Walking With God by John Eldredge

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Walking With God by John Eldredge:

A Critical Theological Review


____________________________________

by Jim Osman

Kootenai Community Church


kootenaichurch.org

What would cause a person to pick up a book he The Good Stuff


normally wouldn't touch and spend time he really First, let me offer some positive comments on the
doesn't have to read something he violently disagrees book. Eldredge is a good writer (a lousy expositor and
with? I did so for a number of reasons: First, Walking theologian, but a good writer). The book is easy to read
With God will surely become a widely read book in and engaging. It is organized without regular chapter
Christian circles (unfortunately). Since I believe it is divisions, but divided into four sections titled “summer,”
filled with error and unsound theology, a response to “fall,” “winter,” and “spring.” Each is a collection of
that book is in order, even though my audience is likely “stories of what it looks like to walk with God over the
not going to be much larger than our own local course of about a year” (pg. ix)1. The book is intended
fellowship. to read like a journal or a daily blog. The conversational
Second, the message of the book goes right to the and devotional tone is sure to appeal to large numbers
heart of what I have written on at great length in The of people. Likewise, most, if not all, will be able to relate
Kootenai Communicator on a number of different to the struggles of faith, unanswered prayer, doubt,
occasions in recent years. spiritual warfare, discouragement, and emotions of joy,
Third, when I heard that a recently published book by sadness, happiness, excitement, and depression that
a popular author promoted a theology of hearing God's Eldredge openly wrestles with in the book.
voice through nudging, promptings, and impressions, I Occasionally Eldredge makes some sound and
knew it would provide a great opportunity to critique a accurate points concerning the issue he is addressing,
viewpoint I find inherently flawed and dangerous and to namely “hearing from God.” For instance, he states that
use that critique to highlight the error and danger of the life is not based on feelings (101) and gives a nod
“hearing from God” theology. toward the authority of Scripture and the centrality of
Scripture (41, 42). I will discuss his treatment of these
About the Book topics in far greater detail later in this review, but as you
Walking With God (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, will see, even his nod toward these great doctrines
2008) is the latest offering from wildly popular author quickly dissipates as he spends the rest of the book
John Eldredge. You are likely familiar with his name, if promoting a method of hearing from God that can and
not some of his books. Eldredge is the author of Epic, does only undermine both the authority and centrality of
Waking the Dead, Wild At Heart, and Desire, and co- Scripture.2 Unfortunately, what Eldredge gives with the
author of Captivating, and The Sacred Romance. one hand he quickly takes away with the other.
Already a New York Times best-selling author,
Eldredge's latest offering (Walking With God) is sure to
enjoy wide sales and circulation in the years to come. If 1 When quoting from the book or referencing material in the book, I will
put exact quotes in italics followed by the page number in brackets;
the trends with Eldredge books continue, we can expect (78) and (30-32, 67) for example.
to see journals, study guides, and Bible studies 2 I have written on the sufficiency of Scripture in relation to extra-
published all based on this latest book. Biblical revelations previously in a series on this subject available at
www.kootenaichurch.org/pages/columns/voiceofgod/voiceofgodmenu
.htm.
“How To” Walk With God According to Eldredge spiritual Christian and you will never be all that God
According to Eldredge, “walking with God” means intends for you to be. Indeed, Eldredge claims you will
that we learn the discipline of listening to His voice and be “stunted.”
enjoying “conversational intimacy” with The jacket cover of the book promotes
God (xi). In fact, the words “conversational this approach as “the lost treasure of
“I have little confidence in
intimacy” are used a number of times those persons who speak Christian spirituality” suggesting that
throughout the book to describe God of having received direct one is not “spiritual” unless they are
speaking to us via an inner voice and revelations from the Lord, receiving such personalized revelations
giving direct revelation of His will, thoughts, as though He appeared from God and hearing Jesus speak to
desires, and directions which we cannot otherwise than by and them.
through the gospel. His
obtain from Scripture (13). Supposedly we word is so full, so perfect, On page 49 Eldredge says that this
are to ask God questions and then hear that for God to make any “ conversational intimacy” is part of
Him give us direct answers to those fresh revelation to you or experiencing God in a deep way leading
questions. “Should I go to the ranch this me is quite needless. To do one to conclude that the absence of
weekend?” (30-32), “What passage should so would be to put a such special revelation can only mean
dishonor upon the
I read in my Bible today?” (44), “Which perfection of that word.”
that your relationship with God is
chapter in the gospel of John should I shallow. If you are not walking with God
read?” (44), and, “Should I ride the horse Charles H. Spurgeon in the “day to day, in the moment” (65),
today?” (80), are all examples of questions then you can not have any “real
we should ask Jesus. Not only should we relationship with Jesus Christ” (65).
ask such questions, but as you will see later, the failure According to Eldredge, only in the constantly unfolding
to ask such questions and listen for the answers can “now” are we able to have “any real relationship with
bring disastrous consequences according to Eldredge's Jesus Christ” (65).
theology. In fact, Eldredge records the answers that Eldredge also asserts that failure to hear God in
Jesus gave him to those very questions in the book. this way may be due to a satanic attack (58), your false
This is what Eldredge means by “walking with God” and belief in “Christian deism” (45), or because you are too
“conversational intimacy.” obsessed with something trivial and are not focused
Eldredge is bold enough to offer this book as a enough to hear Him, or because the enemy is blocking
“sort of tutorial on how to walk with God. And how to you (48).
hear his voice.” (8) In his own words,
“Walking With God” For Leaders
I assume that an intimate, conversational walk This “conversational intimacy” is not just for
with God is available, and is meant to be individual Christians in their work-a-day world. Eldredge
normal. I'll push that a step further. I assume suggests that this approach could be beneficial to
that if you don't find that kind of relationship church and ministry leaders.
with God, your spiritual life will be stunted. And
that will handicap the rest of your life. (7) Pause. Listening to God would be a
tremendous source of guidance and relief for
By “intimate conversational walk” Eldredge means the leaders of churches, ministries, and
talking to God and then “hearing God's voice” businesses if they would adopt this approach in
constantly through inner promptings, nudges, leadings, their day-to-day decision making. Ask God.
thoughts and “deep impressions” which “begin to form Listen for his voice. Together. Surrender to
into words” (32). what you hear. Think of all the foolish things
Obviously, this approach to walking with God is not that would be avoided, and all the noble things
optional for Eldredge. If you don't find such a God has for us to embrace. It's an act of
“conversational” relationship, you can't be a truly humility, really, by which we admit we haven't

