(Master Musicians Series) Julian Budden - Verdi (2008, Oxford University Press) PDF

T H E M A S T E R M U S I C I A N S
VERDI
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Bach • Malcolm Boyd Mendelssohn • Phili p Radcliff e
Beethoven • Barr y Cooper Monteverdi • Deni s Arnold
Berlioz • Hug h Macdonal d Puccini • Julian Budden
Handel • Donal d Burrows Purcell • J. A.Westrup
Liszt ' Dere k Watson Schumann • Eri c Frederick Jensen
Mahler • Michae l Kennedy Tchaikovsky • Edwar d Garden
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Mozart • Julian Rushton Rossini • Richar d Osborn e
Musorgsky ' Davi d Brown Schütz * Basil Smallman
VERDI
Third Edition
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2008
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publicatio n Dat a

Budden, Julian.
Verdi /Julian Budden. — 3r d ed.
p. cm. — (Th e maste r musicians)
Works list : p .
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-19-532342-9
i. Verdi , Giuseppe , 1813-1901 . 2 . Composers—Italy —
2. Biograph y I . Tide .
ML4IO.V4B9 2008
782.1092—dc22 [B ] 2008001234
1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed i n the Unite d State s of America
on acid-fre e pape r
Preface to Third Edition
S INCE TH E APPEARANC E O F THI S VOLUME' S PREDECESSOR , VERD I

scholarship ha s proceeded apac e with further critica l editions o f his
operas, publication s o f hi s correspondence , regula r issue s o f th e peri -
odical Studi verdiani fro m th e Istitut o Nazional e d i Stud i Verdian i i n
Parma an d o f th e Newsletter (no w entitle d Verdi Forum) o f its sister or -
ganisation, th e America n Institut e fo r Verd i Studies , Ne w York . Th e
centenary of the composer's deat h in 2001 gave rise to various congresses
in Ital y an d abroad which, togethe r wit h th e reviva l o f superseded ver -
sions of his music, have filled out the picture we already have of the man
and the musician . One complete d number , hithert o inaccessible , has in
the meantime come to light: the substitute aria, 'Sventurato! ali a mia vita'
written fo r the Russia n teno r Nicol a Ivanof F to inser t into Attila. Espe -
cially welcome ha s been th e recen t willingnes s o f the composer' s heir s
to mak e availabl e th e sketches , continuit y draft s an d 'skeleto n scores '
(melody an d bass only wit h occasiona l instrumental indications ) house d
in th e archive s o f the Vill a S . Ágata , all of which provid e a fascinatin g
glimpse into his workshop. W e learn , among much else , that despite his
defence as late as 1880 of the cabalett a as a musical form, it was always the
cabalettas tha t gave Verdi th e mos t troubl e (indeed , a discarded versio n
of Francesco's Tremate , o miseri!' ha s been foun d amon g th e materia l
for / masnadieri, while n o less than si x sketches exis t o f Germont's 'No,
non udra i rimproveri ' i n La tmviata). I t has even been possible to make a
hypothetical reconstructio n o f U n bailo i n maschera a s it existe d prio r t o
vi • Preface t o Third Edition
censorial interference . I f such experiment s ad d little t o th e composer' s

stature, they shed ever more light on the sum of his musical thinking. Th e
aim of the present edition is to bring the reader up to date, taking account,
however summary , of recent developments in what must inevitably be an
on-going process, bearing witness to th e unflaggin g enthusiasm for th e
heritage of one who, in the words of the late John Rosselli, 'built to last'.
J.B.
Julian Budde n passed away on 2 8 February 2007, while thi s edition wa s

in production . Oxfor d Universit y Pres s extends it s sincere gratitude t o
Roger Parker for his generous assistance in preparing the manuscript for
publication.
Preface
F EW COMPOSER S HAV E BEE N A S SPECTACULARL Y REVALUE D OVE R

th e las t fift y year s as Verdi, especiall y in Britain . I f certai n o f ou r
inter-war critics—notabl y Dent , Blo m an d Tovey—wer e neve r i n
doubt a s to hi s greatness , fo r th e majorit y h e wa s th e compose r o f U
trovatore who acquired respectability only in Otello, Falstaffznd the Re-
quiem. The pioneering studie s of Bonavia and Toye undoubtedly helpe d
to tur n th e tid e i n hi s favour . Ye t fo r man y year s t o com e Englis h
Verdians woul d fee l themselve s t o b e o n th e defensive ; and a note o f
apology can be sensed in their writings on the subject. But with th e end
of th e wa r th e Verdi-renaissanc e tha t ha d begu n i n German y i n th e
19205 showed no signs of abating. Operas which ha d been though t dea d
beyond recal l wer e unearthed , stage d an d foun d t o b e good . Th e
ominous critica l opening, 'I t i s easy t o se e why thi s opera i s so seldo m
revived', was less and less frequently t o be encountered . A landmark i n
the growin g appreciation o f Verdi's work s wa s the foundatio n in 196 0
of the Istitut o di Stud i Verdian i a t Parm a unde r th e presidenc y o f th e
veteran compose r Ildebrand o Pizzetti . Over the following years it acted
as a foca l poin t fo r internationa l scholarship . It s siste r branch , th e
American Institut e fo r Verd i Studie s i n Ne w York , founde d i n 1975 ,
possesses a unique wealth o f archive material. A comparison of Bonavia's
i2O-page life-and-work s o f 193 0 wit h Busch' s massiv e monograph o n
Aida o f 197 8 o r th e Macbeth sourceboo k wil l giv e a fai r ide a o f th e
altered perspectiv e o n a compose r whos e nam e Wagne r coul d hardl y
vüi • Preface
bear t o hea r mentioned . I n th e meantim e Fran k Walker' s Th e Ma n

