) pressure, to allow controlled flow through HSD. Preferably, all
contact parts of the pump comprise stainless steel.

Fractionating Column:
The product stream flowing through line exiting the reactor may comprise from about 20% to
about 35% benzoic acid (by weight), and is heated in preheater and fed to a fractionating
column. Fractionating column yields a benzoic acid fraction which is removed and withdrawn
from bottoms. This Column also yields an intermediates fraction and a heads fraction, which
contain unconverted toluene and small amounts of water and byproducts, respectively.

Settling Tank :
The heads fraction is removed and then condensed in condenser and sent to settling tank. The
intermediates fraction is also fed into settler where it is combined with the condensate from
condenser. In settler, an aqueous phase settles out and is discharged from bottom. A supernatant
toluene phase in settling tank is recycled into system by returning the toluene to input stream to
HSD.

19

Chapter 4 Material Balance

As the annual demand of butadiene is about 700 KT per year and is expected to rise.There are
about 68 major manufacturing units in India. It was intend to design the process with a
production capacity of 104.5 KT per year.
Assuming that there are 320 working days in a year. The mass flow rate of Benzoic Acid is
12345 Kg/hr. The material streams are denoted by the numbers from 1 to 10.

Feed
:
Feed consists of toluene mixed with recycle streams and air ( in mole fractions of 0.21 Oxygen
and 0.79 Nitrogen). Fresh Inlet Toluene flow rate is 167 Kmol/hr and air is 1100 Kmol/hr.

Toluene Inlet :
Fresh Toluene is mixed with the recycle stream coming from the decanter.
Table 4.1 Mass Flow Rates (kg/hr) at mixing point with Recycle
Components Fresh Toluene Stream 10 (Recycle) Stream 2
Toluene 15361 5489 20850
Oxygen 0 0 0
Nitrogen 0 0 0
Benzaldehyde 0 0 0
Benzoic Acid 0 0 0
Water 0 137 137
Total 15361 5626 20987

Overall mass balance:
Mass entering the HSD 1 = 20987 kg/hr
Mass leaving the HSD 2 = 20987 kg/hr

20

Material Balance around High Shear Mixing Device 1 :

Fig 4.1 High Shear Mixing Device (1)
CH
7 + O
8 →
2 C
H
7 O + H
6 O Product Conversion =0.05 of Toluene
2
CH
7 + 1.5 O
8 →
2 C
H
7 O
6 + H
2

Table 4.2 Mass Flow Rates (kg/hr) entering and Leaving High Shear Mixing Device (1)
Components Stream 2 Air In Stream 3
Toluene 20850 0 19389.5
Oxygen 0 7456 6876
Nitrogen 0 24549 24549
Benzaldehyde 0 0 1201.14
Benzoic Acid 0 0 553
Water 137 0 422.5
Total 20987 32005 52992


21

Material Balance around High Shear Mixing Device 2:

Fig 4.2 High Shear Mixing Device (2)
CH
7 + O
8 →
2 C
H
7 O + H
2
CH
7 + 1.5 O
8 →
2 C
H
7 O
6 + H
2

Table 4.3 Mass Flow Rates (kg/hr) entering and Leaving High Shear Mixing Device (2)
Components Stream 3 Stream 4
Toluene 19389.5 16680
Oxygen 6876 5751.75
Nitrogen 24549 24549
Benzaldehyde 1201.14 3122.96
Benzoic Acid 553 1935.4
Water 422.5 952.8
Total 52992 52992


22

Material Balance around Packed Bed Reactor:

Fig 4.3 Packed Bed Reactor
CH
7 + O
8 →
2 C
H
7 O + H
2
CH
7 + 1.5 O
8 →
2 C
H
7 O
6 + H
2

Table 4.4 Mass Flow Rates (kg/hr) entering and Leaving Packed Bed Reactor
Components Stream 4 Stream 5 Flue gases
Toluene 16680 5685 570
Oxygen 5751.75 0 676
Nitrogen 24549 0 24549
Benzaldehyde 3122.96 5525 0
Benzoic Acid 1935.4 12995 0
Water 952.8 2735 257
Total 52992 26940 26052

23

Material Balance around Fractionating Column

Fig 4.4 Fractionating Column
Toluene Recovery in Intermediate product = 0.56
Benzoic Acid recovery in Bottom product = 0.95

Table 4.5 Mass Flow Rates (kg/hr) entering and Leaving Fractionating Column
Components Stream 6 Stream 8 Benzoic Acid Stream 7
Toluene 5685 103 0 5582
Oxygen 0 0 0 0
Nitrogen 0 0 0 0
Benzaldehyde 5525 5339 129 57
Benzoic Acid 12995 96 12345 554
Water 2735 2402 221 112
Total 26940 7940 12695 6305

24

Material Balance around Settling Tank:

Fig 4.5 Settling Tank
Residue : Aqueous phase
Organic phase: Toluene rich phase

Table 4.6 Mass Flow Rates (kg/hr) entering and Leaving Settling Tank
Components Stream 9 Stream 7 Stream 10 (Recycle) Residue
Toluene 103 5582 5489 196
Oxygen 0 0 0 0
Nitrogen 0 0 0 0
Benzaldehyde 5339 57 0 5396
Benzoic Acid 96 554 0 650
Water 2402 112 137 2377
Total 7940 6305 5626 8619

Mass entering the Settling Tank= 14245 kg/hr
Mass leaving the Settling Tank = 14245 kg/hr

25

Overall Material Balance :

Fig 4.6 Overall Process Inputs and Outputs

Table 4.7 Mass Flow Rates (kg/hr) entering and Leaving the Process
Components Toluene Air Benzoic Acid Residue Flue Gases
Toluene 15361 0 0 196 570
Oxygen 0 7456 0 0 676
Nitrogen 0 24549 0 0 24549
Benzaldehyde 0 0 129 5396 0
Benzoic Acid 0 0 12345 650 0
Water 0 0 221 2377 257
Total 15361 32005 12695 8619 26052

Total Mass Entering the Process : 47366 kg/hr
Total Mass Leaving the Process : 47366 kg/hr

26

Chapter 5 Energy Balance

Energy balance around each unit is performed and the results for each unit are tabulated. The
thermochemistry data for each component is obtained from NIST Chemistry Webbook. The
obtained data is tabulated below

o
Heat capacities (in KJ/Kmol.K at 25C)

Table 5.1 Heat capacity values ( KJ/Kmol.K) with Temperature
3 5 9
Component A B x 10 C x 10 D x 10 Temp range (K)
O
2 25.48 0.1520 0.7155 1.312 2731800
N
2 28.90 0.01571 0.8081 2.873 2731800
HO
2 32.24 0.01923 1.055 3.595 2731800
Toluene 155.96 0.0126 0.5321 1.233 273383 (liq)
Toluene 103.7 0.0267 0.498 1.925 3831000 (vapor)
Benzaldehyde 102.8 0.1554 1.214 1.889 2731500
Benzoic acid 259.2 0.184 0.462 1.271 2731000

To perform energy balance on each unit, the enthalpy of each stream is calculated, while
neglecting the heat of mixing. In other words, the enthalpy of each stream is summation of
enthalpy of each component. For this purpose 298 K is used as reference temperature. It is then
used to calculate enthalpy of reaction at the temperature prevailing in the reactor.
Enthalpies are
calculated at a base temperature of 298 K and with basis of 1 hour.
27

T2
H = n ∫ Cpa dT
a
298
n = Mole Flow rate of component “a”
a
Cp = Specific heat of component “a”
a
T = Temperature of component “a”
2
➢ PUMP :
To pump the recycle stream
∆ H = ∆P 2
ρ + (α× V)/2 + ∆Z g
3
Volumetric flow rate = 1.177m/hr
Inner diameter of the pipe =2.067 in =0.0525m
4 2
Cross sectional area of the pipe = 21.63 × 10 m
Velocity at which fat is pumped = Volumetric flow rate/(cross sectional area)
4
= (1.177 × 10)/(21.63 × 3600)
= 0.15 m/sec
∆ H = (50−1)×105
1000 + 0.15×0.15
2 +
(9.8 × 8.5)
= 4983 m2 /s
2

Power P = m × ∆ H
= (1177.55×4983.31)
60
= 97.8KW
28

➢ HIGH SHEAR MIXING DEVICE 1
Fig 5.1 High Shear mixing device 1
T2
Enthalpy In = Σ
n ∫ Cpa dT of stream 2 and entering Air
a
298
363
Enthalpy of Toluene = n ∫ CpToluene dT
Toluene
298
6
= 2.29 x 10 KJ
363
Enthalpy of water = n ∫ CpWater dT
Water
298
= 15926.56 KJ
363
Air ∫ CpAir dT
Enthalpy of air entering = n
298
= 0 KJ

6
Enthalpy In = 2.306 x 10 KJ

3 5
Shaft power consumption = P 0⍴ ND
Where, P = constant (1.2)
0
3
⍴ = density of fluid = 0.87 g/cm
N = impeller speed = 22.9 m/sec
Shaft power = 1.5 KW
29

T2
Enthalpy Out = Σ
n ∫ Cpa dT of out stream 3
a
298
363
Toluene
298
6
=
2.136 x 10 KJ
363
Enthalpy of Oxygen = n ∫ CpOxygen dT
Oxygen
298
= 355751 KJ
363
Enthalpy of Nitrogen = n ∫ CpNitrogen dT
Nitrogen
298
6
= 1.647 x 10
363
Enthalpy of Benzaldehyde = n ∫ CpBenzaldehyde dT
Benzaldehyde
298
= 75707.06 KJ
363
Enthalpy of Benzoic acid = n ∫ Cpacid dT
acid
298
= 76321.44 KJ
363
Water
298
= 49183.73 KJ
6
Enthalpy out = 4.339 x 10 KJ

o
C H
7 + O
8 →
2 C
7H O + H
6 O ;
2 ∆H = 1113.8KJ/mol
R1,298
T2
∆H
R1
o
= ∆H +
R1,298 ∫ ∆Cp dT (T = 363K)
2
298
6
= 1.113 x 10 3016 KJ/Kmol
6
= 1.116 x 10 KJ/Kmol