“Walking With God”: A Critical Theological Review by Jim Osman


2
the smarts to run this thing Can you imagine a team of
“Many godly persons have undoubtedly in
and we need the counsel of this and other ages, exposed themselves
leaders trying to lead when each
God. In the small things as to woeful delusions by an aptness to lay person thinks they are hearing
much as the big ones. (137) too much weight on impulses and straight from the Shepherd on
impressions.” such matters, believes that their
But what are such ministry Jonathan Edwards ability to hear this is a mark of
leaders and church leaders to do their spirituality, maturity, and
when two people hear different deepening experience of God, and
things from God? Eldredge offers no counsel on that. that disobedience to such personalized revelation can
Let's say for instance that a church is trying to decide have disastrous consequences? (80-81) Give me a
whether to add a multi-million dollar wing on the church group of leaders who bleed the Bible and have acquired
for ministry purposes. Where do we turn for such wisdom over a group of men and women who believe
guidance since the Bible doesn't speak specifically and practice this nonsense any day!
about such an issue? Applying the Eldredge model, we
would just ask God, “Should we build or not?” Then as Numerous and Diverse Errors
leaders we would “listen” to what we might hear by way When I picked up Walking With God and began to
of an inner voice. What if one very godly leader hears read, I expected to find one basic error: God speaks to
“Don't build,” and another godly leader hears “Build?” us through still small voices and such personalized
Then what? Further, what if each is convinced that revelations are to be expected and experienced by
Jesus is genuinely speaking to them and they are every believer. However, I found not just one basic error
hearing the Shepherd's voice? presented in the book but a plethora of such errors.
It is just such an approach that leads to chaos in Indeed it has become clear to me, that when one thinks
churches and ministries. Eldredge gives us no method that the Shepherd is speaking directly to them apart
by which we might avoid such chaos, but only a from Scripture, errors begin to multiply. Here are a few
subjective, personal, feelings-oriented method of getting of the biggest and most consequential errors presented
guidance from God. in Walking With God.
To complicate the issue, Eldredge believes no
question is too inconsequential and we can and should A Faulty Defense of Personalized Revelations
receive direct guidance on anything. Imagine that Various examples in Scripture of God speaking
played out in your average leadership meeting in through special prophets, priests, kings, or apostles are
different ministries: used as proof that we too should expect God to speak
“Lord, what are the nine theme nights You would to us. After giving a list of such examples including
have us plan for Awana this year?” Then we would all Moses, Aaron, David, and Noah, Eldredge writes,
sit around and listen for the Shepherd's direction. With
nine or ten different ministry leaders making that I can hear the objections even now: “But that
decision, you can clearly see there would be anything was different. Those were special people called
but clarity in the end. to special tasks.” And we are not special
“Lord, on what date should we have the church people called to special tasks? I refuse to
potluck?” “Should the church purchase the meat?” “How believe that. And I doubt that you want to
much meat should we purchase?” “Should we use believe it either, in your heart of hearts. (13-14)
paper plates or plastic or glass?” “Which hymns should
we sing this Sunday?” “Lord, should we play baseball or This is how Eldredge dispenses with serious
soccer for the men's ministry this month?” “Which theological observations and objections: “I refuse to
campground should we use for our annual church camp believe that.” After all, if we don't want to believe it in
out?” “Which prizes should we give to top boy and top our “heart of hearts” why should we? Indeed, it is the
girl in Awana this year?” “heart” which becomes the arbiter of what you want to

“Walking With God”: A Critical Theological Review by Jim Osman


3
believe. Eldredge concludes, “Now, if God doesn't also Scripture Twisting
speak to us, why would he have given us all these You will find little by way of Scripture teaching in
stories of him speaking to others?” the book (which explains how many of the practices
Actually, I can answer that: He has given us these promoted can be simply asserted and not defended
accounts so that we might look to what He has already from Scripture), but Scripture twisting abounds.
revealed (Jude 3, 2 Peter 1:19-21) and trust it (the Indeed, I found it quite disturbing how easily Eldredge
Bible) and receive instruction from it. could flippantly quote a verse and use it to support his
Eldredge continues, ideas without any regard whatsoever to the meaning of
the verse in its original context.
Why would God give you a book of I counted at least 32 separate verses and/or
exceptions? 'This is how I used to relate to passages which were misapplied by Eldredge.3 One
my people, but I don't do that anymore.' such instance is on page 13 where various examples of
What good would a book of exceptions do God speaking to His spokesman are given as proof that
you? That's like giving you the owner's manual we too may hear His voice. Eldredge doesn't even
for a Dodge even though you drive a pause to ask, “Was there anything special about these
Mitsubishi. No, the Bible is a book of examples instances? Do these men play a special and unique role
of what it looks like to walk with God. To say in God's redemptive and revelatory plan?”
that he doesn't offer that to us is just so John 10 seems to be singled out for special abuse
disheartening. (14-15) (7-8, 15, 20, 204-205). Jesus' assertion that “My sheep
hear My voice” (John 10:27) becomes the central plank
Now notice the subtle in the “hearing from God” theology. Speaking of John
“And why cannot we be but faulty reasoning 10, Eldredge confesses on page 45, “I have spent a
contented with the divine good deal of time there.” Having spent a good deal of
here: If God doesn't
oracles, that holy, pure Word
of God, which we have in continue to speak to me time in the passage, I would hope that he would have
such abundance andthe way He spoke to seen the clear meaning of the text, but that is not the
clearness, now since the Moses, then the Bible case. Ignoring the context and the meaning of Jesus'
canon of Scripture is does me no good. It is words, John 10 is twisted to promote a theology of
completed? Why should we possible for the Word of hearing from God apart from Scripture.
desire to have any thing
added to them by the God to be no good to In reality, John 10 has nothing to do with Jesus'
impulses from above? Why me? According to sheep hearing directly from Him on such subjects as
should we not rest in that Eldredge, if the Bible “Should I go fishing?” (67), “Should I ride the horse
standing rule that God has merely records what today?” (80), and “Where is my watch?” (48). In John
given to His church, which, God has said in the past 10 Jesus is speaking to Pharisees who opposed Him
the apostle teaches us, is
surer than a voice from
it is of little use. The real (John 9:40). In Jesus' parable of the Good Shepherd
Heaven?” profit of the Bible is that He was explaining to the Pharisees why they did not
it demonstrates that we believe and why their “sin remains” (John 9:41; 10:26).
Jonathan Edwards
don't need to rely When one looks at Jesus' words in even a slightly
entirely on it for hearing larger context, the meaning becomes clear. He said in
from God. Huh?! John 10:26-28, “But you do not believe because you
What does such an assertion say of one's view of are not of My sheep. My sheep hear My voice, and I
the Bible? I would argue that if God is presently giving know them, and they follow Me; and I give eternal
the type of personalized constant revelation to His life to them and they will never perish and no one
people, then the Bible is not needed at all. Why do I will snatch them out of My hand.” It is the salvation of
need the Bible if God is going to give me His will and
His thoughts, and His heart through an inner voice and 3 See 7-8, 11, 13, 15, 20, 29, 30, 34, 54, 55, 75, 91, 92, 105,
my subjective impressions? 113, 150, 175, 204-205.