Verdi (1962 ) se t a n entirel y ne w standar d o f biographical accurac y an d
acumen.
Inevitably, therefore, Dyneley Hussey's admirable study of 1940 in the
Master Musicians series falls short of today's needs if only because, like his
predecessors, h e wa s forced t o pas s judgment o n opera s whic h h e ha d
never seen but which today are staged all over the world. Indeed , it coul d
reasonably b e aske d whethe r ther e i s an y longe r a plac e fo r a singl e
volume devote d t o the life and works in view o f the vast mass of material
relevant t o both. The answe r i s that a short stud y written i n the light o f
the lates t scholarly findings without settin g them fort h in detai l can still
be usefu l t o th e non-specialise d musica l reader. The presen t book con -
tains n o sensationa l revelations, offer s n o radicall y ne w perspective s o n
the music . I t i s rather a bird's-eye view , whos e purpos e i s to giv e in -
formation relevan t t o an assessment of the subject in a compendious an d
easily accessibl e form. Inevitabl y certai n list s give n i n th e appendices —
notably the Bibliography an d the Personalia have had to b e selective. Th e
Bibliography i s based on that of Andrew Porter followin g the Verdi entry
in Th e Ne w Grove Dictionary o f Music an d Musicians.
My thanks are due above all to the Istituto di Studi Verdiani in Parma
and t o it s sister organisation, th e America n Institut e of Verdi Studie s in
New York, for making various materials available to me; and also to those
friends an d colleagues mentione d in the preface s to m y three volumes,
The Operas o f Verdi, wh o hav e never ceased to giv e me valuabl e help.
J.B.
For th e ne w America n editio n (1996 ) I have take n th e opportunit y o f

making a number of minor correction s and of updating the bibliography .
J-B.
Contents
Illustrations xi
Key to Sigla xiii
Part I Th e Lif e
1 Earl y Lif e a t Busseto i
2 Succes s and Failur e in Mila n 1 4
3 Th e Journeyman 2 7
4 Florence , London an d Paris 3 9
5 Retur n t o Busset o 5 3
6 Viv a V.E.R.D.1 6 7
7 Th e Ne w Orde r 8 3
8 Th e Dar k Decad e 10 6
9 India n Summe r 12 7
10 Th e Las t Year s 14 1
11 Verd i a s Man an d Artis t 15 1
Part I I Th e Musi c
12 Th e Backgroun d 16 3
13 Fro m Oberto t o Ernani 16 8

Oberto, Conte di San Bonifado, Un giomo di regno,
Nabucco, I Lombardi alla prima crodata, Ernani
14 Th e Priso n Year s 18 5
/ due Foscari, Giovanna a'Arco, Alzira, Attila, Macbeth, I masnadieri,
Jérusalem, E corsaro, La battaglia di Legnano, Luisa Miller
x • Contents
15 Th e Hig h Noo n 21 7
Stiffelio, Rigoletto, II trovatore, La traviata
16 Toward s Gran d Opera 24 1

Les vêpres siciliennes, Simon Boccanegra, Aroldo,
Un bailo in maschem, Laforza del destino, Don Carlos, Aida
17 Th e Fina l Masterpieces 29 2
Otello, Fahtaff
18 Miscellaneou s Operatic Composition s 30 9
19 Chambe r Composition s 31 5
20 Chora l an d Religious Work s 32 9
Appendices
A. Calenda r 36 3
B. Lis t o f Works 37 9
C. Personali a 38 3
D. Selec t Bibliography 39 2
E. Glossar y of Nineteenth-Century Operati c Term s 40 4
Index 407
Illustrations
Between pages no and in

1. Rocc a di Busseto (from a painting by Marchesi, Museo teatrale alia
Scala, Milan)
2. Antoni o Barezzi (photograph, Istituto Nazionale di Studi Verdiani,
Parma)
3. Verd i in 184 3 (painting , Museo teatrale alia Scala , Milan )
4. Rigoletto: origina l se t desig n fo r Ac t I , scen e 2 b y Giusepp e an d
Pietro Bertoja (Bibliotec a Correr , Venice)
5. H trovatore: original set design fo r Ac t II , scen e 2 by Giusepp e an d
Pietro Bertoj a (Biblioteca Correr , Venice)
6. Temistocl e Solera (photograph , Conservatori o 'G . Verdi', Milan)
7. Francesc o Mari a Piav e (engraving , Archivi o storic o Ricordi ,
Milan)
8. Verd i rehearsin g U n bailo i n maschera, Naples , 185 8 (caricatur e by
Melchiorre Deifico, Villa Sant'Ágata, Busseto)
9. Antoni o Ghislanzon i (photograph, Archivio storico Ricordi, Milan)
ID. Teres a Stolz (from a pastel by Gariboldi , Museo teatrale alia Scala,
Milan)
11. Teres a Stolz as Aida (photograph, Museo teatrale alia Scala, Milan)
12. Verd i an d Boito a t Milan (photograph , Archivi o storic o Ricordi,
Milan)
13. Giuli o Ricord i (photograph , Archivio storico Ricordi, Milan)
14. Giuseppin a Streppon i Verd i i n ol d ag e (photograph , Vill a
Sant'Ágata, Busseto)
15. Verdi , wit h L a Scala i n th e backgroun d (photograph , Conserva -
torio 'G . Verdi', Müan)
Page 354
'Pietà, Signor ' (1894 ) (Facsimile , Istitut o Nazional e d i Stud i Ver -
diani, Parma)
xi
This page intentionally left blank
Key to Sigla
AGV F . Abbiati Giuseppe Verdi ( 4 vols Milan, 1959 )