No.of moles of toluene reacted = 15.88

o
CH
7 + 1.5 O
8 →
2 C
H
7 O
6 +H
2 O ;
2 ∆H = 1266 KJ/mol
R,298
T2
∆H
R2
o
= ∆H +
R2,298 ∫ ∆Cp dT (T = 363K)
2
298
6
= 1.266 x 10 6321.9 KJ/Kmol
30

6
= 1.2196 x 10 KJ/Kmol

∆H = 2335341 KJ/Kmol
Reaction
6
Heat generated = 3.5025 x 10 KJ
Heat input+ Heat generated=Heat out+ Heat removed
6 6 6
2.306 x 10 + 3.5025 x 10 = 4.339 x 10 KJ + removed
6
Heat removed = 1.469 x 10 KJ

➢ HIGH SHEAR MIXING DEVICE 2

Fig 5.2 High Shear mixing device 2
T2
Enthalpy In = Σ
n ∫ Cpa dT of stream 3
a
298
6
= 4.339 x 10 KJ

3 5
Shaft power consumption = P⍴ N
0 D
31

Where, P = constant (1.2)
0
3
⍴ = density of fluid = 0.87 g/cm
N = impeller speed = 22.9 m/sec
Shaft power = 1.5 KW

T2
Enthalpy Out = Σ
n ∫ Cpa dT of out stream 4
a
298
363
Toluene
298
6
=
1.838 x 10 KJ
363
Enthalpy of Oxygen = n ∫ CpOxygen dT
Oxygen
298
= 297668 KJ
363
Enthalpy of Nitrogen = n ∫ CpNitrogen dT
Nitrogen
298
6
= 1.647 x 10
363
Enthalpy of Benzaldehyde = n ∫ CpBenzaldehyde dT
Benzaldehyde
298
= 196851.72 KJ
363
Enthalpy of Benzoic acid = n ∫ Cpacid dT
acid
298
= 267209.28 KJ
363
Water
298
= 110857.24 KJ
6
Enthalpy out = 4.356 x 10 KJ

o
C H
7 + O
8 →
2 C
7H O + H
6 O ;
2 ∆H = 1113.8KJ/mol
R1,298
T2
∆H
R1
o
= ∆H +
R1,298 ∫ ∆Cp dT (T = 363K)
2
298
6
= 1.113 x 10 3016 KJ/Kmol
6
= 1.116 x 10 KJ/Kmol


32

o
CH
7 + 1.5 O
8 →
2 C
H
7 O
6 +H
2 O ;
2 ∆H = 1266 KJ/mol
R,298
T2
∆H
R2
o
= ∆H +
R2,298 ∫ ∆Cp dT (T = 363K)
2
298
6
= 1.266 x 10 6321.9 KJ/Kmol
6
= 1.2196 x 10 KJ/Kmol

∆H = 2335341 KJ/Kmol
Reaction
6
Heat input+ Heat generated=Heat out+ Heat removed
Heat removed = 17754 KJ

➢ PACKED BED REACTOR

Fig 5.3 Packed bed reactor

o
C H
7 + O
8 →
2 C
H
7 O + H
6 O ; Product Conversion =0.1 of Toluene;
2 ∆H = 1113.8KJ/mol
R,298
o
CH
7 + 1.5 O
8 →
2 C
H
7 O
6 +H
2 O; Product Conversion =0.4 of Toluene ;
2 ∆H = 1266 KJ/mol
R,298

0
Reaction takes place at 140C (413K)
33

Heat of reaction 1 =1113.8KJ/mol
Heat of reaction 2 = 1266 KJ/mol
Reaction 1 :
413 413
∆H = ∆H
R,413 +
R298 ∫ (Cpprod) dT ∫ (Cpreac ) dT
298 298
6
1.113 x 10
= 5336 KJ/Kmol
= 1118336 KJ
Reaction 2 :
413 413
∆H = ∆H
R,413 +
R298 ∫ (Cpprod) dT ∫ (Cpreac ) dT
298 298
(Heat of reaction (Heat of reaction (enthalpy of product reactant with
at 413K) at 298K) reference temperature at 298 K)
= ∆H +∆H
298 ∆H
Prod Reac
6
= 1.266 x 10 11184.9 KJ/Kmol
= 1254815 KJ
∆H = 2373151 KJ/Kmol
Reaction
6

Feed enters at 90 ℃ and reaction takes place at 140 ℃ . Heat required to achieve this increase is

supplied by heat of reaction.
T2
Enthalpy Out = Σ
n ∫ Cpa dT of out stream 5 and flue gases
a
298
34

= 3087498 + 3102647 KJ
= 6190145 KJ
Heat is removed from the products before exiting the reactor . The temperature drop is from 140 to
90 ℃
6
Total Heat removed from the products= 22.17 x 10 KJ

➢ PRE HEATER :

Fig 5.4 Pre heater

383
Total enthalpy of Stream 5 =ᵯ ∫ (miC Pi)dT
363
= 3087498 KJ

383
Total enthalpy of Stream 6 =ᵯ ∫ (miC Pi)dT
363
= 4037497.385 KJ
35

Heat required = 949999.38 KJ
From steam tables,
Enthalpy of steam entering = 2676 KJ/Kg
Enthalpy of steam leaving = 419 KJ/Kg
Steam required for heating = 949999.38
2676−419
= 420.91 Kg/hr

➢ FRACTIONATING COLUMN

Fig 5.5 Fractionating column

T2
Enthalpy In = Σ
n ∫ Cpa dT of stream 6
a
298
= 4037497.385 KJ

36

T2
Enthalpy out = Σ
n ∫ Cpa dT of streams 7 , 8 and Benzoic acid
a
298
= 926012.2 + 2276562.25 + 4146214.53 KJ
= 7348788.98 KJ
Heat supplied = 3311291.6 KJ
6
= 3.311 x 10 KJ

➢ CONDENSER

Heat of vapor = 1795.66 x 103.5 =185834.8 KJ/hr = 51.62 KJ/sec
Sensible heat = mC∆T = 2.2 x 1.162 x (180100) = 204.5 KJ/sec
p
Heat lost = Heat of vapor + sensible heat
= 256.13 KJ/sec
= 922068 KJ/hr
Enthalpy of entering stream = 2276562.25 KJ
Enthalpy of leaving stream = 1354494 KJ
➢ DECANTER

T2
Enthalpy In = Σ
n ∫ Cpa dT of streams 7 and 9
a
298
= 926012.2 + 1354494 KJ
= 2280506.2 KJ

37

Fig 5.6 Decanter

T2
Enthalpy out = Σ
n ∫ Cpa dT of streams residue and 10
a
298
= 1341489.97 KJ

Heat lost in decanter = 939016.23 KJ

38

Chapter 6
Equipment Design
6.1 Packed Bed Reactor
Reactions:
CH
7 + O
8 →
2 C
H
7 O + H
2
CH
7 + 1.5 O
8 →
2 C
H
7 O
6 + H
2
Rate equation is given by
r = k
i P
i P
toluene oxygen
r = rate of i th reaction
i
ln(k/k
1 )=27000/RT + 19.837
o
ln(k /k
2 )=28600/RT + 18.37
0
2
k =1 kmol/kgcat hr atm
0
T= Reaction Temperature in kelvin(513K)
R=1.987 cal/gmolK
2
k =0.196 kmol/kgcat hr atm
1
2
k =0.023 kmol/kgcat hr atm
2
P = partial pressure of Toluene =
toluene
P oxygen = partial pressure of oxygen =
ε = y
A1 x δ
AO1 1
= 0.136 x 0.1 x 0 = 0
P = y
AO1 x P
AO1 = 0.136 x0.1 x 2 = 0.027 atm
T
39

ε = y
A2 x δ
AO2 2
= 0.136 x 0.4 x (0.5) = 0.027
P = y
AO2 x P
AO2 = 0.136 x 0.4 x 2 = 0.11 atm
T
Design equation for a fixed bed reactor:
W = weight of the catalyst
X = conversion of Toluene (50%)
A
F = molar flow rate of feed (kmol / hr)
AO

2
= 0.196 x 0.027 x ( 1 x) (0.99 x
A )
A
4
= 1.43 x 10 ( 1 x) (0.99 x
A )
A

2 2
= 0.023 x 0.11 x ( 1 x) (0.99 1.5 x
A )/ ( 1 0.027x
A )
A
4 2
= 2.78 x 10 ( 1 x) (0.99 1.5 x
A )/ ( 1 0.027x
A )
A
–r = r
A r
A1 A2
Substituting –r in design equation
A
40

0.5 4 4 21

W/F =
AO ∫[1.43 x 10
0 (1 x) (0.99 x
A )+ 2.78 x 10
A (1 x) (0.99 1.5 x
A )/ (1 0.027x
A )
A ] dx
A
= 291
W = 291 x F
AO
= 291 x 181.3 Kg
= 52773.2 kg
Weight of the catalyst = 52773.2 kg
Catalyst :
3
Density of the catalyst = 2100 kg /m
Porosity , ε = 0.45
Bulk density = true density / porosity = 2100 /0.45 = 4666.67 kg/m 3
Diameter of the particles = 6 mm
2
Surface Area available for reaction is about 1012 m /g
Estimation of volume of Reacting mixture:
3
1 kmol →22.414 m ( at STP)
PV
1 /T
1 =P
1 V
2 /T
2 2
1 x 22.414/273= 2 x V/513
2
3
V =21.06 m
2
o 3
1 kmol of Toluene at 2 atm and 140 C = 21.06 m
Mass of 1 mol of reactant mixture =39.81 g
3 3
52,992 kg/hr =1331.04 kmol/hr =28031.7 m/hr=7.786 m /s
Estimation of volume of products mixture:
PV
1 /T
1 =P
1 V
2 /T
2 2
1 x 22.414/273= 2 x V/363
2
41