“Walking With God”: A Critical Theological Review by Jim Osman


4
the sheep that is being described in the passage. Attacks On Sola Scriptura
Notice that “believe” and “eternal life” and “never perish” As noted above, Eldredge has a lot of good things
are the central elements of the text. to say about the Bible as the Word of God.
Why did the disciples believe on Christ, but the Unfortunately, some of these endorsements of the
Pharisees reject Him? This is Jesus' answer. The authority and uniqueness of Scripture are mixed with
Pharisees were “not of His sheep.” Those who denials of the same. For instance,
believed were His sheep. They had heard His call to
eternal life and they followed Him. He gave them life Now, I know, I know – the prevailing belief is
and they will never perish, unlike those who rejected that God speaks to his people only through the
Christ (the Pharisees). This passage teaches Bible. And let me make this clear: he does
absolutely nothing about hearing individualized speak to us first and foremost through the
revelation from Christ through some subjective Bible. That is the basis for our relationship. The
internal nudge, impression, or voice. Bible is the eternal and unchanging Word of
Unfortunately, John 10 is not the only passage God to us. It is such a gift, to have right there in
which suffers abuse at Eldredge's hands. The account black and white God's thoughts toward us. We
of Elijah hearing the “still small voice” (1 Kings know right off the bat that any other supposed
19:11-12) is taken as a prototype for our revelation from God that contradicts the Bible
“conversational intimacy” (30). Being “led by the Spirit” is not to be trusted. So I am not minimizing in
(Galatians 5:25) is distorted to mean “keeping in step any way the authority of the Scripture or the
with the Spirit” (75) which for Eldredge means a fact that God speaks to us through the Bible.
constant sensitivity to what God might be trying to tell
you at any given moment. However, many Christians believe that God
In reality, Galatians 5:25 has to do with being only speaks to us through the Bible.
controlled by the Spirit as opposed to the flesh and has
nothing at all to do with “hearing God's voice.” Psalm The irony of that belief is that's not what the
16:7 is taken as proof that God speaks to us through Bible says. (13)
dreams. The mention of “wisdom and revelation in
the knowledge of Him” in Ephesians 1:17 is taken as In a very subtle but destructive fashion, Eldredge
a pattern for special revelation coupled with wisdom in elevates the Word of God, but not above all personal
living life. revelations, only above those that disagree with the
It is not just Scripture texts which suffer from Bible. Like many who promote a “hearing from God
Eldredge's atrocious exegesis, but the meanings of theology,” Eldredge wants to have an authoritative,
individual words as well. In order to show that God inspired, perfect, pure, unique Word from God in the
wants us to be happy (20), he twists John 10:10 (“I Bible and his moment-by-moment personal dispatches
have come that you may have life, and have it to the from Heaven by way of an inner voice from the
full.”), and then he asserts that “in order for us to be Shepherd. Contrary to his assertion, the Bible does not
truly happy, we have to be whole. Another word for that teach that God speaks to us through a host of other
is holy.” Huh?!? That is what holy means? A synonym means.
for “holy” is “whole?” Is that what makes God holy, the In light of his statements and his belief that we
fact that He is whole? Where did he come up with this? constantly hear God's voice, we are left to conclude that
Is this something that Jesus told him directly? when Eldredge says that the Bible is the Word of God
I can only say with great sadness that the to us, what he means is that the Bible is a small
misapplication and twisting of Scripture in this book is fraction, a sampling, an example of God's voice which
grievous enough to make a Jehovah's Witness blush! is constantly heard by Christians in every generation.
Eldredge attempts again to assert the supremacy of
the written Word saying,

“Walking With God”: A Critical Theological Review by Jim Osman


5
God speaks to us through the Bible. And what specialized revelations from the Shepherd (aka
is said there has more authority than anything “conversational intimacy”), then you don't believe that
else in our lives. It is the bedrock of our faith, God speaks to His children. He goes on to say, “And
the test of all things, a living connection to the so, when he found himself assaulted and undermined
heart and mind of God – when we approach it by all that had unfolded in his life, he had no source of
with the help of the Spirit of God. . . . There is guidance or explanation. It was sad to see the toll it had
no substitute for the written Word of God. No taken” (7).
matter how precious a personal word may be The “guidance or explanation” that Eldredge is
to us, no matter how cool some insight may be, speaking of in the context is the still small voice that he
it doesn't compare to the written Word. (41-42) says is God speaking directly to him apart from
Scripture. Apparently the Bible is not enough for
He doesn't bother trying to explain exactly why the “guidance or explanation.”
Bible has more authority than a “personal word.” Why For those who don't accept Eldredge's view of
should I consider a book written 2,000 years ago more hearing God's voice, he seems to think they are stuck in
precious and more authoritative than that word I get a “relationship [with God] where there is no
from God in the here and now? What makes the Bible communication whatsoever” (12-13). This can only lead
incomparable? Eldredge doesn't bother offering us any a discerning reader to ask, “What does he think the
reasons for this. Indeed, someone who believes as Bible is? Does he think that those who talk to God in
Eldredge does is hard pressed to give us any prayer and read the Bible to hear from Him have a
theological reason for those assertions. relationship with no communication?”
Yet, in spite of his few orthodox statements No matter what brief comments (and they are brief
regarding Scripture, Walking with God is all about how and few) he may make concerning the greatness of
to live one's entire life around personal words from God Scripture, the reality is that Eldredge does not believe
apart from Scripture! Other than brief endorsements like that the Bible is sufficient. Those who do believe that
the ones above, everything in this book points one are ridiculed and looked down upon as “stunted” (7)
away from Scripture toward individual Christians.
revelations. Such statements serve Though it is the quintessence of In fact, Eldredge not only
only to satisfy those who want both the enthusiasm to pretend to be guided asserts that the Bible does not
Word and their “still small voice.” by the Spirit without the written teach that God speaks only in
As best as I could see, these two Word, yet it is every Christian’s Scripture (13), but he goes on to
bounden duty to be guided by the
brief statements form all that the author Spirit in conjunction with the written assert that God speaks through
has to say in this book about the Word Word of God. our experiences (xiv), dreams
of God and its centrality to the George Whitefield
(105), and even hawks (117). For
Christian life. However, such Eldredge such additional revelation
endorsements ring hollow and quickly is needed for “matters of counsel
fade from memory since what we are ultimately left with or guidance that are not directly addressed by
in Walking With God is a manual of how to ignore Scripture” (32).
Scripture in favor of hearing from God. Eldredge's firm belief that God speaks to us
Those who believe that the Bible is sufficient for through many means is seen even in his suggestion
“everything pertaining to life and godliness” (2 Peter that his book will be a means through which God will
1:3) are consistently held up for ridicule and correction. speak. He suggests a meditative approach to reading
He refers to “this fellow” who “holds the assumption that his book so that you might hear the voice of God
God doesn't really speak to his children” (6-7). That speaking to you through Eldredge's words. He thinks
seems to be Eldredge's view of those who hold to Sola that even his book may give us “help interpreting the
Scriptura. In Eldredge's world, if you don't believe that events of our lives, and what we are experiencing” (xiii).
we are all receiving and supposed to receive On page xiii Eldredge suggests,