AIVS Newsletters, America n Institut e
for Verd i Studie s (New York , 1976- )
AVI A. Alberti Verdi intimo: Carteggio di Giuseppe
Verdi con il Conte Opprandino
Anivabene (1861-1886) (Verona , 1931 )
BOV J . Budde n The Operas o f Verdi ( 3 vols London ,
1973-81)
BSV A . Basev i Studio sulk opere di Giuseppe Verdi
(Florence, 1859 )
BVA H . Busch Verdi's Aida: the History of an Opera in
Letters an d Documents (Minneapolis ,
1978)
CBM M . Conati La bottega delta música: Verdi e La
Fenice (Milan , 1983 )
CI G . Cenzato Itinerari verdiani (Milan , 1951 )
CIIV M . Conat i Interviste e Incontri con Verdi
(Parma, 1980 )
CMVC C . M. Mossa, ed. Carteggio Verdi-Cammarano 1843-1852
(Parma, 2001 )
DFV R . D e Rensi s Franco Faccio e Verdi: Carteggi e
documenti inediti (Milan , 1934 )
GBM L.A . Garibaldi Giuseppe Verdi neue lettere di
Emanuele Muzio ad Antonio
Barezzi (Milan , 1931 )
GGDC U . Günthe r 'La Genès e d e Do n Carlos, opéra
en cin q actes de Giuseppe Verdi ,
représenté pour l a première foi s à
Paris le il mar s 1867' in Revue de
musicologie (Paris ) 58 (1972 ) 6 0 (1974 )
Xlll
xiv • Key t o Sigla
GVIM G.G . Varesi 'L'interpretazione di Macbeth' i n

Nuova Antología (Nov.-Dec . 1932 )
Anno 2 7 fascicolo 1958 , pp. 433-4 0
HFVO S . Hughes Famous Verdi Operas (London , 1968 )
LCC A . Luzio I copialettere di Giuseppe Verdi
& G. Cesari (Milan, 1913 )
LCV A . Luzio Carteggi Verdiani ( 4 vols Rome,
1935-47)
LPB A. Luzio Proßli biografid e bozzetti storici
(2 vol s Milan, 1927 )
MCVB M . Medic i Carteggio Verdi-Boito ( 2 vols,
& M. Conat i Parma, 1978 )
MGV G . Marchesi Giuseppe Verdi, l'uomo, il genio,
Vartista (Milan , 1981 )
MPMV M . J. Phillips-Mat z Verdi: A Biography (Ne w York , 1983 )
MV G . Monaldi Verdi (1839-1898) (4t h ed. Milan ,
i95i)
MVA G . Monald i Verdi aneddotico (L'Aquila, 1926 )
MVLT G . Martin Verdi, his music, life & times
(London, 1964 )
PLVE J.G . Prod'homm e 'Lettres inédites d e Giuseppe
Verdi à Léon Escudier' in Rivista
Musicale Italiana (Rome ) 35 , 192 8
PRB A. Pascolato Re Lear e Bailo in Maschera.
Lettere di Giuseppe Verdi ad
Antonio Somma (Citt à d i Castello, 1902 )
PUVD J.G . Prod'homm e 'Unpublished letters from Verdi
to Camill e D u Lóele ' Musical Quarterly
(New York) 1921 , VII
PVAF A . Pougin Vita aneddotica di Giuseppe Verdi
con note aggiunte di Folchetto
(Milan 1881 )
PVS A . Porte r 'Les Vêpres Siciliennes: Ne w letter s fro m
Verdi to Scribe ' in icjth-Century Music
(Berkeley), 2 no. 2 (1978 )
RCVS S . Pvicciardi Carteggio Verdi-Somma (Parma , 2003)
Key t o Sigla • xv
TGV F . Toy e Giuseppe Verdi, hi s life & works

(Milan, 1931 )
VBISV Verdi : Bollettini dell'Istituto
di Studi Verdiani (Panna, 1960-82 )
WMV F . Walker Th e Man Verdi (London , 1962 )
ZMVS U . Zopp i Angelo Mariani, Giuseppe Verdi e
Teresa Stolz (Milan , 1947 )
P A R T O N E
The Life
C H A P T E R O N E
Early Life at Busseto
'. . . BUT ALAS! BOR N POOR , I N A POOR VILLAGE , I HADN' T TH E MEANS