3
V =14.9 m
2
3
1 kmol of products at 2 atm and 400 C = 14.9 m
Mass of 1 mol of product mixture =41.06 g
3 3
52992 kg/hr =1290.7 kmol/hr = 19231 m/hr= 5.34 m /s
3
Basis: 6m /s of gas
Use 1.5” tubes of outside diameter (BWG 10no.) and length =4m
Wall thickness for BWG 10 no tube =0.134”
Therefore,Inside diameter of tube = 1.5(2 x 0.134) =1.232”=31.3 mm
2 32 3 3
Volume of each tube = π/4 x d x L= (π/4) x (31.2928 x 10 )
x4=3.0764 x 10 m
Residence time within tubes =0.8 sec
T =volume of reaction mixture/volumetric flow rate of gas through reactor
0.8=V/6
3
So, V= 4.8 m
Let N be no.of tubes
3
N(3.0764 x 10 ) = 4.8
N = 1560 = 1600 tubes (approx.)
3
Heat transfer area =N(πdh)= 1600 x π x 38.1 x 10
o x 4
2
= 1005m
Triangular pitch is used to accommodate 1600 no of tubes.
Triangular tube pitch ,
P=1.25d
t o
=1.25 x 38.1= 47.625 mm
1/n1
Bundle diameter: D=d
b (N
o / K
t )
1
42

Where K and n
1 are obtained from literature based on the type of tube arrangement
1
(Triangular or square pitch):
1/2.142
=38.1(1600/0.319) = 2309.9 =2310 mm
By extrapolating the bundle diameter to 2.31 m,
We have, Shell ID Bundle dia = 2.31+(0.020.01)/(1.20.2)(2.311.2)= 2.42 m
Therefore shell ID = Bundle dia + 2.42 m= 4.73m
Height of a reactor = 10m
2 2
Volume of a reactor =(π/4)DH= (π/4) (4.73)10
3
=175.6 m
Shell:
Material of Construction:
Toluene and Benzaldehyde vapors are not particularly corrosive to most steels. The shell is
susceptible to attack from water only mostly. The preferred construction material for reactor is
low alloy steel (IS:3609)
2 2
From Code IS 2825, f=12.6 kgf/mm =1260 kgf/cm
This is a ClassI vessel. Therefore, J = weld joint efficiency factor = 1
Here t = PD/(200fJP) +C
i A
where P=2 atm
2 2
= (2 x 10 x 4730)/(200 x 1 x 12.6 2x10 ) + 1 = 1.005 mm
Since t< 12 mm, Use t =12 mm (including corrosion allowance) in order to withstand its
own weight.
43

2:1 ellipsoidal dome end :
Calculation of Dome end Thickness: t = PDC/200f J +C
o +T
A A
Assume t=10 mm
h =D
i /4 =4730/4 =1182.5 mm
i
h =h
o + t = 1368.5 +10 =1192.5 mm
i
R =0.82D
o + t =0.82 x 4730 +10 =3888.6 mm
i
r = 0.15 D
o +T =0.15 x 4730 +10=719.5 mm
i
D =D
o +2t =4730 + 2 x 12 =4754 mm
i
2
D
o /4R = 4754/(4 x 4498.68) = 1452.99m
o
Sqrt(D r
o /2)=Sqrt (4754 x 719.5/2)=1307.76mm
o
h = 1307.76 mm
O
h is least.
0
Therefore h = h
E =1307.76 mm
o
h /D
E = 1307.76/4754 =0.274;
O
3
t/D =10/4754 =2 x 10
o
From graph of h /D
E vs C, we have C=1.35
O
2
t = PD C/200f J= (3.04 x 10
o x 4754 x 1.35)/(200 x 1 x 12.6)= 0.08 mm
So, thickness of dome = 10mm.
Total Heat removed = 144095 MJ/hr
6
Heat removed per tube = (144095.01 x 10 )/(3600 x 1600)
= 19060 W
44

q = UA∆T
2
Substituting A=1005 m ,∆T= 14090 = 245°C,
q = 144095.01 MJ/hr
2
We have U = 135 W/m°C
Internal diameter of vessel = 4754 mm
We know that
D/5 < baffle spacing < D
s s
Use Baffle spacing = 1360 mm
Number of baffles = 4
Fig 6.1 Packed bed reactor design
45

Design Specifications :
Table 6.1 Packed bed reactor specifications
Tubes:
Number of tubes 1600
Length 4 m
Catalyst filled height 3.8 m
Inside diameter 31.3 mm
Outside diameter 38.1 mm
Gauge BWG 10 number
2
Heat transfer area 1005 m
Passes 1 (flow in upward direction)
Tube Pattern Triangular Tube pitch : 47.6 mm
o
Inlet Temperature 140C
0
Outlet Temperature 90C

Shell :
Fluid Water
0
Inlet Temperature 20C
0
Outlet Temperature 50C
2 0
Heat Transfer coefficient 135 W/m C
Inside Diameter 4734 mm
Passes 1
Baffles 4
Baffle spacing 1360 mm
46

Details about construction material:
Type of material Low steel alloy
Material specification IS:3609
Grade or designation 2.5% Cr, 1% Mo
2
Tensile strength (minimum) 49 Kg/mm
2
Yield stress (minimum) 25 Kg/mm

Reactor specifications:
Orientation Vertical
Operation mode Continuos
Height 10 m
Outside diameter 4754 mm
Class I
Design Pressure 3 atm
Wall thickness 12 mm
Type of ends Ellipsoid, 2.5 :1
End thickness 10 mm
Man holes 2 x 450 mm x 400mm

47

6.2 Fractionating Column
D = Distillate ( Stream 8)
F = Stream 6
W = Benzoic acid stream
S’ = side stream from the column
F = D + F + W + S’
From the enthalpy concentration diagram,
Fig 6.2 Enthalpy concentration diagram
Number of stages required = 13
48

Enriching section:
1. Tray Hydraulics:
Tray spacing t = 500mm
s
Hole diameter d = 5mm
h
Hole pitch L = 15mm
p
Tray thickness t = 3mm
T
A / A
h = 0.10
p
2. Tower Diameter:
(L/G)(ρ /ρ
g ) 0.5 = 1.182 (max at the bottom)
l
[From Perry: fig. 1810: Pg no. 187]
For t = 18 in
s
Capacity parameter, C (flood) = 0.26 ft/s
sb
Gas velocity through net area at flood
U = C
nf [ σ /20] .2 [ρ
sb ρ
l / ρ
g ] 0.5
g
Liquid surface tension = 35.5 dyne/cm
3
ρ = 1200 kg/m
l
3
ρ = 8.3kg/m
g
U = 3.49 ft/s = 1.065 m/s
nf
For 75 % flooding condition,
U = 0.75 x1.065 = .8 m/s
N
Net area A = max volume flow rate of vapour / U
N N
2
= 15297.28 /(3600 x 0.16607 x 6.6825) =.614 m
Ratio of weir length to tower diameter
49

i.e. L /D
w = 0.75
c
Ɵ =2 sin 1 (L
C /D
w ) = 97.2°
C
2 2
Column C.S area, A c = (π/4)D
C = 0.785 D
C
Downcomer C.S area :
2
A D = (π/4)D
C (Ɵ c /360)(L /2)(D
w /2)cos(Ɵ
C /2)
C
2
= 0.0879 D
C
A =A
N A
C D
∴D =0 .94 m
C
L = 0.75 x 94 = .705m
W
A = .693 m 2
C
A = 77.6 cm 2
D
A = .614 m 2
N
Active area, A = A
A – 2A
C = .6776 m 2
D
L /D
W = 0 .75
C
Ɵ = 98°
C
α = 180 Ɵc =82°
3. Area of distribution and calming zone:
3 2
A = 2(L
CZ x 100 x 10
W ) = .141 m
4. Area of waste peripheral zones:
2
A = 2[(π/4)D
WZ C (α/360) – (π/4)(D – 0.12) 2 (α/360)]
C
2
= 0.0755 m
5. Perforated Area A :
P
A = A
p – 2A
C – A
D – A
CZ WZ
50

= .46098 m 2
6. Hole area:
2
A = 0.1 x A
H = 0.046098 m
P
2
No. of holes = 0.046098 / [(π/4) x 0.005 ] = 2088
7.Weir Height (h ):
w
Let h = 50 mm.
w
8.Weeping Check:
The static pressure below the tray should be capable enough to hold the liquid above the tray
so that no liquid sweeps through the holes.
All the pressure drops calculated in this section are represented as mm head of liquid on the
plate. This serves as a common basis for evaluating the pressure drops.
Stripping Section:
Tray Hydraulics:
The equations and correlations are borrowed from the 6 th and 7 th editions of Perry‟s Chemical
Engineers‟
Handbook.
1. Tray Spacing, (t) :
s
Let t = 18” = 457 mm.
s
2. Hole Diameter, (d ):
h
Let d = 5 mm.
h
3. Hole Pitch (l ):
p
Let l = 3 x d
p h
i.e., l= 3 x 5 = 15 mm.
p
51

4.Tray thickness (t ):
T
Let t= 0.6 x d
T h
i.e., t = 0.6 x 5 = 3 mm.
T
5. Ratio of hole area to perforated area (A /A
h ):
p
Now, for a triangular pitch, we know that,
2
Ratio of hole area to perforated area (A /A
h ) = 1∕2 (p/4*d
p h )
2
i.e., (A /A
h )= 0.90* (d
p /l
h )
p
2
i.e., (A /A
h )= 0.90 x (5/15)
p
i.e., (A /A
h )= 0.1
p
Thus,
(A /A
h )= 0.1
p
6. Plate Diameter (D ):
C
The plate diameter is calculated based on the flooding considerations
L/G {ρ /ρ
g } 0.5 = 0.0832
l
Now for,
L/G {ρ /ρ
g } 0.5 = 0.0832 and for a tray spacing of 457 mm.
l
We have,
From the flooding curve, (fig.18.10, page 18.7, 6 th edition Perry.)
Flooding parameter, C , flood = 0.27 ft/s.
sb
Now,
U = C
nf , flood * (σ / 20) 0.2 [(ρ
sb ρ
l ) / ρ
g ] 0.5
g
{eqn. 18.2, page 18.6, 6 th edition Perry.}
where,
52