“Walking With God”: A Critical Theological Review by Jim Osman


6
I think this format will allow you to pause along That's like learning to play the piano by starting
the way at those points where God is speaking with Mozart, learning to ski by doing double
to you, shedding light on your story, or teaching black diamonds. There is way too much
you something new. Pause there. Let that be emotion involved, too much swirling around in
the lesson for the day. our heads. I find that to hear the voice of God,
“Let him who Don't just plow through! we must be in a posture of quiet surrender.
would hear God Take your time, and let him Starting with small questions helps us lean to
speak, read Holy speak. do that.
Scripture.”
Martin Luther When one honestly believes Yeah, you know what verse that is don't you?
that we can hear the voice of God Neither do I! Was Saul in a spirit of “quiet surrender”
in a myriad of different ways, then when he heard the voice of Christ on the Damascus
suggesting that we meditate on those sources like we Road? No. Where in Scripture do we read of a person
would Scripture is only reasonable. After all, why not having to be in a spirit of quiet surrender to hear the
take the same approach to the newspaper, the football voice of God? Nowhere. Surely Eldredge wouldn't
schedule, the street sign, the department store argue that Saul of Tarsus was an exception to this. After
advertisement, or a license plate? Or are we just to all, according to Eldredge, the Bible is not a book of
suppose that it is Scripture and Eldredge that are exceptions but a book of examples. So where are our
sources of revelation to us? Once the uniqueness of examples of person after person being in a state of
Scripture is eliminated, then anything becomes a quiet surrender before they could hear the voice of
potential place where we can hear God's voice. God?
Further, why is it that God is only able in the
Eldredge's Subjective Process beginning to communicate on “small” issues like
Although Eldredge warns us that feelings are not a “Should I ride my horse today?” and unable to give
reliable guide for living life (132), one cannot help but direction on larger issues like “Should I marry Ted?” Do
notice that the majority of this book is an illustration of we see this pattern with Saul of Tarsus hearing God for
someone doing just that. Eldredge constantly speaks the first time? Did Isaiah or Moses only get small
about how he feels, what he senses, his emotions, and instructions from the Lord in the beginning: “Should I fry
what he think he hears God say to him. Eldredge, of my manna or boil it?” No.
course, would argue that he doesn't live his life based
on his feelings. In fact, he proposes a process by which Eldredge continues,
we can develop this “conversational intimacy.”
Eldredge does not shy away from giving instruction What I'll do is sit with the question before God
on how to listen and what to ask God.4 On pages 30-31 for several minutes. To help me stay present to
Eldredge gives instruction on how to listen to God's God and not begin to wander. . . , I'll repeat the
voice (any teaching from a Scriptural passage to question quietly in my heart. God do you want
support this “process” is glaringly absent) saying, us to go to the ranch or stay home? I am
settling myself before God. Do you want us to
This is step one in learning to listen to the go to the ranch or stay home? Settle down
voice of God: ask simple questions. You and be present to God. Pause and listen.
cannot start with huge and desperate Repeat the question. Should we go to the
questions, such as, 'Should I marry Ted?' or ranch or stay home? What is your counsel?
“Do you want me to sell the family business (31)
tomorrow?' or 'Do I have lung cancer?'. . .
All of this repeating of the question and listening is
4 This process is described on pages 30-32, 47, 67, 80-81, 123,
197-198, 202, and 204. designed to bring one to a place of “surrender” and a