of acquiring any education; they put a wretched spinet under my hands
and som e tim e afte r tha t I starte d writing notes.. . notes on e afte r th e
other. That' s all... And the fact i s that now I' m a n old man I have great
doubts a s to th e valu e of thos e notes.. . '* Verdi' s ow n word s writte n
to Caterin a Pigorin i Ber i o n th e ev e o f his seventy-eighth birthda y in
a mood o f depression have too ofte n bee n take n by biographers at their
face valu e as a thumbnail sketc h of his career. No r di d h e himsel f dis -
courage this . Th e stor y o f th e illiterat e peasan t bo y wh o ros e b y hi s
own effor t t o becom e hi s country's tutelary deity had a great appeal for
a moralising century—another progress from log-cabin t o White House .
The trut h is less dramatic though no t quit e as different a s certain recent
writers would have us believe. Verdi's background was indeed provincial;
and because of it he made his way slowly even though from an early age his
gifts wer e neve r in doubt. N o Italia n compose r of comparable eminenc e
had to wait until the age of twenty-six fo r his first opera to be staged.
In the previous century such a background would have been no bar to
early success . Certainl y i t was an advantage to hav e been born into th e
profession as were Bach, Mozart and Beethoven; but s o long as there was
a music-lovin g nobl e i n th e vicinity , wh o woul d tak e hi m int o hi s
employ, th e bo y wh o showe d a talent for music would b e give n ever y
1
civ, p. 25.
i
2• VERDI
opportunity fo r developin g it . Hi s patron woul d sen d hi m a t hi s ow n

expense t o som e well-know n musica l centr e wher e h e coul d perfec t
himself in the lates t style of composition an d in due cours e d o credit t o
his patron's establishment. But with th e decline o f private orchestras, the
founding o f conservatories in which place s were compete d for , and th e
general shift of the musical centre of gravity north of the Alps, the picture
changed. Fo r one who aspire d to th e heights of artistic accomplishmen t
Verdi was badly placed.
He wa s born o n 9 October 181 3 a t the hamlet o f Le Roncóle, thre e
miles from Busseto, a little marke t town i n the province o f Parma. Soo n
to revert to its status as a Duchy, Parma then forme d part of Napoleon' s
Kingdom o f Italy—hence the Frenc h Christian names , Joseph Fortuni n
François, entered in the municipal register instead of Giuseppe Fortunino
Francesco. His father, Carlo Verdi, came of a family which had once held
property i n and around Busseto but whos e fortune s had of recent years
declined. H e himsel f kept the in n a t Roncóle whic h als o serve d as the
provision store . I n 180 5 h e ha d marrie d Luigi a Uttini , hersel f a n inn -
keeper's daughte r fro m th e provinc e o f Piacenza. Tradespeople , then ,
not peasants ; and though i n a report o n th e famil y publishe d in Busseto
in 183 2 both are described as 'illetterati' ('uncultured', rather than 'illiter-
ate', fo r whic h th e Italia n wor d i s 'analfabeto' ) Carl o wa s sufficientl y
educated t o ac t a s secretary t o th e treasur y of th e church , S . Michèl e
Arcangelo, in Roncóle fro m 182 5 to 1840 . Several letters have survived
written i n hi s ow n hand ; on e wa s even pu t o n displa y in a theatrical
exhibition organise d by the Cas a Ricordi in 1894 . There wa s never any
excuse for the belief tha t Carlo Verd i coul d neithe r rea d nor write .
Of Verdi's life as a child little survives except legend an d some jottings
for a n unwritten biograph y mad e long afterward s by his fellow-Bussetan
and fanatica l admirer , Giusepp e Demaldé. It is said that when th e allie d
armies swept back in 181 4 Luigia was forced to take refuge i n the churc h
belfry togethe r wit h he r infan t son . Tw o year s late r sh e bor e a girl ,
Giuseppa Francesca . A verbal tradition ha s it tha t Giuseppa' s brai n was
damaged a s a result of meningitis; but Demaldé , recordin g he r deat h i n
1833, mentions nothing of this, only that she was pleasant, beautiful, kin d
and well-mannere d an d tha t Verdi love d he r a s himself. Italian families
are usually very close; yet there is no evidenc e that Verdi was ever close
to his, though onc e his fortune was made he took car e to set them up in
Early Life at Busseto • 3
ease an d comfort . Hi s contemporarie s remembere d hi m a s a solemn ,

reserved boy t o who m musi c meant everythin g eve n if it was only th e
grinding o f an itinerant barrel organ. Once , when servin g in the church
of S.Michele, h e was so absorbed in the singin g that he forgot to attend
to his duties and received a cuff from the enraged priest. 'May God strike
you down! ' the boy cried as he picked himself up. Never a friend t o th e
cloth, Verdi used to enjo y recounting how th e curse was fulfilled. Year s
later lightning struc k the churc h o f Madonna de i Prati, killin g th e self -
same priest and several members of the congregation including—thoug h
he was usually silent about this—on e of his own relatives .
The organis t o f S . Michèl e wa s Do n Baistrocchi , wh o als o taugh t
at th e elementar y school . I t wa s he, w e ar e told , wh o firs t discovere d
Giuseppe's musical bent and persuaded Carlo to buy him the 'wretche d
spinet' which had belonged t o a priest of the neighbourhood; an d a more
tangible relic exists in the form of a card signed by one Stefano Cavalletti,
repairer o f instruments, declinin g paymen t fo r having put t o rights the
keyboard mechanism and added pedals, 'seeing the good disposition the
young Giusepp e Verdi has for learning to play his instrument'. The dat e
is 1821 .
At th e ag e of ten Verd i was sent to th e ginnasio in Busseto where h e
lodged wit h a cobble r know n a s 'Pugnatta' . O n th e deat h o f Do n
Baistrocchi a few months earlie r he ha d been appointe d organis t in his
stead; this meant that on Sunday s and holidays he now ha d to make the
three-mile journey o n foo t from Busseto to Roncóle . His organist's fee
was nugatory (Walker estimate s it a s the equivalen t of four pound s per
annum);2 the lodgings at Busseto had to be paid for. Though Luigia was
by general consent a 'good manager', Carlo neve r succeeded i n makin g
money. Ten year s before Giuseppe was born he was convicted o f having
permitted gamblin g at his inn, onl y t o b e certifie d to th e authoritie s as
being unabl e to pa y the fine . I n 183 0 he incurred a debt which h e onl y
succeeded in settling afte r fourtee n years. One ca n believe th e story that
the young Giusepp e used to walk from Busseto to Roncóle and back in
bare fee t i n order t o sav e shoe-leather .
It ha s been sai d tha t grea t ar t i s born o n th e plain s withi n sigh t o f
mountains. Th e youn g Beethove n ha d hi s horizo n bounde d b y th e
2
WMV, p. 4.
4•VERDI
Siebengebirge an d the romanti c Drachenfel s of Turner's famou s paint -