U = gas velocity through the net area at flood, m/s (ft/s)
nf
C , flood = capacity parameter, m/s (ft/s, as in fig.18.10)
sb
σ = liquid surface tension, mN/m (dyne/cm.)
3 3
ρ = liquid density, kg/m
l (lb/ft )
3 3
ρ = gas density, kg/m
g (lb/ft)
Now, we have,
σ =35.5 mN/m = 35.5dyne/cm.
3
ρ =1200 kg/m
l
3
ρ= 8.3 kg/m
g
Therefore,
U = 0.27* (35.5/20) 0.2 × [(12008.3)/ 8.3] 0.5
nf
i.e., U = 3.62ft/s
nf
Let,
Actual velocity, U = 0.8*U
n nf
U = 2.9 ft/s
n
U = 0.8845 m/s
n
Now,
Volumetric flow rate of Vapor at the bottom of the Stripping Section = q
o
3
=14682.73/(8.3*3600) = 0.491 m/s.
Now,Net area available for gas flow (A )
n
Net area = (Column cross sectional area) (Down comer area.)
A = A
n A
c d
Thus,
53

2
Net Active area, A = q
n / U
o = 0.491/ 0.8845 = 0.555 m
n .
L / D
w = 0.77 (range 0.6 to 0.85 times D
c ).
c
Where, L = weir length, m
w
D = Column diameter, m
c
Now,
Ɵc = 2*sin 1 (L /D
w ) = 2*sin 1 (0.77) = 100.7 0
c
α=180100.7=79.3 o
Now,
2
A = [(π/4) *D
d c * (θc/360 )] [(L/2) * (D
w /2) *cos (θc/2)] i.e.,
c
2 2
A = [0.7854* D
d c * (100.7 /360 )][(1/4) * (L / D
w ) *D
c c * cos (100.7/2)]
2 2 2 2
i.e., A = (0.2196*D
d c ) (0.1288*D
c ) i.e., A d = 0.0968*D
c , m
Since A = A
n A
c d
2 2 2
.555 = (0.785*D
c ) (0.0968*D
c ) i.e., 0.6882*D
c
= 0.555
2
⇒D
c = 0.6074/ 0.6882 = 0.8064 ⇒ D = √ 0.8064
c
D = 0.898
c
Therefore, D = 0.898 m Since L
c / D
w = 0.77
c
⇒ L= 0.77* D
w = 0.77*0.898 = 0.691 m. Therefore,
c
L = 0.691 m.
w
Now,
2
A= 0.785*0.898 2 = 0.633 m
c
2
A = 0.09688*D
d 2 = 0.0968*0.898 2 = 0.078 m
c
A = A
n A
c d
54

i.e., A= 0.633 0.078
n
2
A =0.554 m
n
7. Perforated plate area (A):
p
A = A
a (2*A
c )
d
i.e.,A = 0.633 (2*0.078)
a
2
⇒ A = 0.477 m
a
Now
A = A
p 2A A
c A
cz wz
L / D
w = 0.724/ 0.94 = 0.77
c
Now,
A = 2* L
cz * (thickness of distribution) Where,
w
2
A = area of calming zone, m
cz
3 2
A = 2*0.691* (30*10
cz ) = 0.04146 m (which is 6.54% of A)
c
2
A 2[(π/4)D
wz = c (α/360) – (π/4)(D – 0.12) 2 (α/360)]
c
2
i.e., A = 0.0695 m
wz (which is 10% of A )
c
Now,
A = A
p (2*A
c ) A
d A
cz wz
2
A = 0.633 (2*0.078) 0.04146 0.0695 Thus, A
p = 0.36604 m
p
8. Total Hole Area (A ):
h
Since,
A / A
h = 0.1 ⇒ A
p = 0.1*A
h p
2
i.e., A = 0.1*0.366 ⇒ A
h = 0.0366 m
h
2
Thus, Total Hole Area = 0.0366 m
55

2
Number of holes=A/(.785*(.005)
h )
Therefore, Number of holes = 1865.
9.
Weir Height (h ):
w
Let, h = 50 mm.
w
10. Weeping Check :
All the pressure drops calculated in this section are represented as mm head of liquid on the
plate. This serves as a common basis for evaluating the pressure drops.

Table 6.2 Fractionating column specifications
56

Fig 6.3 Sieve tray layout
6.3 Condenser
The condenser is used to condense the vapor leaving the fractionating column. Assume that the
vapor entering is saturated and it comprises of mostly Benzaldehyde and water. The cooling fluid
used is treated water in the tube side.
Feed to the condenser :
V = 7940 Kg/hr = 2.2 kg/sec
m = 2.2 Kg/s
C(mix) = 1.162 KJ/Kg K
p
Molecular weight = 76.7 Kg/Kmol
V= 7940/ 76.7 Kmol/hr = 103.5 Kmol/hr
57

λ=1795.66 KJ/Kmol
Heat of vapor = 1795.66 x 103.5 =185834.8 KJ/hr = 51.62 KJ/sec
Sensible heat = mC∆T = 2.2 x 1.162 x (180100) = 204.5 KJ/sec
p
Heat lost = Heat of vapor + sensible heat
= 256.13 KJ/sec
To calculate the amount of Cooling water required:
Cooling water is treated water and assume that the water leaves the condenser at a temperature of
o o
60C. So, the temperature difference in tube side is 35C since the entering temperature of water
o
is 25C
Q = mC∆T
p
C (water) = 4.187 KJ/Kg K
p
m = Q/(C∆T)
P
= 256.13/ (4.187 x 35)
= 1.75 Kg/sec
The Cooling water required = 1.75 Kg/s
To find the LMTD:
∆T = [(18060)(10025)]/ [ln(120/75)]
ln
o
= 100.78C
[T 1−T 2]
R = [ t2−t1] = 2.67
[t −t ]
S = [T21−t11] = 0.1875
58

Fig 6.4 LMTD correction factor for 12 pass heat exchanger
For the above values of R & S, from Fig.18 (D.Q.Kern) the LMTD correction factor
F = 0.95
t
o
∆T =0.95 x 100.78 = 95.74
ln C
To Calculate the Heat Transfer Area
:
From the DQ Kern table 8 page 840 assume the heat transfer coefficient = 425 W/m 2
Q= UA∆T
ln
A = ( 256.13 x 1000)/ (425 x 95.74)
2
= 6.29 m

59

To Calculate the Number of Tubes:
Take the pipe to be a 16 BWG pipe with 0.75”
O.D. = 0.75” , I.D. = 0.62”=0.0157m , Length = 1 m
2
a = 0.0806 m /m
Number of tubes N = A/(a x L)
t
N = (6.29/(0.0806 x 1) = 78
t
To find the dimensions of the Shell:
From the table 9 (D.Q. Kern Page 842) Triangular pitch 1”, 12 pass Heat Exchanger
N = 82 , Shell ID = 12 in = 30.48 cm
t
2
Corrected Heat transfer Area = 82 x 0.0806 x 1 = 6.61 m
2
Corrected Heat transfer coefficient = U= ( 256.13 x 1000)/ ( 6.61 x 95.74) = 404.6 W/m
o K
Calculation of caloric Temperature :
= (100 25)/ (18060)
= 0.625
°API of hot fluid=76°; Therefore K = 1; F
C = 0.455
C
(The caloric temperature factor, F

C with °API as a function K
C is available in reference in Kern
(page 827))
Caloric temperature of the hot fluid =
= 100 + 0.455 x (180100)
60

O
= 136.4C
Caloric temperature of the cold fluid =
= 25 + 0.455 x (6025)
O
= 40.9C
Calculation of Film Transfer Coefficient:
Shell Side FTC:
Properties:
3
ρ = 6 Kg/m
3 2
μ= 1.188x 10 Ns/m
2
k = 0.1979 W/mK
Cp =1.42 KJ/Kg K
Assumption: Shell Diameter is equal to tube bundle diameter.
Pitch: Equilateral Triangular Pitch is used.
P' = standard pitch = 1 in = 25.4 mm
P = pitch parallel to flow = (√3/2) x P' = 21.997 mm
p
P = pitch normal to flow = (1 / 2 ) P' = 12.7 mm
n
S = Cross flow area at center of shell = [(P' D
m )L
o ]D
s / P'
s
L = baffle spacing = D
s / 2 = 0.1524 m
s
N = number of baffles
b
N + 1 = L/L
b = 7
s
N = 6
b
2
S = 0.0116 m
m
61

Equivalent Diameter: D =
e
= 0.3048 m
Shell side velocity v = m
s /S
s ρ
m
= 2.2 / 0.0116 x 6
= 2.87 m/sec
Reynolds Number N = v
Re D
s ρ/μ
e
3
= 2.87 x 0.3048 x 6/(1.188 x 10 )
= 4418.6
Prandtl Number N = ρC
Pr μ/K
p
3
= 6 x1.42 x 1.188 x 10 / 0.1979
= 5.1
⅓
Nusselt Number N = j
Nu (N
H )
Pr (From DQ Kern, Fig 28, Page No: 838 )
j = 40
H
N = 66.67
Nu
Heat transfer coefficient h= N
o K / D
Nu o
2
= 1465.92 W/mK
Tube Side FTC:
Properties:
3
ρ = 1000 Kg/m
3 2
μ=1 x 10 Ns/m
62

2
k = 0.578 W/mK
o
C = 4.187 KJ/Kg
p C
2
Flow Area a = π/ 4 x D
t i x(N / N
t )
p
2
= π/ 4 x 0.0157 x (82/2)
2
= 0.00794m
Velocity v = ( m
t /ρ a
t ) = 1.75 / 1000 x 0.00794
t
= 0.22 m/sec
Reynolds Number N = v
Re D
t ρ/μ
i
3
= 0.22 x 1000 x 0.157/ 1 x 10
= 15700
3
Prandtl Number N = ρC
Pr μ /K = 1000*4.18x10
p / 0.578
=7.2
0.8 ⅓
Nusselt Number N = 0.023 ( N
Nu )
Re (N )
Pr

= 125.5
Heat transfer coefficient h = N
i K / D
Nu i
2
= 4620.5 W/m K
Overall Outside Heat Transfer Coefficient:

2
U = 407.45 W/m
o K
U calculated > U
o assumed
o
Therefore the above value of shell and tube dimension can be accepted
63