“Walking With God”: A Critical Theological Review by Jim Osman


7
willingness to do whatever might be revealed as an absurd and even a moment's reflection on Eldredge's
answer. process brings that to light.
What if no discernible answer is forthcoming? If Further elaborating on the process, Eldredge
God isn't able to get through with an answer, then we writes,
just have to start “trying on” answers. Eldredge says,
Let go of the pressure that says you have to
Now, if I don't seem to be able to hear God's hear from him right now or things aren't right
voice in that moment, sometimes what I will do between you. Things are fine. [Of course, he
is “try on” one answer and then the other. Still has himself built such pressure by saying that
in a posture of quiet surrender, I ask the Lord, without hearing from God in this way you will
“Is it yes, you want us to go?'”Pause. In my be “stunted” and won't possess the “lost
heart I am trying it on, letting it be as though treasure of Christian spirituality.”]You are his.
this is God's answer. “We should go?'”Pause Rest your heart and your relationship there.
and listen. “Or is it no, you want us to stay Then ask this simple question: “God what
home?” Pause and let this be his would you have me read today?”
answer. “We should stay “I speak most plainly here, Pause and listen. Repeat the
home?'”Pause and listen again. . . . no additional revelation is question. If you begin to get an
By “trying on” the possible answers, I to be expected, because impression, or believe you heard
find it enables me to come into the book of God is ended, him say something, repeat it.
the revelation of God is
alignment with his Spirit. And, over finished, and he that adds “Was that John 10, Lord? You
time, those deep impressions begin to to the sacred book is want me to read John 10?” (That
form into words. (32) cursed.” “Trying it on” thing.) Practice this
Charles Spurgeon over the course of several
Concerning the same issue, Eldredge weeks. You will be delighted with
encourages us to listen to the “checks in what unfolds. (47)
our spirit” as a means of “trying on” different answers.
He writes, “You may have heard someone use the Once again I ask, “Where do we see this process
expression 'I had a check in my spirit.' It refers to an laid out in Scripture either by teaching or by example?”
internal pause, a hesitancy, a sudden reluctance to This is more in keeping with some forms of Christian
proceed” (32). Of course, not a single Scripture gnosticism than anything Biblical. What type of God has
reference is given, obviously because none could be difficulty communicating clearly? In fact, let's deal with
offered. What verse is it that talks about “trying on” an that question next.
answer from God, or being guided by a “check in the
spirit”? Eldredge's Stuttering Impotent God
Does the above formula resemble anything you see You can see from a couple of the brief quotations
in Scripture? Did any of the men whom Eldredge so above, that God is supposedly not always able to
readily points to as examples hear God in this way and communicate clearly. In fact, He may be hindered from
discern His voice in such a manner? Did Saul of Tarsus communicating because of satanic activity (48, 58), or
say, “Should I stop persecuting Christians?” Wait. because you have not quietly surrendered (30-31).
Pause. Listen. Try on an answer. “I should keep Supposedly, God may not be able to get through to us
persecuting them?” No. Check in my spirit. The Lord unless we check in with Him periodically throughout the
must be saying, “Stop persecuting Christians.” day to give Him opportunity (75). You know, like Saul of
Is this how we read of Moses discerning God's will? Tarsus was doing on the road to Damascus when God
How about Noah? “Build an ark, Lord?” Pause. Listen. spoke to him!
Try on an answer. “Build a piano?” No. Check in my Amazingly, we may even hear from God and not
spirit. I think the Lord is saying “ark.” Of course, this is know it right away. Eldredge says, “Sometimes I'll let

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8
the pad of paper sit on my desk for a week and pray Lord?” Jesus responded with “My love” (75). My love?
over it from time to time before I'm confident that I've What does that mean? Even when Eldredge heard
heard from God” (202). Jesus say this he confessed, “I haven't really known
What?! How can you hear from God and not be what to do with this” (76). It is a hint, a vague reference
confident you have heard from Him? Is that what Moses to an emotion or truth that Eldredge supposedly spends
did? Kept a pad of paper on his desk and prayed over it time reflecting on to discern its meaning. In fact a good
before he was “confident” he had actually heard from portion of the time spent explaining the “my love”
God? answer is spent wondering what God is trying to say.
The God of the Bible He wonders what he is to make of
communicates when He wants and “There is a special curse receiving this repeated, incomplete,
how He wants and no activity of pronounced upon any who cryptic answer. What is the significance
rebels or demons, no lack of shall add to this Book; and you and why does God keep repeating it?
sensitivity or lack of surrender, may rest assured that the Holy Seeing a hawk during a hiking trip,
Spirit will not so transgress in
nothing in all of creation can prohibit a matter which He has Eldredge sensed that God was speaking
Him. God is not hindered in peremptorily forbidden all his through the hawk. He asks, “What is the
communicating. Further, when men children to commit.” hawk saying to me?” The answer: “A
heard from God, they did not doubt Charles Spurgeon symbol of My heart” (117). One is left to
that they heard God. Whether it was wonder how a hawk is a symbol of God's
Moses, Noah, David, Isaiah, Daniel, heart and what possible benefit such a
or Saul of Tarsus, men who heard God speak in the revelation could be. Only adding confusion, Eldredge
Bible did not lack confidence that they were hearing asks, “What is the meaning of the hawk?” to which
God! What kind of a God has trouble speaking? What Jesus answers, “My love.”
kind of a God cannot overcome the resistance of His Having asked God, “How do I think I'm doing God?
creatures to express Himself clearly and confidently? How do you think I'm doing?”, he heard the answer
Listen, God does not try to speak - He does! When “'Just barely.' And then, 'In you'” (140-141). When he
He does, it is clear, it is precise, it is authoritative, it is reflected upon the answer, “In you,” he wondered,
binding, it is confident.
The communications from God that Eldredge What's that supposed to mean? Somewhere
receives bear no resemblance to the type of speaking way down in the depths of me, I could sense a
God does in Scripture. If the Bible is intended to give us comfort and assurance in the phrase, sensed it
an example of what hearing from God looks like, we was speaking to some deep need. But for the
should expect that the types of revelations Eldredge life of me, in the moment, I didn't get it. (141)
says we receive would be just like what we see in
Scripture. They are not. Later on God was able to say, “I am in you,” which
The impressions and communications that helped to clear things up. If only God had been a little
Eldredge receives are more often than not hints, more clear in the beginning! If only God could speak in
figures, clues, and veiled single word answers that are complete sentences, we could avoid so much
often confusing, unclear, and in need of some confusion!
deciphering. For instance, when he asked the Lord When wrestling with the decision to put down a pet,
“What am I dealing with in this spiritual warfare?” Jesus Eldredge heard God say, “Two days,” and then later,
supposedly answered, “Diminishment.” Eldredge took “Your hearts” (126). That's it. Just two words. Can't
that to be the name of a spirit that was afflicting a Jesus speak in complete sentences? And what are we
certain person like a virus (55). It is not clear to me that to make of “your hearts?” That could mean anything. He
there is actually a demon named “Diminishment.” But interpreted these words to mean that they were to put
supposedly that is what Jesus told Eldredge. the dog down in two days and that the reason was
When Eldredge asked God, “What are you saying, because this “would have been wrenching upon all our