ing. Mozart could lif t u p his eyes to th e hills of the Salzkammergut . But
the region o f Italy where Verd i was born an d bred and which h e was to
make hi s hom e mus t b e accounte d a ver y unpromisin g terrain . Th e
foothills of the Apuan Alps, visible westward from Parma, are nowhere t o
be see n roun d Busseto , bu t onl y th e Bass a Parmens e a t it s mos t un -
eventful, enlivene d b y th e occasiona l lin e o f poplar s an d th e antiqu e
charm o f it s farmhouse s and churches . Littl e ha s change d ther e sinc e
Verdi wa s a boy. A railwa y branc h lin e run s northwar d fro m Fidenz a
(then Borg o Sa n Donnino ) passin g Busseto—indee d i t wa s buil t i n
Verdi's lifetime , muc h t o hi s displeasur e since i t cu t acros s hi s ow n
estates. A moder n highwa y passe s withi n a hundred yard s of th e Vill a
Verdi carrying an endless stream of lorries to and from Cremona. But n o
outcrops o f week-end villa s spoil th e countryside—ther e i s so little t o
spoil. On e ca n understan d why onc e h e ha d settle d a t S . Ágat a Verd i
should hav e created his own romanti c landscap e within its walls.
However, Busseto in the 1820 5 was by no mean s a cultural desert. Its
ginnasio could boas t excellent teachers , eminent i n thei r ow n spher e o f
learning, from whom i t was possible to obtai n a good liberal education .
Indeed man y emerge d fro m i t t o attai n leading positions as mathemati -
cians, scientists , lawyer s an d theologians . It s directo r wa s Do n Pietr o
Seletti, wh o als o ran the public library and was to foun d a n academy of
Greek languag e an d literature . Verdi , wh o eve n befor e enterin g th e
school had begun his classical studies under two Franciscans , had lessons
in Italia n grammar from Seletti himself, an d in 'humanit y and rhetoric'
from Carl o Curott i an d Don Giacint o Volpini. I n 182 5 h e entere d th e
music school o f Ferdinande Provesi, organis t o f the churc h of S.Barto-
lomeo an d municipa l musi c master . Seletti , i t appears , was sufficientl y
impressed b y hi s progress t o wan t t o mak e a pries t o f him , bu t soo n
yielded t o evidence of the boy's true vocation. I t was during these years
that Verdi was taken up by Antonio Barezzi, a well-to-do merchant from
whom Carlo bough t his provisions. Verd i became one of his househol d
along with his four daughters and two sons. Barezzi was the founder and
president o f the Philharmoni c Society , a miscellaneous ban d o f players
that gave concerts in th e piazza and sometimes playe d in church . Thei r
rehearsals wer e usuall y held i n Barezzi' s house , h e himsel f takin g par t
as flautist . A recor d o f 183 4 give s a n ide a o f th e band' s constitution :
6 violins, i cello, i viola, 2 double-basses, 8 clarinets, 2 oboes, 2 flutes, 5

trumpets, 4 horns , i bas s drum , 6 othe r percussio n instrument s an d
'several other small instruments'. So it was that Verdi found himself thrust
into the heart of Busseto's musical life. I n a document o f 1853 he tells of
the innumerabl e piece s tha t he compose d fro m hi s thirteenth yea r on -
wards—marches and overture s for the Philharmoni c Society , variations
for piano for himself to play at concerts, arias and cantatas for local singers
to perfor m in church o r in the theatre , of which h e single s out a Stabat
Mater. T o thes e Demaldé adds an overture to Rossini's oper a H barbiere di
Siviglia which 'a s everybody know s ha s no overture(l)' ; and a setting o f
Alfieri's / deliri di Saul fo r baritone—' a tru e jewel, a preciou s stone ,
something really grand, to which any established composer would not be
ashamed t o pu t hi s name'... 3 a judgment whos e validit y w e ma y re-
spectfully presum e to doubt .
For whatever th e level of general culture at Busseto, there is no reason
to believ e tha t th e standar d o f musi c woul d hav e bee n anythin g bu t
modest, t o sa y the least. Philharmonic societie s were a trans-Alpine in -
stitution (on e hear s o f n o Philharmoni c societie s i n Rom e o r Naple s
during tha t time) . Mostl y the y cam e int o bein g afte r th e Napoleoni c
Wars in order t o replac e those private, aristocrati c orchestras for who m
Haydn an d Beethove n wrot e thei r symphonies . Th e Viennes e Ge -
sellschaß de r Musikfreunde aros e i n thi s way , th e music-lovin g noble s
pooling thei r resources with thos e of the wealthier members of the new
bourgeoisie. Verd i himself would encounte r another society of the same
character i n Austrianise d Milan—th e Filodrammatici. Bu t betwee n a n
organisation capable of performing Haydn oratorios and one that disposes
chiefly o f wind instruments and for which everythin g has to be arranged
there is a vast gulf. The chie f administrator of the State s of Parma under
Napoleon, Morea u d e Saint-Méry , laid stres s in a special report o n th e
inhabitants' passio n for music ; but on e shudder s t o thin k o f th e for m
that music took a t the tim e o f Verdi's adolescence . Indeed the concert-
bills tel l thei r ow n story : marches and overtures , variations—of a sub -
Paganinian natur e we ma y be sure—by a local virtuoso, th e lates t vocal
'hit' by Rossini. Nor i s it a surprise to see a movement from / deliri di Saul
arranged a s a bassoon solo. Th e onl y advantag e that Verdi woul d hav e
AIVS, newsletter no. I (Ma y 1976), p. 10 .