Pressure Drop Calculations:
Shell Side:
ΔP = 2ΔP
s + (N
E 1 ) ΔP
b + N
C ΔP
b W
ΔP in Cross Flow Section:
2 2
ΔP = [ (bf
C w
k N ) /ρ S
C m ] (μ / μ
w )
b
f (shell side friction factor ) = 0.36 {DQ Kern: Fig 29 ; P.no.839}
k
3
b = 2 x 10 (constant )
w = 2.2 kg / sec
S = 0.0116 m 2
m
N= Number of cross flow zones
C
= {D [1 (2 L
s / D
C )]} / P
s p
L = Baffle cut = 0.25 D
C S
= 0.0762 m
N = 0.3048 x [ 1 (2 x 0.0762 / 0.3048) ] / 0.022 = 7
C
3 2 2
ΔP= (2 x 10
C x 0.36 x 0.2 x 7) / (6 x 0.0116)
= 0.2477 kPa
ΔP in end zones:
ΔP = ΔP
E [ 1 + ( N
C / N
CW ) ]
C
N = Number of effective cross flow region in each window
CW
64

= 0.8 L / P
C p
= 3
ΔP = 0.2477 x [ 1+ 3/7 ]
E
= 0.3538 kPa
ΔP in window zones:
2
ΔP = [b w
W ( 2+ 0.6 N )] / S
CW S
m ρ
w
4
b = 5 x 10 (constant)
S = Area for flow through window
w
= S S
wg wt
S = gross window area
wg
(From PERRY : Fig 10 18 ; P.No. 10 29)
For L / D
C = 0.25 ; D
s = 12 in.
S
2
S = 0.50 m
wg
S = window area occupied by tubes
wt
2
= ( N / 8) (1 F
t ) π D
c o
F = Fraction of total tube in crossflow
c
(From PERRY : Fig 10 16 ; P.No. 10 28 ) , F = 0.67
c
2
S = (82 / 8 ) x (1 0.67) π 0.3048
wt
2
= 0.31424 m
S = 0.50 0.31424
w
2
= 0.15876 m

65

4 2
ΔP = [5x 10
W x 0.2 x (2 + 0.6 x 3)] / (0.0116 x 0.15876 x 6)
= 0.398 kPa

Total Pressure Drop:
(ΔP ) Total = 2 (ΔP
S ) + (19 1 ) ΔP
E + (19 ) ΔP
C W
= 12.7282 kPa < 70 kPa ( Max allowable)
Tube Side:
0.25
f = 0.079 (Re )
0.25
= 0.079 (15700)
= 0.0070
ΔP=
L
= 1.298 KPa
2 2
ΔP =2.5/2 (ρ
t V
t t )= 2.5/2 (1000 x 0.22)
= 1.25 KPa
ΔP total = N (ΔP
b + ΔP
t )
L
= 8.232 KPa
The Pressure drop in the tube side is also well within the allowed limit. Therefore the dimensions
of the tube also can be accepted.
66

Fig 6.5 Tube layout in Condenser
Fig 6.6 Tube sheet layout in Condenser
67

Table 6.3 Condenser details
Type of Condenser 12 Pass Counter Current Floating Head
Condenser
Heat load on the condenser 256.13 KW
Shell side Benzaldehyde and water vapors
Tube side Treated Cooling water
Mass flow rate on the Shell side 2.2 Kg/sec
Mass flow rate on the tube side 1.75 Kg/sec
o
Temperature difference (lmtd) 95.74C
2
Heat transfer area 6.61 m
Diameter of the Shell 304.8 mm
Number of tubes 82
Type of tube used 16 BWG Tubes
Inner diameter of Tube 0.62”
Outer diameter of Tube 0.75”
Length of the tube 1 m
Pitch of the Tubes 1”
2
Heat transfer coefficient 407.45 W/mK
Number of baffles 3
Pressure drop on Shell side 12.7282 KPa
Pressure drop on Tube side 8.232 KPa

68

6.4 Decanter
The volume of the decanter would be indicated, not only to provide sufficient time for gravity
settling to take place but also for sufficient surge volume to remove uncertainties when feeding
other units from this drum.
Fig 6.7 Gravity decanter
The gravity settler works solely on the principle of Strokes Law, which predicts that the rate of
rise or fall of droplets of one fluid inside another is in accordance with the equation :
Where, V = Settling velocity , cm/sec
s
2
G = Gravitational constant , 980 cm/sec
3
⍴= Density of heavy liquids , g/cm
H
3
⍴= Density of light liquids , g/cm
L
d = Droplet diameter, cm
μ = Continuous phase viscosity, poise = g/cms
69

The key parameters are :
● Density difference between the phases
● Viscosity of the continuous phase
Increased density difference makes the separation easier; Increased viscosity of the continuous
phase makes it more difficult. The simplicity of the equation is because of the reason that it is
based on some fundamental assumptions that limit its applicability.
The strokes Lae settling equation assumes
● The drops are truly spherical
● They are moving freely in stagnant liquid.
Either of these assumptions is rarely the case. In more typical cases, the fluids flow horizontally
in a vessel at Reynolds numbers well into the turbulent regime. As a result, when sizing
equipment it is necessary to apply correction factors that will account for the turbulence effects.
The aqueous phase consists of water in majority. Modified equation of strokes law for water :
where U = Terminal settling velocity, ft/sec
T
Fs = Correction factor for hindered settling
3
⍴ and ⍴
W = Density of water or toluene, lb/ft
o
μ = Absolute viscosity of toluene, lb/ftsec
o
This assumes a droplet diameter of 0.0005 ft. Fs is determined from :
where X = Vol. fraction of Toluene
X = 62 /276.5 = 0.22
70

F = 1.84
s
4
μ = 3.36 x 10
o
3
⍴ = 62.4 lb/ft
W
3
⍴ = 54.1 lb/ft
o
U = 0.0203 ft/sec
T
3
Q = 5684 kg/hr = 12506.3 lb/hr = 3.47 lb/sec = 0.64 ft/sec
2
Area (min) = Q/U = 31.63 m
T
2
Area Total (min) = Area (min) /0.5 = 63.26 m
0.5
D (min) = ( 4 x A /π)
total = 8.97 ft ~ 9 ft
Calculation of liquid surge requirements
. Use 5 min based on total flow, 1/2 full
3 3
Volume = 114 ft/min x 5 min = 570 ft
3
Total Volume of vessel = 570 x 2 = 1140 ft
2
Length = Volume / (π/4) D = 17.9 ft ~ 18 ft
Aqueous phase Water rich
Organic phase Toluene rich
Settling velocity 0.0203 ft/sec
2
Area of contact 63.26 m
Diameter of decanter drum 9 ft
3
Volume 570 ft
Length 18 ft
Table 6.4 Decanter specifications
71

Chapter 7 Cost Estimation

A capital investment is required for any industrial process, and determination of the necessary
investment is an important part of a plantdesign project. The total investment for any process
consists of fixedcapital investment for physical equipment and facilities in the plant plus
working capital which must be available to pay salaries, keep raw materials and products on
hand, and handle other special items requiring a direct cash outlay. Thus, in an analysis of costs
in industrial processes, capitalinvestment costs, manufacturing costs, and general expenses
including income taxes must be taken into consideration.
Most cost data which are available for immediate use in a preliminary or predesign
estimate are based on conditions at some time in the past. Because prices may change
considerably with time due to changes in economic conditions, some method must be used for
updating cost data applicable at a past date to costs that are representative of conditions at a later
time. This can be done by the use of cost indexes. A cost index is merely an index value for a
given point in time showing the cost at that time relative to a certain base time. If the cost at
some time in the past is known, the equivalent cost at the present time can be determined by
multiplying the original cost by the ratio of the present index value to the index value applicable
when the original cost was obtained.
index value at present time
P resent Cost = Original Cost( index value at time original cost was obtained )
Many different types of cost indexes are published regularly. Some of these can be used for
estimating equipment costs; others apply specifically to labor, construction, materials, or other
specialized fields. The most common of these indexes are the Marshall and Swift allindustry
and processindustry equipment indexes, the Engineering NewsRecord construction index, the
NelsonFarrar refinery construction index, and the Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index
(CEPCI).
72

In the cost estimation of the present Benzoic acid plant, Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index
(CEPCI) is considered. This is because construction costs for chemical plants form the basis of
the Chemical Engineering plant cost index. The four major components of this index are

weighted bypercentage in the following manner:
● Equipment, machinery, and supports 61%
● Erection and installation labor 22%
● Buildings, materials, and labor 7%
● Engineering and supervision 10%
The major component, Equipment, is further subdivided and weighted as follows:
● Fabricated equipment 37%
● Process machinery 14%
● Pipe, valves, and fittings20%
● Process instruments and controls 7%
● Pumps and compressors 7%
● Electrical equipment and materials 5% and
● Structural supports, insulation, and paint 10%
Economic Analysis:
7
Cost of Benzoic acid plant of capacity 570KT/year in 2007 =Rs.10.67 × 10
So, the cost of Benzoic acid plant of capacity 700 KT/year in 2007
7 0.6
=Rs.10.67 × 10(700/570)
7
=Rs.12.07 × 10
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index:
Year Index value
2007 525.4
2015 562.9

73

Present cost the plant = original cost ×(present cost index)
(Past cost index)
7
=12.07 × 10 )
( 562.9/525.4
7
= Rs.12.93 × 10
7
Fixed capital Cost (FCI) = Rs.12.93 × 10
Estimation of Total Investment Cost:
A. Direct Costs: Material and labor involved in actual installation of complete facility (70

85% of fixed capital investment)
1.
Purchased equipment cost (PEC)
: (15 40% of FCI)
Consider purchased equipment cost = 25% of FCI
7
PEC = 0.25 of 12.93 × 10
6
= Rs. 32.33 × 10
2.
Purchased equipment installation
= (614% of FCI)
Consider the Installation cost = 7% of FCI
7
Installation costs = 0.07 × 12.93 × 10

6
= Rs. 9.05 × 10
3.
Instrumentation and controls installation
: (28% of FCI)
Consider the installation cost = 6% of FCI
7
= 0.06 × 12.93 × 10
6
= Rs. 7.76 × 10
4.
Piping installation
: (3 20% of FCI)
Consider the piping cost = 8% of FCI
7
= 0.08 × 12.93 × 10
74