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9
hearts to drag this out and let the cancer ravage Scout Eldredge family which was filled with sorrow. I don't
beyond recognition” (126). relate this to poke fun, but only to highlight the
Yet it is possible that the “two days” meant that they theological chaos that this method of walking with God
should have done it two days prior, or two days after is destined to bring.
Christmas, or perhaps to wait two days before The Eldredge family dog, Scout, died. In fact, they
arranging the vet. By the way, I wonder if he consulted had to have the vet come and put Scout down because
Jesus on which vet to choose and what time of the day Scout was filled with cancer. After giving the details
to have the dog put down and if it should be by injection concerning the pain and emotion of the event and the
or some other means. arrival of the vet, Eldredge writes,
Perhaps the “your hearts” meant that their hearts
were deceived about the two days or that their hearts Now, I don't know what you are going to make
were not in the right place to make this decision. This of this, but I have to tell you the rest of the
type of revelation is open to private interpretation (2 story. When Scout died, I heard him bark. Not
Peter 1:19-21). If only Jesus could more clearly in my memory, not in the past, but in that
communicate to us, we wouldn't have any doubt what moment. In the kingdom of God. I though,
He meant. “Really? Did I just hear that?” (125)
Does this type of communication bear any
resemblance to what we read in Scripture? No. In Eldredge knows that many will not embrace what
Scripture God is not limited to giving just one- and two- he “heard” and so he is quick to acknowledge that
word answers to questions, but is very specific and based upon the statement that “the lion will lie down
clear. Entire chapters are spent giving detailed with the lamb” in the kingdom, there will be animals in
instructions, prophecies and warnings. In fact, after Heaven. From this, Eldredge draws his confidence that
reading Eldredge, one is left wondering if Jesus can “I believe that God preserves the life of animals ” (125)
speak in complete sentences anymore. One-, two-, and in the Kingdom.
three-word answers which are often more confusing Knowing that many will disagree, he says,
than clear seem to be
the way in which Jesus Many good theologians believe we will see our
“One erroneous principle,
than which scarce any has
is limited to speak beloved animals in heaven. But I won't go into
proved more mischievous nowadays. a theological debate here. I asked Jesus, 'What
to the present glorious The God supposedly do dogs do in the kingdom, Lord?' And he said,
work of God, is a notion speaking to Eldredge 'They run.' And then I saw Scout, with the eyes
that it is God’s manner in bears no resemblance of my heart, running with a whole pack of very
these days to guide His
to the God of the Bible happy dogs, near the feet of Jesus. (125)
saints, at least some that
are more eminent, by and the voice heard by
inspiration, or immediate Eldredge bears no Look at the convoluted thinking in that paragraph.
revelation. . . . This error similarity to that heard Many good theologians believe our pets will be in
will defend and support by Moses, Noah, and Heaven, and Eldredge acknowledges that this is a
errors. As long as a person Saul (our supposed subject of theological debate. He doesn't want to
has a notion that he is
guided by immediate examples). engage the subject or try to defend one position or the
direction from heaven, it other. Yet, he does enter the theological debate by
makes him incorrigible and Pets in Heaven? saying that Jesus told him that there will be dogs in
impregnable in all his To demonstrate the Heaven. It seems to me that that should end all
misconduct. . . .” confusing world that theological debate! Doesn't the fact that Jesus ruled on
Jonathan Edwards such personal such a subject end the debate? Doesn't Jesus'
revelations can bring, statement to Eldredge on the issue constitute
we need only look at an incident in the life of the dependable revelation? Or was Jesus lying?

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10
Eldredge got confirmation to what Jesus told him Eldredge? Is it authoritative or not? If so, we should
when he relayed those words of Jesus to his family. write it in the back of our Bible and preach from it like
we do the rest of the Scriptures. If not, we can dispense
I shared the story with Stasi [his wife] and the with this “hearing from God” as so much nonsense. I
boys, and Blaine said, 'Yes, I heard something opt for the latter.
too. Right after Scout died. Jesus said, “He
won't give me the ball.”' That was Scout's A Very Confusing Definition of “Gospel”
trademark, to come up to you to play ball, This part of the review would be much easier and
tennis ball already in his mouth, but then he perhaps unnecessary if Eldredge had spent a bit more
wouldn't give it to you. To hear that from Jesus time describing and defending the gospel. His lack of
was more precious to us than I can say. (125) description and lack of clarity on the gospel leads one
to question whether he even understands what the
Apparently in Eldredge's theology, a statement from gospel is. That is disturbing to say the least!
Jesus to himself and his son Blaine is not sufficient to For instance, in a section titled “Not Every Gospel
settle the debate about pets in Heaven. In fact, based is Equal” (164) Eldredge rightly asserts that we ought to
upon what Eldredge was told by the Shepherd Himself, judge between truth and error and lovingly state that
there should be no debate which is true and confront and expose that which is
“Some, I know, fall into a whatsoever. false. He argues that we have a responsibility to speak
very vicious habit, which It would be far more out against error. (Ironically, I believe we have that
habit they excuse consistent and intellectually responsibility too, which is why I write this review.)
themselves - namely, honest for Eldredge to The problem is that Eldredge seems to use the
that of ordering their
footsteps according to simply say, “Up to this
term “gospel” to refer to distinctions between various
impressions. Every now point, many have doubted movements within Christianity. He encourages us to
and then I meet with whether God brings our “judge” between some beliefs within Christianity. For
people whom I think to pets to Heaven or not. I instance, in explaining why he does not refer people to
be rather weak in the want you to know that the a particular Christian college, Eldredge asserts that
head, who will journey
from place to place and
debate is over. The issue is “They just don't get it.” In his own words, “What I was
will perform follies by settled. Jesus told me that referring to were three issues – that the heart is central
the gross under the dogs run in the kingdom to the Christian life, that we are invited into a
belief that they are doing and my son heard Jesus conversational intimacy with God, and that spiritual
the will of God because playing fetch with Scout. I warfare is real” (165).
some silly whim of their
heard the words of Jesus Apparently, this particular Christian college didn't
diseased brains is
imagined to be an so that settles it.” believe the heart was central to the Christian life, didn't
inspiration from above.” As it is, there is no believe we all hear from God in the way Eldredge
Charles Spurgeon
need to look to the describes, and didn't embrace the view of spiritual
Scripture for insight on the warfare that he promotes in this book (dealt with below).
nature of the kingdom or Is this what Eldredge believes is the gospel? The
the nature of Heaven. All that is needed is to ask Jesus answer to that question is difficult to assess.
and listen for the Savior's voice. There is no need to Problematic is the fact that in the only section on the
observe from Scripture that “the lion will lie down with gospel in the book, Eldredge does not mention the
the lamb.” All that is needed is Jesus' words to Eldredge depravity of man, his lostness in sin, justification by faith
to settle the issue. alone in Christ alone, forgiveness, redemption, the
Only in Eldredge's theology can Jesus making a death of Christ as an atonement for sin, the
theological statement on a theological issue be seen as resurrection, the need for repentance or the need for
not entering into a theological debate. This is twisted. faith. What are we to make of that?
What are we to make of what Jesus revealed to John Eldredge even quotes the anathema placed on