O•VERDI
derived fro m such an ambienc e wa s that sense o f rough-and-ready ef -

fectiveness tha t shows so clearly in hi s early scores.4
In 182 9 h e applie d fo r th e pos t o f organis t a t th e nearb y villag e o f
Soragna but despit e an enthusiastic testimonial from his teacher, Provesi ,
he was not accepted. With the prospects of profitable employment i n the
vicinity thu s close d i t wa s clea r a s the year s passed tha t Verd i neede d
more training in his profession than could be accorded at Busseto. He had
fallen i n love wit h Barezzi' s eldest daughter , Margherita, and wanted t o
be in a position t o marry her. S o it was decided tha t Carlo Verd i shoul d
apply for a grant from the local charitable institution, th e Monte di Pietà,
to sen d Giusepp e for fou r year s to th e Mila n Conservatoir e a s a paying
pupil. Th e applicatio n wa s sympathetically received ; bu t grant s for th e
following two years were alread y allocated. No matter ; Barezzi agreed t o
advance the necessary money, with the assurance of being reimbursed (in
the event h e was not t o be indemnified withou t a good dea l of trouble).
Verdi wa s accordingly dispatche d t o Mila n i n June 183 2 t o si t for th e
entrance examination . Suc h wa s his reputation i n an d aroun d Busset o
that i t was with incredulit y tha t Barezzi and his friends hear d th e new s
that he ha d failed .
It wa s one o f those earl y setbacks that composers o f Verdi's temper-
ament ca n neve r forgiv e o r forget . Throughou t hi s lif e h e raile d a t
conservatories, maintainin g tha t they neve r taugh t a composer anythin g
worth knowing . Bu t fo r the mos t par t biographers hav e long ceased to
blame th e Mila n authoritie s fo r thei r verdict . Easily , th e registra r an d
chief examiner, submitte d i n his report t o th e directo r tha t
Signer Angelen, teacher of the pianoforte, foun d tha t Verdi would have to
change th e positio n o f hi s hands , which , he said , a t th e ag e o f eightee n
would be difficult . A s for the composition s which he presented as his own,
I a m i n complet e agreemen t wit h Signo r Piantanida , teache r o f counter-
point an d vice-registrar , tha t i f he applie s himsel f attentively an d patientl y
to stud y th e rule s o f counterpoin t h e wil l b e abl e t o contro l th e genuin e
imagination h e show s himsel f t o posses s an d thu s tur n ou t creditabl y a s a
composer.5
4
There i s a tradition tha t the band a marc h from Ac t I V o f Nabucco i s a composition fro m
Verdi's Busseto days. I t has little to recommen d it as music.
5
WMV, p. 9.
But th e conservatoir e wa s overcrowded; Verd i himsel f at eighteen was

over the required ag e limit and moreover a foreigner from th e Duchy of
Parma. There were insufficient ground s for waiving the rules in his case.
Among the examiners was Alessandro Rolla, violin professor and former
leader o f th e orchestr a a t L a Scala , t o who m Proves i ha d give n Verd i
a letter of introduction (th e two men had known eac h other when Rolla
had le d the cour t orchestr a a t Parma). He i t was who brok e th e disap -
pointing news . H e advise d Verdi t o study privately in Milan, indicatin g
two likely teachers, of which Verdi chose Vincenzo Lavigna, professor of
composition an d like Rolla himself a former member o f the orchestr a at
La Scala , where h e hel d th e pos t o f maestro al cembalo. Everythin g no w
depended on Barezzi, whose expenses would be more than doubled if he
had to maintain Verdi in private lodgings. Fortunately he had set his hand
to the plough and did not intend t o turn back. It was arranged that dur -
ing hi s studies with Lavign a Verdi woul d lodg e wit h Giusepp e Seletti,
nephew o f the Busset o headmaster and a personal friend o f Barezzi's.
It was not a happy arrangement. Seletti' s letters to Busseto are cordial
enough t o begin with but soo n a note o f sourness creeps in. Clearly the
expenses of life in Milan even for a music student were more than Barezzi
had bargained for. There was music paper to be bought, an 'abonnement'
for a permanent seat at La Scala, a subscription to music dealers for copies
of all the lates t scores . Besides , Verd i neede d t o b e decentl y cla d i f he
were no t t o sham e his host. Barezz i never faile d t o settl e th e accounts
which Selett i sent him. Bu t befor e tw o year s had passed Seletti mad e it
clear tha t h e n o longe r wante d Verd i i n hi s house . N o specifi c mis -
demeanour is mentioned beyond his 'boorish manners' and that 'he is the
sort o f man I woul d neve r hav e wanted t o ge t t o know' . T o ca p ev -
erything Verdi refuse d t o boar d wit h th e famil y tha t Seletti had chosen
for him . 'I f he were t o tur n ou t a thousand times greater than Rossini,'
Seletti fumed , ' I wil l alway s sa y tha t I kne w hi m a s ill-educate d i n
his manners , arrogan t and—toward s m e personally—somethin g o f a
scoundrel'. Dar k hints follow abou t behaviour which h e would prefe r
not t o report t o Verdi's future father-in-la w (ha d he been over-familiar ,
one wonders, with Seletti's own daughter?) . Soon Verdi received a sharp
note fro m Barezz i pointing ou t ho w muc h h e had spent o n th e youn g
6
MGV, pp. 37-8.
ö• VERD I
man's needs since his move from the Seletti household. Those who want
an explanatio n o f Verdi's later obsession with self-sufficienc y nee d look
no furthe r tha n here . Neve r ca n dependenc e o n other s hav e seeme d
more hateful .
Fortunately th e lesson s with Lavign a mad e goo d progress . Th e pro -
fessor sen t regula r report s t o th e Mont e d i Pietà , praisin g hi s pupil' s
assiduity, his growing prowess and even his unblemished mora l charac -
ter. Verd i gav e hi s ow n accoun t o f thos e lesson s in a famou s lette r t o
Francesco Florimo o f 1871 :
Lavigna was very strong on counterpoin t an d a bit o f a pedant, and had n o