6
= Rs. 10.34 × 10
5.
Electrical insulation:
(2 10% of FCI)
Consider Electrical cost = 5% of FCI
7
= 0.05 × 12.93 × 10
6
= Rs. 6.46 × 10
6.
Buildings(3 18% of FCI)
Consider Buildings, process and auxiliary cost = 5% of FCI
7
= 0.05 × 12.93 × 10
6
= Rs. 6.46 × 10
7.
Service facilities
: (8 20% of FCI)
Consider the cost of service facilities = 15% of FCI
7
= 0.15× 12.93 × 10
6
= Rs. 19.39× 10
8.
Yard Improvement
: (2 5% of FCI)
Consider the cost of yard improvement = 2% of FCI
7
= 0.02 × 12.93 × 10
6
= Rs. 2.58 × 10
9. :
Land (1 2% of FCI)
Consider the cost of land = 1% of FCI
7
= 0.01 × 12.93 × 10
6
= Rs. 1.293 × 10
6
Thus, Direct cost = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9) = Rs. 95.66 × 10
75

B. Indirect costs
: Expenses which are not directly involved with material and labor of
actual installation of complete facility (15 30% of Fixed Capital Investment)
1.
Engineering and Supervision
: (4 21% of FCI)
Consider the cost of engineering and supervision = 10% of FCI
7
Cost of engineering and supervision = 0.1 × 12.93 × 10
6
= Rs. 12.93 × 10
2.
Construction Expenses
: (416% of FCI)
Consider the cost of construction expenses =12% of FCI
7
= 0.12 ×12.93 × 10
6
= Rs. 15.52 × 10
3.
Contractor's fee
: (2 – 6% of FCI)
Consider cost of contractor's fee = 2% of FCI
7
= 0.02 × 12.93 × 10
6
= Rs. 2.59 × 10
4.
Contingency
: (5 15% of FCI)
Consider the contingency cost = 8% of FCI
7
= 0.08 × 12.93 × 10
6
= Rs. 10.34× 10
6
Thus, total Indirect Costs = Rs. 41.38 × 10
C. Fixed Capital Investment:
Fixed capital investment = Direct costs + Indirect costs
6 6
= (95.66 × 10) + (41.38 × 10)
6
Fixed capital investment = Rs. 137.04 × 10
76

D. Working Capital Investment
: (1020% of Fixed capital investment)
Consider the Working Capital = 20% of fixed capital investment
6 6
Working capital = 0.2 × 137.04 × 10 = Rs. 27.4 × 10
E. Total Capital Investment (TCI):
Total capital investment = Fixed capital investment + Working capital
6 6
= (137.04× 10) + (27.4 × 10)
6
Total Capital Investment = Rs. 164.45 × 10
Estimation of Total Production cost (TPC):
➔ Manufacturing Cost
= Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant overhead cost.
A. Fixed Charges:
1.
Depreciation
: (10% of FCI for machinery and equipment and 23% for Building Value for
Buildings)
Consider depreciation = 10% of FCI for machinery and equipment, and 3% for Building
Value for Buildings)
6 6
Depreciation = (0.10 × 137.04× 10) + (0.03 × 137.04× 10)
6
= Rs. 17.81 × 10
2.
Local Taxes
: (3 4% of Fixed capital investment)
Consider the local taxes = 4% of Fixed capital investment
6
Local Taxes = 0.04 × 137.04× 10
6
= Rs. 5.48× 10
77

3.
Insurances
: (0.4 1% of fixed capital investment)
Consider the Insurance = 0.4% of fixed capital investment
6
Insurance = 0.004 × 137.04× 10
6
= Rs. 0.55 × 10
4.
Rent
: (8 12% fixed capital investment)
Consider rent = 10% of fixed capital investment
6 6
Rent = 0.1 × 137.04× 10 = Rs.13.7 × 10
6
Total Fixed Charges = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4) = Rs. 37.54 × 10
But Fixed Charges = 1020% of Total Product Charges (TPC)
Consider Fixed Charges = 17% of TPC
6 6
Total Product Cost = (37.54 × 10)/0.17 = Rs. 220.82 × 10

B. Direct Production Cost:
1.
Raw Materials
: (10 50% of TPC)
Consider the cost of raw materials = 30% of TPC
6 6
Raw material cost = 0.30 × 220.82 × 10 = Rs. 66.25 × 10
2.
Operating Labor (OL)
: (10 20% of TPC)
Consider the cost of operating labor = 15% of TPC
6 6
Operating labor cost = 0.15 × 220.82 × 10 = Rs. 33.12× 10
3.
Direct Supervisory and Clerical Labor (DS & CL)
: (10 25% of OL)
Consider the cost for Direct supervisory and clerical labor = 10% of OL
6 6
Direct supervisory and clerical labor cost = 0.1 × 33.12 × 10 = Rs. 3.31× 10
4.
Utilities
: (10 20% of TPC)
78

Consider the cost of Utilities = 15% of TPC
6 6
Utilities cost= 0.15 × 220.82 × 10= Rs. 33.12× 10
5.
Maintenance and repairs
(M & R): (2 10% of TPC)
Consider the maintenance and repair cost = 6 % of TPC
6 6
Maintenance and repair cost = 0.06 × 220.82 × 10 = Rs. 13.25 × 10
6.
Operating Supplies (OS)
: (10 20% of M & R)
Consider the cost of Operating supplies = 15% of M & R
6 6
Operating supplies cost = 0.15 × 13.25 × 10 = Rs. 1.99 × 10
7.
Laboratory Charges
: (10 20% of OL)
Consider the Laboratory charges = 12% of OL
6 6
Laboratory charges = 0.12 × 33.12× 10 = Rs. 3.97× 10
8.
Patent and Royalties
: (2 6% of TPC)
Consider the cost of Patent and royalties = 4% of TPC
6 6
Patent and Royalties = 0.04 × 220.82 × 10 = Rs. 8.833 × 10
6
Thus, Direct Production Cost = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8) = Rs. 163.34 × 10

C. Plant overhead Costs (50 70% of Operating labor, operating supplies and
maintenance)
Consider the plant overhead cost = 65% of (OL+ OS + M & R)
6 6 6
Plant overhead cost = 0.65 × (33.12× 10 + 1.99 × 10 + 13.25 × 10)
6
= Rs. 48.36 × 10
Thus, Manufacture cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant overhead costs.
6 6 6 6
Manufacturing Cost =163.34 × 10+ 37.54 × 10 + 48.36 × 10 = Rs. 249.24 × 10
79

➔ General Expenses = Administrative costs + distribution and selling costs + research and

development costs
1.
Administrative costs
: (40 60% of OL)
Consider the Administrative costs = 50% of OL
6
Administrative costs = 0.5 × 33.12× 10
6
= Rs. 16.56 × 10
2.
Distribution and Selling costs
: (2 30% of TPC)
Consider the Distribution and selling costs = 10% of TPC
6
Distribution and selling costs = 0.1 × 220.82 × 10
6
= Rs. 22.08 × 10
3.
Research and Development costs
: (about 3% of TPC)
6
Research and Development costs = 0.03 × 220.82 × 10
6
= Rs. 6.62 × 10

6
General Expenses = (1 + 2 + 3) = Rs. 45.26 × 10

➔ Total Production cost
= Manufacture cost + General Expenses
6 6
= (249.24 × 10) + (45.26 × 10)
6
Total production cost = Rs. 294.5× 10
80

Break Even Point:
Let N TPA be the break even production rate.
Raw material Cost/(ton product) = Rs 86709.33/(Ton Product)
6
Fixed Cost = Rs.220.82 × 10
At breakeven production,
Fixed charges + Variable Cost per Tonne * N = Selling cost per Tonne * N
6
220.82 × 10+ 53,550 *N = 55,000*N
N = 152289.65 TPA= 152.3 KT per year
Hence, the break even production rate is 21.7 % of the considered plant capacity.
Fig 7.1 BEP Analysis
81

Chapter 8 Profitability Analysis
A. Gross Earnings/Income:
Wholesale Selling Price of Benzoic Acid per Kg = Rs.55
Total Income = Selling price × Quantity of product manufactured
6
= ( 55 ×
7×
10 6
=Rs. 385 × 10
)

6
Total Income = Rs. 385 × 10 per annum
Gross profit = Total Income – Total Production Cost
6 6
= (385 × 10) – ( 294.5× 10)
6
Gross profit = Rs. 80.5 × 10
Let the Tax rate be 33%
Taxes = 33% of Gross profit
6
= 0.33× 80.5 × 10
6
Taxes = Rs. 26.56 × 10
Net Profit
= Gross income Taxes
6 6
= 80.5 × 10 – 26.56 × 10
6
Net Profit = Rs. 53.935 × 10 per annum
Rate of Return:
Net Profit
Rate of Return = (Total Capital Investment )×100
6 6
Rate of Return = ( 53.935 × 10/164.45 × 10)
= 32.6%
82

Pay Back Period :

Pay Back Period = (fixed capital investment – Depreciation) / (Net profit + Depreciation)
6 6 6 6
= (137.04 × 10 17.81 × 10) / ( 53.935 × 10 + 17.81 × 10)
= 1.67 years
Table 8.1 Benzoic acid economic analysis
Plant Capacity 700 KT/year
Benzoic acid price Rs.55/kg
Fixed Investment Cost 6
Rs. 137.04 × 10
Total Investment Cost 6
Rs. 164.45 × 10
Fixed Cost per annum 6
Rs.220.82 × 10
Variable Cost Rs.53,550/ Tonn
Annual Production Cost 6
Rs. 294.5× 10
Break Even point (output capacity) 21.7%
Net annual profit 6
Rs. 53.935 × 10
Return on Investment (ROI) 32.6%
Payback period 1.67 years
83

Chapter 9 PLANT LOCATION AND LAYOUT
➢ Plant Location
When it has been decided to start a factory it is most important to select a suitable area or
location to house the factory. This is not an easy problem because if the site selected may not be
proper, then all the money expended on factory building, equipments and layouts etc. will go to
waste. Therefore while selecting a site, the owner must consider technical, commercial and
financial aspects and then select a site that will produce a maximum commercial advantage.
This problem can be divided into two parts:
1. The general location of the factory
2. Selection of a particular site
For the general location of the factory, the following factors must be considered:
1. The raw materials should be easily available at comparatively low cost and at low freight

charges
2. The market should be near the factory for quick service to the customers and for easy
transportation.
3. There should be good transport facilities for bringing the raw material and sending
finished goods.
4. Skilled and cheap laborers should be available near the plant site
5. Availability of power was a very influential factor in years but today it has little impact
on plant site.
6. Climatic and atmospheric conditions are a governing factor to any chemical industry.
However, air conditioning has changed the situation in some cases.
7. All factories need soft and pure water in large quantities
8. Availability of Capital.
9. Social and Recreational facilities can be created near the factory site.
84