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11
false gospels in Galatians 1:6-9. Yet, he seems to Truly, this theology can only lead to chaos and
mean that anyone who does not accept his view of confusion in the body of Christ!
spiritual warfare and hearing God's voice fall under that
pronouncement. If his perspective on “hearing God A Candid Admission
speak” is part of his “gospel” then it is Eldredge who is Eldredge admits that there is danger in living the
under the anathema, not those who question his way he is suggesting. On page 203-204 he writes,
peculiar practices.
Now, I am not encouraging a senseless
Hearing From God For Others approach to life. I'm not saying that you should
Without any support from Scripture by way of citing follow every thought that passes through your
verses (Eldredge isn't bound to the Bible since much of head. There is wisdom, and there is revelation.
his theology comes from his extra-Biblical revelations) They go together, hand in hand. [Here he
he claims, quotes and twists the meaning of Ephesians
1:17]. . . Knowing that, we need to admit that
Listening to God on behalf of one another may risk is always involved when we encourage
be one of the greatest gifts we can offer each others to walk with God. People have done a
other in the body of Christ. If you haven't yet, lot of really stupid things in the name of
you'll soon find that it is far easier to hear the following Jesus. For that reason there are folks
voice of God for someone else than it is to hear in the church who don't want to encourage this
it for yourself. I'm not sure all the reasons for sort of risk, this walking with God. Over the
that. (110) centuries they have tried to eliminate the
messiness of a personal relationship with
What verse is that? What spiritual gift listed in Jesus by instituting rules, programs, formulas,
Ephesians 4, 1 Peter 4, Romans 12, or 1 Corinthians methods, and procedures. Those things may
12 would that be? have eliminated some of the goofy things that
Eldredge admits that sometimes people can give happen when people are encouraged to follow
mistaken information when trying to hear the voice of God for themselves. But they also eliminated
God for you (124). Again, God has a hard time the very intimacy God calls us to.
communicating to His children clearly. People
sometimes get it wrong. Although he admits that people Ironically, it is Eldredge's system of following Jesus
may be mistaken, he offers no counsel on how to and hearing from God that has resulted in people doing
discern when someone is mistaken. really stupid things in the name of following Jesus. That
What are we to do when someone “hears the voice in itself should be cause for concern and should prompt
of God” on our behalf and we suspect it is wrong? The one to wonder if there is a more Biblical way that does
results of not obeying such revelation from God to not produce such devastating fruit. Indeed, I would
others on our behalf may carry disastrous and deadly suggest that looking to Scripture and Scripture alone for
consequences as we will see later. What if someone the voice of God would be the proper corrective.
says, “God is telling me that you are to sell your home, It is Eldredge who has offered “programs, formulas,
be a missionary to Muslims in Darfur and not marry”? methods and procedures” for people to follow. He offers
You may respond, “Well, I don't at all sense that formulaic prayers which promise protection from the
that is the Lord's call on my life.” demonic. He has laid out methods of hearing God's
They can respond, “I know I am hearing the voice voice including asking questions, pausing, listening,
of God for you. This is one of the most precious gifts I submitting, asking the second question, and trying on
can be offering to you. This is my spiritual gift, my answers. He has given in this book procedures for
service to the body of Christ. How can you doubt what I dealing with demons, for prayer, and for knowing God's
am hearing and what God is clearly saying?” will.

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Indeed, a lot of people have done a lot of foolish and needs to be prayed against repeatedly.
things in the name of “hearing from God” when simply
reading and obeying their Bibles could have saved ➔ Eldredge says we should command demons
them a fountain of grief. In the end, when one follows out loud (54) and quotes Acts 16:18 in support.
the unclear, confusing, subjective promptings of their
depraved mind in the name of “hearing from God,” God ➔ Eldredge teaches the need to banish demons
gets blamed for a lot of sin, stupidity, and silliness. named Lust, Desolation (111), Diminishment,
and Despair. We are told to call the spirits by
Spiritual Warfare name (54-56, 217).
The purpose of this review is to critique Eldredge's
theology of “hearing the voice of God” so I do not want ➔ We are told to “bind Satan” (55-56, 217) and
to spend too much time on the various errors in his supposedly it takes much time for God to work
theology of spiritual warfare. Yet surprisingly, a good through these prayers and we need to wait for
amount of the book is taken up with this subject so it the effects of our prayers in the spiritual realm
deserves some attention. I have critiqued these to work themselves out in the physical realm.
methods of spiritual warfare in a series of sermons I
preached from Ephesians 6, ➔ He teaches that demons cause sorrow,
“How one views so I will not go into a thorough emotional pain, spiritual oppression, and can
Scripture will treatment on the theology of jump from one person to another (98). He says
determine the rest of spiritual warfare here. Below is that spirits afflict like a virus moving from one
one’s theology.”
a list of the errors, falsehoods, person to another, even through casual contact
- James White and false doctrines concerning (112). We have to pray against them as they
spiritual warfare that are move from person to person (113, 173) since
presented prominently in someone else's warfare can transfer to you.
Walking With God.
➔ Eldredge asserts that we have the power to
➔ Eldredge seems to make much of the power send a spirit (demon) to the “feet of Jesus”
and influence of “agreements.” In fact, these (111).
form a large part of his view of spiritual warfare,
the power of the demonic, and what Eldredge ➔ Feelings and thoughts must be “renounced”
calls the “thief of joy” (81). These “agreements” lest the Devil gain a foothold (112-113).
can be made with ourselves, the thief of joy, or
with the enemy (Satan). An “agreement” can be ➔ Individual sins have to be renounced in order to
an erroneous belief (e.i. “God doesn't love me”) be delivered, healed, or freed from them no
or wrong behaviors or wrong patterns of living matter how far past they may be (160).
(147). In Eldredge's worldview, these
“agreements” seem to take on a mystical ➔ Nightmares are caused by demons who must
power, a Satanic energy, or a binding quality. have specific prayers, mantras, or incantations
These “agreements” need to be “renounced” uttered against them (170) in order to be
and “verbally repudiated” or Satan may gain a defeated. Waking up early or being unable to
foothold (173, 176, 182, 184, 186, 195, 196, get a full night's sleep is caused by demons
210). and some form of spiritual warfare is needed to
defeat this “thief of joy” (148).
➔ Eldredge mentions praying against the “thief of
joy” (81). We are not told exactly who or what ➔ The prayer offered at the end of the book is
that is, but this thief appears more than once typical of the type of mantra-like, voodoo-style,