use for an y other music than that of Paisiello (hi s teacher). I remember that
in a sinfoní a tha t I wrot e h e correcte d al l the scorin g i n th e manne r o f
Paisiello. 'I'd be for it', I said to myself—and fro m tha t moment on I did not
show him any more of my original compositions and in the three years spent
with hi m I did nothin g but canon s and fugues , fugue s an d canon s of every
kind. Nobod y taugh t m e orchestration o r how t o trea t dramati c music .
Taken ou t o f context thi s sounds reproachful, not t o sa y ungracious.

But that was not how Verdi meant it. At a time when young Italians were
sitting a t th e fee t o f Lisz t an d Biilo w hopin g thu s t o b e le d t o th e
promised land of transcendental art, the farme r o f S. Agata was insisting
on th e superio r virtue s o f mer e technica l discipline . N o matte r tha t
Lavigna wa s the mos t mino r o f composers. Verd i value d hi m rathe r as
Beethoven value d Albrechtsberger . H e conclude d hi s letter: 'H e [La -
vigna] was learned an d I wish al l teachers were like him.' 7
It was Lavigna, too, wh o introduce d Verd i to the Filodrammatici— a
Philharmonic Societ y in which various members of the Milanese nobilit y
took par t an d whic h boaste d a fin e chorus . Th e directo r wa s Pietr o
Massini, who would soon prove one of Verdi's stoutest supporters. On e
day during rehearsals for Haydn's Creation the three 'maestri' who too k it
in turns to play the keyboard were all absent. Massini asked Verdi to take
their place, adding that he need only play the bass line. Verdi relates how
I wa s fres h fro m m y studie s an d certainl y no t a t al l embarrasse d b y a ful l