Selection of a particular site is influenced by the following:
1. Availability of labor
2. Availability of utilities, water, fuel and energy
3. Availability of land
4. Environmental impact and effluent disposal
5. Climate
6. Political and strategic considerations
7. Taxation and legal restrictions
8. Flood and fire protection
9. Local community considerations
Raw materials:
The availability of good quality raw materials in required quantity at close hand is very crucial
for the success of a new industry
and plays an important role in obtaining a stable production of
high quality products
. The region must have abundant supplies of at least the chief raw material
required by the firm
. In this project, Toluene is the major raw material. So to reduce the
transportation costs, the unit should be present near a Toluene manufacturing plant.
Marketing Area:
The location of markets or intermediate distribution centers affect product distribution and the
time required for shipping. Proximity to the major markets is an important consideration in the
selection of a plant site because the buyer usually finds it advantageous to purchase from nearby
sources. The closer the market the lesser will be the transportation cost and the easier will be the
access to the products for the buyer.
Transportation Facilities:
The transport of materials and products to and from the plant will be an important consideration
in site selection. There the site should be chosen so as to be closer to at least some of the
85

following methods of transport. These include road, railroad, waterway (canal or river) or a sea
port. Road and rail transport are increasingly used and are suitable for long distance transport of
bulk chemicals. As transport is convenient and efficient for the movement of personnel and
essential equipment and supplies, the proximity of an airport should also be considered.
Availability of Labor:
Labor will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled construction workers

will usually be brought in from outside the site area but there should be an adequate pool of
skilled labour available locally and labor suitable for training to operate the plant. Skilled
workmen will be needed for plant maintenances. Local trade union customs and restrictive
practices will have to be considered when assessing the availability and suitability of the local
laborer for recruitment and training. Apart from this consideration should be given to the pay
rates and restrictions on the number of hours, racial problems and variations in the skills and
intelligence of the workers.
Utilities (services):
The word utilities is now generally used for the ancillary services needed in the operation of any

production process. The chemical processes invariably require large quantities of water for the
cooling and general process use and therefore the plant must be located near a source of water of
suitable quality and quantity. Process water may also be drawn from a river, from wells, or be
purchased from a local authority. In some sites the cooling water required can be taken from a
river or a lake or from the sea at other locations cooling tower will be needed. In this project
although water is produced as a side product it is of less for cooling purpose because its
temperature is close to boiling point. Hence the Plant should be located near a lake or a river.
Apart from this electrical power is also needed in large quantities and hence the location of the
plant near hydroelectric installations should be considered
86

Land (site selection):
The plant location should be chosen such that sufficient suitable land is available for the
proposed plant and also for future expansion. The land should be ideally flat and well drained
and have suitable load bearing characteristics. A full site evaluation should be made and taken
into consideration in order to determine the need of piling or other special formations.
Environmental Impact and Disposal:
All industrial processes produce waste products and full consideration must be given to the
difficulties and cost of their disposal. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents should be done
following the local waste disposal regulations and also the appropriate authorities should be
consulted during the initial site survey to determine the standards that must be followed.
Climate:
Adverse climate conditions at a site will increase cost. Abnormally low temperatures will require

the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment and pipes. Stronger
structures will be needed at locations which are subjected to high winds and earthquakes. Hence,
the effect of humidity and temperatures at the site are also considered because it affects the
economic evaluation of the proposal.
Political and Strategic Considerations:
Capital grants, concessions and other incentives are often given by the government to direct
renewed investments to preferred locations such as areas of high unemployment. The possibility
of such grants can be the overriding consideration in the site selection.
Taxation and Legal Restrictions:
The state and local taxes on property, economic unemployment insurance and similar problems
vary from one location to another. Local regulations on zoning, building codes, insurance aspects
and other considerations influence the final choice of plant site.
87

Flood and Fire Protection:
Choosing the plant location according to the avoidance of hazards such as floods and fire
damage should be a major factor of selecting the plant site. There should be provisions for
damage control and maintenance in the case of one of these hazards. Also, everything must be
done to ensure that these hazards are prevented.
Local Community Considerations:
Cultural facilities for the community are important for sound growth. The proposed plant must fit
in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full consideration must be given to the safe
location of the plant so that it does not impose a significant additional risk to the community. On
a new site, the local community must be able to provide adequate facilities of the plant
personnel: school, banks, housing and recreational and cultural facilities.
Considering all of the above factors, the Benzoic acid Plant should be located at a place where:
1. The road and rail transport system is easily available.
2. The plant should be close to Toluene manufacturing plant.
3. Benzoic acid is used in a variety of applications so the plant should be located in a place
where it is used or consumed easily.
According to the above considerations, the plant location is suitable in a region like Madhya
Pradesh where salt is brought in from Gujarat via railroad into Caustic Soda plants. The HCl
byproduct they get can be used as raw material. Since the plant is located near other industries
requiring Chlorine, initial market for the product will be good. Also, taxation and regulations are
investor friendly in these region.
By taking into consideration, the above factors Surat, Gujarat will be a suitable location for this

plant because:
There are no Benzoic acid plants in Vizag and in surrounding areas. It offers good
transportational facilities and is situated on banks of river Sarada, major coastal area.
88

Availability of raw material and utilities should be great.Toluene plant should be located near the
refinery industries, where the aromatics or naphtha’s are available abundantly. Hence it is
preferable to locate benzoic acid plant neat toluene plant since it is the major raw material for
benzoic acid plant.
Plant location is not suitable near Hyderabad because transportation costs will be higher.
The location of Vizag has always favored growth of industries, it happened to be one of the
important trading centers in India .Many of the major industries in Vizag are contributing to meet
the growing demands of Indian market.

➢ Plant Layout:
Plant layout in its broadest sense is a part of the overall system. It includes everything from the
original of the building to the location and movement of a small component. It is an integral part
of:
∙ PRODUCTION PLANNING: It allows, promotes and aids the creation of utility.
∙ MAINTENANCE: It affects the amount, difficulty and time required for it.
∙ MATERIAL HANDLING: This is necessitated by the design & layout of the plant.
∙ ORGANIZATION: Physical layout often determines areas of authority, spheres of personal
influence.
Obviously machines, equipment, materials, employees, fixtures and all the necessary facilities
for engaging in an activity must be given a place of work. How they are located and where they
are located, may well determine the firm’s efficiency, its profit potential and its existence. Noise,
color, tight and dictate work environment. Proper work environment will increase the
productivity to optimum levels, boost the morale and job satisfaction.
89

Good layout design requires thorough knowledge of workflow, product flow and information
flow. Engineering, management & future expansion are to be imbibed into the layout design.
Technology is continuously upgrading making better manufacturing techniques available and
correct layout will accommodate these challenges.
Consideration is to be given for backward integration and forward integration of the product.
Further the arrangement of the equipment and facilities specified in the process flow sheet is a
necessary requirement for accurate preconstruction cost estimation of future detailed design
involving piping, structural and electrical facilities. Careful attention to the development of the
plot and the elevation plans will point out unusual plant requirements and therefore, give reliable
information on building site costs required for precise preconstruction cost accounting.
The following list will suggest some of the reasons for what good layout is about:
1. Reduce manufacturing costs.
2. Increase employee safety.
3. Better service to the customer.
4. Reduce capital investment.
5. Increase flexibility.
6. Improve employee morale through improved employee comforts and conveniences in work
area.
7. Better quality of the product.
8. Effective utilization of floor space.
90

9. Reduce work in process to a minimum.
10. Reduce work delays and stoppages.
11. Better work methods and utilization of labor.
12. Improve control and supervision.
13. Easier maintenance.
14. Reduce manufacturing cycle.
15. Better utilization of equipment and facilities.
16. Eliminate congestion points.
In developing an effective layout for an enterprise, we should in mind several fundamentals,
which exert a significant influence in achieving a good and workable arrangement.
The following are among the major fundamentals most often cited:
Storage layout:
Storage facilities for raw materials, intermediate and finished products may be located in isolated

areas or in adjoining areas. Hazardous materials become a menace to life and property when
stored in large quantities and should be kept isolated. Arranging storage of materials so as to
facilitate or simplify handling is a point to be considered in design. Where it is possible to pump
a single material to an elevation so that subsequent handling can be accomplished by gravity into
intermediate reaction storage units.
Equipment layout:
In making layout, ample space should be assigned to each piece of equipment accessibility is an
important factor for maintenance. Unless a process is well seasoned, it is not always possible to
predict just how its various units may have to be changed in order to be in harmony with each
91

other. It is extremely poor economy to put the equipment layout too closely to a building. A
slightly larger building will cost little more than that is crowded. The extra cost will indeed be
small in comparison with the penalties that will be extracted if the building was to be extracted.
The relative levels of the several pieces of equipment and their accessories determine their
placement. Although gravity flow is usually preferable, it is not altogether necessary because
liquids can be transported by blowing or by pumping and solids can be moved by mechanical
means. Access for initial construction and maintenance is a necessary part of planning, for
example, over head equipment must have space for lowering into place, and heat exchange
equipment should be located near access areas where trucks or hoists can be placed for pulling
and replacing tube bundles. This space should be provided for movement of cranes and fork
trucks as well as access way around doors and underground hatches. Therefore each plant
presents its own challenges that need to be incorporated in the layout.
Plant expansion:
Expansion must always be kept in mind. The question of multiplying the number of units or
increasing the size of the prevailing unit or units merit more study than it can be given here.
Suffice it to say that one must exercise engineering judgment. Correcting inconsiderate layout
plan may involve scrapping the serviceable equipment or shut down the running equipment.
Nevertheless the cost of change must be borne for economics of large units and in the end make
replacement inevitable.
Floor space:
Floor space mayor may not be major factor in the design of a particular plant. The value of land
may be considerable item. The engineer should, however, follow the rule of practicing economy
of floor space, consistent with good housekeeping in the plant and with proper consideration
given to line flow of materials, space to permit working on parts of equipment that need
servicing , safety and comfort to the operators.
92

Utilities servicing:
The distribution of gas, air, water, steam, power and electricity is not always a major item of
consideration but flexibility of designing these items should permit to meet almost any condition.
Regard to the proper placement of each of these services practicing good design reduces the cost
of maintenance.
Workshop:
A workshop is also provided to supply tools on demand from laboratory and process. Therefore,

this is laid out nearer to the process area.
Safety units:
These are located to the processing area, because probably accidents occur at the processing.
Modular construction
In
recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant manufacturer's
site. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping and instrumentation. The
modules are then transported to the plant site, by road or sea.
The advantages of modular construction are:
1. Improved quality control.
2. Reduced construction cost.
3. Less need for skilled labor on site.
4. Less need for skilled personnel on overseas sites.