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13
reverse curses upon the demonic that are the losing end of a run-away horse resulting in the
offered on a more than regular basis injuries.
throughout the book. These include: 1) Why the tragic accident? Eldredge attributes the
“bringing the full work of Jesus Christ” to bear accident to two things: 1) not asking “where” to ride the
on people, animals, inanimate objects, horses (since it was going past a particular woodpile
kingdoms, demons, struggles, hexes, curses, which spooked the horse and caused the accident), and
Satanic oppression, and a host of situations 2) not praying over the horse long enough in order to
and circumstances (106-107, 111, 124, 129, bring it under the authority and kingdom of Jesus Christ
150, 170, 173, 194, 216-217), 2) praying over and to bring down peace upon the animal by “binding”
animals to “bring them under the authority and fear and rebellion.
kingdom of Jesus Christ (81, 90), 3) breaking In fact, Eldredge offers this lesson learned,
or reversing curses, or hexes (136, 216-217),
4) naming spirits and rebuking incantations That's a really important part of listening to
(150, 216-217), 5) praying over a knife and God, by the way. Ask the next question. So
forbidding it to be a channel for unclean spirits often we get an answer to the first part of a
(174) and 6) being wary since spirits can attach question but fail to ask the second half. . . Don't
themselves to all kinds of things (75). just get a first impression and then blast ahead.
It might have been good for us to ask, “Where
In short, Eldredge's view of demons, the demonic, should we ride?'” (81)
the occult, spirits, Satan, and Christian spiritual warfare
leaves a lot to be desired. It has more in common with a According to Eldredge, the tragedy came because
pagan worldview and extra-biblical practices than he failed to say the right prayers and ask the right
anything found in Scripture. References to Scripture or questions. If we don't stop to ask the right questions of
biblical support for any of his spiritual warfare practices God, if we are not thorough enough to ask adequate
are glaringly absent! The lack of Scriptural support for questions and listen for the answers, we can make
these practices doesn't deter Eldredge one bit. Many of horrible presumptuous decisions and end up in the
the methods he employs are done because they are arms of tragedy requiring surgery! Apparently God is
things that Jesus directly tells him to do, whispering in able to give one-word hints about what He wants us to
his ear. do, but is unable to providentially control events or
prevent things from happening to His children. What
A Case Study in Bad Theology kind of a “god” is this? Quite simply, this is not the
The poor theology, superstition, and chaos of the God of the Bible!
Eldredge teaching comes into clear focus in one Where does Eldredge's silliness stop? Why not ask
particular section where all these errors seem to collide how long to ride the horse, whether to water the horse
in Technicolor. On page 79, Eldredge begins telling the before the trip, whether to wear the blue jacket or the
story of a horse ride gone bad. Unfortunately, the ride red jacket on the ride, whether to take the left turn out of
ends in an accident which breaks his nose, one wrist the barn or the right turn? How can someone expect to
and dislocates the other wrist requiring surgery. live in constant fear that they are making wrong, life-
Eldredge had asked the Lord whether to ride the threatening, and potentially tragic decisions all because
horses or not, and having received a “yes” he went they failed to ask the “next question”?
riding. He even prayed over the horse one of his Eldredge apparently assumes that all tragedy, or
mantra-like prayers bringing the animal “under the sorrow is not God's will and anytime it strikes it must be
authority of Christ and His kingdom.” However, during because we failed to ask the right questions, pray the
the ride Eldredge took the horse past a wood pile in one right mantra, or read the signs God was trying to send
particular draw which had spooked the horse in the to us. If only God could somehow communicate to us,
past. Once the horse was spooked, Eldredge was on get through to us and speak clearly! Oh how much

“Walking With God”: A Critical Theological Review by Jim Osman


14
tragedy could be avoided! If only He were in control! clear Word of God for such stuttering impotent
Further, Eldredge teaches that praying down the communication as Eldredge opts for? As the hymn
peace of Christ on the animals happens before every writer has said,
ride, so apparently it doesn't last, and we don't know
how long it does last. The horses apparently slip out of How firm a foundation, ye saints of the Lord,
the authority of Jesus Christ and out of His Kingdom. Is laid for your faith in His excellent Word!
What more can He say than to you He hath said,
Summary Conclusion To you who for refuge to Jesus have fled?
In Walking with God, Eldredge offers a subjective,
emotions-based, unclear paradigm for hearing God's Indeed! What more need He say?
voice. This book is short on exegesis, theology,
consistency, clear thinking, and filled with errors, bad Without Wax -
theology, subjective impressions, and mystical, gnostic
practices which undermine the authority and sufficiency
of Scripture. This approach to hearing from God apart
from the Bible will only lead people away from the God Jim Osman
of the Bible. Kootenai Community Church
This becomes apparent when one looks at the www.kootenaichurch.org
theology of God presented in Eldredge's journal of
walking with God. Eldredge's God cannot providentially
control events, has a hard time communicating with His
creatures, needs our submission and cooperation to
accomplish His will, and is unable to keep calamity from
occurring if we fail to go through the motions of listening
for His voice. Eldredge's God speaks in one- or two-
word answers, often incomplete sentences which are
mysterious at best and cryptic
“It is a dangerous at worst. The communication
thing for us to make offered by Eldredge's God
the whims of our bears absolutely no
brain instead of the resemblance to the
clear precepts of communications offered by the
God, the guide of
our moral actions.” God of the Bible in the Bible.
The “gospel” of Eldredge bears
Charles Spurgeon
no resemblance to the gospel of
the New Testament.
The spiritual warfare practiced by Eldredge by way
of incantations, mantras, formulaic prayers, vexes,
curses, and naming demons bears no resemblance to
anything taught in Scripture.
Let the discerning reader avoid at all costs the pool
of chaotic subjectivism, theological confusion, and
uncertain divining of signs, impressions, and thoughts
which Eldredge calls “conversational intimacy” and cling
instead to the more sure Word to which we do well to
pay attention (2 Peter 1:19-21). Who would trade the

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