Some of the disadvantages are:
1. Higher design costs.
2. More structural steel work.
3. More flanged connections.
.
4 Possible problems with assembly, on site.
93

Fig 9.1 Plant layout of Benzoic acid plant
94

Chapter 10 Safety and Health Hazards
Exposure Routes: inhalation, ingestion, skin and/or eye contact ;Symptoms: irritation eyes,
skin, upper respiratory system; conjunctivitis; nasal ulcer ;Target Organs: Eyes, skin, respiratory
system, liver, kidneys
First aid:
Eye Contact: Check for and remove any contact lenses. In case of contact, immediately flush
eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. Cold water may be used. WARM water MUST
be used. Get medical attention immediately.
Skin Contact: In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15
minutes while removing contaminated clothing and shoes. Cover the irritated skin with an
emollient. Wash clothing before reuse. Thoroughly clean shoes before reuse. Get medical
attention immediately.
Serious Skin Contact: Wash with a disinfectant soap and cover the contaminated skin with an
antibacterial cream. Seek immediate medical attention.
Inhalation: If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing

is difficult, give oxygen. Get medical attention immediately.
Serious Inhalation: Evacuate the victim to a safe area as soon as possible. Loosen tight clothing
such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband. If breathing is difficult, administer oxygen. If the victim is
not breathing, perform mouthtomouth resuscitation. WARNING: It may be hazardous to the
person providing aid to give mouthtomouth resuscitation when the inhaled material is toxic,
infectious or corrosive. Seek immediate medical attention.
Ingestion: Do NOT induce vomiting unless directed to do so by medical personnel. Never give
anything by mouth to an unconscious person. If large quantities of this material are swallowed,
call a physician immediately. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband.
95

Benzoic Acid :
● Hazard symbol: Xi
● Indication of danger: Irritant
● Risk phrases: R 41 (Risk of serious damage to eyes )
Benzoic acid is rapidly and virtually completely absorbed after oral ingestion in many animal
species and man. It is rapidly excreted to a high rate via urine after oral, intraperitoneal and
subcutaneous administration (80% to 99% within 24 hours). The fecal excretion is only a minor
route of elimination
Acute toxicity :
Acute toxicity testing with benzoic acid / benzoic salts was performed in several animals species

often at the turn of the century and it is occasionally not absolutely clear which benzoic
compound was used then.
Benzoic acid is of moderate to low toxicity:
● LD , oral: 630 mg/kg bw (cat) to 3040 mg/kg bw (rat),
50
● LD , dermal: > 5000 mg/kg bw (rabbit) and
50
● LC , inhalative: > 0.026 mg/l (1 h, rat).
50
All respective data summarized, benzoic acid is not irritating to the skin but due to its acidic
property irritating to the eyes (R 41, according to the EUDirective 67/548/EEC) and not
sensitizing. The picture of poisoning is characterized by convulsions, hyperaesthesia, disturbed
respiration and changed body temperature
According to the toxicological properties of benzoic acid, harmful effects on the health of
operators, bystanders, workers or consumers are not to be expected if the preparation is used in
accordance with good plant protection practice. The available data for benzoic acid do not
support any evidence of genotoxic, carcinogenic and the fertility or development damaging
96

properties of the active substance. Benzoic acid and its salts are widely spread natural
compounds in the environment. From the use of benzoic acid as disinfectant in horticulture,
residues in harvest products do not occur.
Any additional exposure of the general population can be excluded and a risk assessment for
consumers is not necessary.
Toluene :
Effects :

Table 10.1 Effects of Toluene
Fire FLAMMABLE
Vapor may explode if ignited in an enclosed area
Wear goggles and selfcontained breathing apparatus
Water may be ineffective on fire
Extinguish with dry chemical, foam, or Carbon dioxide
Exposure CALL FOR MEDICAL AID

VAPOR:
Irritating to eyes, nose and throat
If inhaled, will cause nausea,vomiting,headache, dizziness
If breathing has stopped, give oxygen

LIQUID:
Irritating to skin and eyes
If swallowed, will cause nausea, vomiting or loss of consciousness
Flush affected areas with plenty of water
Water Dangerous to aquatic life in high concentrations
Fouling to shoreline
May be dangerous if it enters water intakes
Corrective Stop discharge
Response actions Collection systems :skim
Chemical and physical treatments : Burn
Clean shoreline

97

Health Hazards:

Table 10.2 Health hazards of Toluene

TLV TWA 50 ppm
Toxicity by Ingestion Grade 2 ; LD = 0.5 TO 5g /kg

50
Chronic Toxicity Kidney and liver damage may follow
ingestion
Vapor (gas) Irritant characteristics Vapors cause a slight smarting of the eyes or
respiratory system if present in high
concentrations. The effect is temporary
Liquid and Solid characteristics Minimum hazard. If spilled on clothing and
allowed to remain, may cause smarting and
reddening of the skin
OSHA PELTWA 200 ppm
Odor Threshold 0.17 ppm
Personal protective Equipment Air supplied mask ; goggles or face shield ;
plastic gloves
Treatment of exposure INHALATION: move to fresh air, give
artificial respiration and oxygen needed; call
doctor
INGESTION : do not induce vomiting; call
doctor
EYES: flush with water for at least 15 min
SKIN: wipe off, wash with soap and water

98

Table 10.3 Respiratory protection for Toluene

99

Bibliography

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pg459463.
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H.C. Van Ness, M.M. Abbott, 7 edition,
TMH publications,
pg 683687.
4. Introduction to Chemical Equipment Design Mechanical Aspects by B.C.
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A Kent, volume 1 , edition 11, pg11081120.
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edition,pg 9396..
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Sittig,WEP EastWest Press, 2000, pg 307358.
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11. Shreve’s Chemical Process Industries by Randolph Norris Shreve, George T. Austin.
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http://www.indianindustry.com/cgilocal/searchresult.html,ss=Ethanolamines
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Benzoic acid was discovered in the sixteenth century. The ​

Pioneer work in 1830 through a variety of experiences based on ​

Acidic food and beverage like ​

Benzoic acid is a constituent of ​

Benzoic acid is a precursor to ​

Benzoic acid is almost exclusively manufactured by the ​

Benzoic acid is cheap and readily available, so the laboratory synthesis of benzoic acid is mainly

Components Fresh Toluene Stream 10 (Recycle) Stream 2

Toluene 15361 5489 20850

Water 0 137 137

Total 15361 5626 20987

Toluene 20850 0 19389.5

Oxygen 0 7456 6876

Nitrogen 0 24549 24549

Water 137 0 422.5

Total 20987 32005 52992

Toluene 19389.5 16680

Oxygen 6876 5751.75

Nitrogen 24549 24549

Benzaldehyde 1201.14 3122.96

Benzoic Acid 553 1935.4

Water 422.5 952.8

Total 52992 52992

Toluene 16680 5685 570

Oxygen 5751.75 0 676

Nitrogen 24549 0 24549

Benzaldehyde 3122.96 5525 0

Benzoic Acid 1935.4 12995 0

Water 952.8 2735 257

Total 52992 26940 26052

Toluene 5685 103 0 5582

Benzaldehyde 5525 5339 129 57

Benzoic Acid 12995 96 12345 554

Water 2735 2402 221 112

Total 26940 7940 12695 6305

Toluene 103 5582 5489 196

Benzaldehyde 5339 57 0 5396

Benzoic Acid 96 554 0 650

Water 2402 112 137 2377

Total 7940 6305 5626 8619

Toluene 15361 0 0 196 570

Oxygen 0 7456 0 0 676

Nitrogen 0 24549 0 0 24549

Benzaldehyde 0 0 129 5396 0

Benzoic Acid 0 0 12345 650 0

Water 0 0 221 2377 257

Total 15361 32005 12695 8619 26052

Toluene 155.96 ­0.0126 0.5321 1.233 273­383 (liq)

Toluene 103.7 0.0267 0.498 ­1.925 383­1000 (vapor)

Benzaldehyde 102.8 ­0.1554 1.214 1.889 273­1500

Benzoic acid 259.2 0.184 ­0.462 1.271 273­1000

Feed enters at 90 ℃ and reaction takes place at 140 ℃ . Heat required to achieve this increase is

0.5​ ­4 ​ ­4​ 2​­1​

(The caloric temperature factor, F​

A. Direct Costs: Material and labor involved in actual installation of complete facility (70 ­

➔ General Expenses = Administrative costs + distribution and selling costs + research and

1. The raw materials should be easily available at comparatively low cost and at low freight

Benzoic acid was discovered in the sixteenth century. The

Pioneer work in 1830 through a variety of experiences based on

Acidic food and beverage like

Benzoic acid is a constituent of

Benzoic acid is a precursor to

Benzoic acid is almost exclusively manufactured by the

Toluene 155.96 0.0126 0.5321 1.233 273383 (liq)

Toluene 103.7 0.0267 0.498 1.925 3831000 (vapor)

Benzaldehyde 102.8 0.1554 1.214 1.889 2731500

Benzoic acid 259.2 0.184 0.462 1.271 2731000

0.5 4 4 21

(The caloric temperature factor, F

A. Direct Costs: Material and labor involved in actual installation of complete facility (70

Toxicity by Ingestion Grade 2 ; LD = 0.5 TO 5g /kg