score. I therefore accepted and sat down at the piano to begin the rehearsals.
I remembe r ver y well th e ironica l smile s o f some o f the signor i dilettanti ,
7
AGV, I, pp. 118-19 .
and it seems that my youthful figure, thin and not too tidily dressed , was not
such a s t o inspir e muc h confidence . I n shor t th e rehearsa l bega n an d
gradually I bega n t o ge t worke d u p an d excite d an d instea d o f confining
myself t o accompanyin g I bega n t o conduc t wit h m y righ t hand , playin g
with m y lef t han d alone . I ha d a grea t success—al l th e greate r fo r bein g
unexpected.
In the end it was settled that Verdi should direct the performance, which
was given first at the Teatro Filodrammatico (today the Piccola Scala) and
repeated a t th e Casin o de ' Nobil i befor e th e crea m o f Mila n society .
'Shortly afterwards' , Verd i continues , 'Coun t Renat o Borromeo en -
gaged m e t o compos e th e musi c o f a cantata—fo r th e marriag e o f
a membe r o f hi s family , I believe. ' I n fac t i t wa s i n honou r o f th e
Emperor Ferdinand—a circumstance which the musical patriarch of Italy
was doubtless only too read y to forget.
The Creation wa s performe d i n Ma y 1834 . Late r that year event s a t
Busseto put a temporary blight on what seemed to be a promising career.
In th e summe r o f 183 3 Proves i had died. N o mer e village musician , he
was a poet and a teacher of Italian; his sympathies were liberal, and he was
never much in favour with the clergy, several members of which he had
lampooned. Wors e still , in his youth h e had been convicte d o f robbing
a church and sentenced to a spell in prison. To Barezz i and the Philhar-
monic Societ y Verdi was his only possible successor once h e ha d com -
pleted hi s studies in Milan . Th e clerg y though t otherwise . Thei r ow n
candidate fo r th e vacan t post wa s on e Giovann i Ferrar i fro m neigh -
bouring GuastaUa . H e an d tw o other s entere d thei r application s in
November 1833 . Barezz i di d nothin g o n Verdi' s behalf , havin g bee n
assured that there would be a competitive examination. Lavigna wrote to
the Monte di Pietà that his pupil would be ready to take up his duties in a
year's time.
For ove r si x month s nothin g furthe r wa s done ; performance s i n
church an d elsewhere wer e allowe d t o dra g on unde r painfull y inferio r
substitutes, until in July the clergy took matters into their own hands and
appointed Ferrar i without th e agree d competition . Verd i wa s urgently
summoned from Milan; he handed in his application only to be told that
o
PVAF pp . 40-1 . See , however, the documen t of 185 3 (WMV , p. 7 ) where th e cantat a is
merely said to have been performed i n the house of Count Borromeo.
IO • V E R D I
it was too late . The counci l o f the Monte di Pietà, under whose foun -
dation th e civi c duties of the pos t fell , me t an d confirme d Ferrari' s ap-
pointment. Galluzzi , the deputy mayor, who had attended the meeting as
a supporte r of Verdi's cause , ha d th e groun d cut fro m unde r his feet b y
the intelligenc e tha t Margherita Barezzi had been tellin g al l and sundry
that her fiancé had not th e slightest intention of settling in Busseto; that
to do so would be to let down hi s friends i n Milan. Ferrari on the othe r
hand was a married man with a family an d needed th e emolument. Later
the Bishop of the diocese upheld the council's decision, adding that a man
of Ferrari' s years was more t o b e truste d tha n a 'beardles s youth ' (lik e
Canon Chasuble , h e spoke figuratively) 'wh o had been expose d to th e
vices of a great and populous city'. 9
Verdi at once sent a letter of protest to Mari a Luigia, the Duches s of
Parma; but i t was not answere d for a year. Meanwhile factio n erupte d in
full force— a miniatur e war o f Guelphs and Ghibellines , o r 'codini ' and
'coccardini' a s they wer e called . Lampoon s were hurled , publi c insults
exchanged; peopl e cam e t o blow s i n th e street . Bot h side s di d thei r
utmost t o influenc e Francesc o Cocchi, Mari a Luigia' s Ministe r o f th e
Interior. Th e whol e affai r wa s satirised in a n epi c poem o f nine canto s
called Gli uccelii accademici, by th e 'codino ' Don Pettorelli , i n which th e
Duchess figures as an eagle, Barezzi and Margherita as blackbirds, Verdi
as a parrot, Ferrar i as the cucko o in th e nest . Verdi himsel f remained in
Busseto unti l th e en d o f th e year , takin g par t i n th e activitie s o f th e
Philharmonic Society , after whic h h e returned t o Milan and his studies
with Lavigna. Tradition ha s it that one da y they were visited by Easily,
who complaine d insistentl y o n th e lo w standar d o f contrapunta l skill
shown b y recen t aspirant s t o th e pos t o f organis t o f th e cathedra l o f
Monza. Lavign a proposed tha t Verd i shoul d tr y hi s hand a t th e fugu e
subject se t fo r th e competitors ; Verd i di d s o wit h complet e succes s
embellishing it with a double cano n o f his own ('th e subject seeme d t o
me rather thin and I wanted to give it a bit of richness'). 10 True or not—
and i t i s hard t o se e ho w a fugu e subjec t coul d b e anythin g els e bu t
'thin'—the post at Monza was still unfilled when Verdi left Milan in July
1835. Meanwhile th e government o f Parma had come t o its decision. I n
9
AGV, i , p. 141 .
IO
PVAF, p. 15 , quoted WMV, p. 19 .
Early Life a t Busseto • I I
January a compromise was reached whereby Ferrari was allowed to retain

his position as organist, but the post of municipal music director was to be
thrown ope n t o competitio n a s originally agreed . Howeve r du e t o th e
continuing strif e an d intrigue s withi n Busset o itsel f i t wa s mor e tha n
a year before the decre e wa s put int o effect . N o blam e to Verdi the n if
by autum n h e wa s putting ou t feelers , vi a Lavigna, i n th e directio n o f
Monza, an d to suc h good purpose that he was told tha t he ha d only t o
appear before the cathedral authorities to be given the job. Bu t no sooner
was his intention o f leaving Busseto generally known tha n the town was
in a n uproar. Th e codin i crowe d ove r th e lates t example of their ene -
mies' perfidy . Th e coccardin i rounde d o n Verd i an d Barezz i an d
threatened to prevent the former from leaving , by force i f necessary. All
this Verdi explained to Lavigna in a letter of remarkable delicacy and tact.
At length th e examinatio n too k plac e in Parma in February 1836 under
the Court maestro di cappella, Giusepp e Alinovi, a man held in the highes t
esteem by Paganini for his 'musical science and insight'. Alinovi had th e
highest praise for Verdi's skil l i n counterpoint , sigh t reading , composi -
tion (h e playe d a se t o f hi s ow n variations ) an d pian o technique—h e
could, he said, be a maestro in Paris or London rather than in Busseto. His
appointment duly followed; Ferrar i had not eve n bothered t o compete .
In Ma y Verd i an d Margherit a Barezz i wer e married . Afte r a brie f
honeymoon in Milan, where Giuseppe Seletti swallowed his antipathy to
his former lodger sufficientl y t o allow them to room in his house, Verdi
settled dow n t o th e lif e o f provincia l musi c maste r an d famil y man ,
teaching th e piano , directin g th e Philharmoni c Societ y (thoug h no t i n
church, where an edict from Parma , issued since the recent disturbances,
had forbidde n th e performanc e o f instrumenta l music) . Th e forme r
round o f marches , overtures , voca l pieces , sacre d and secular , was re -
sumed, includin g a Tantum Ergo whic h ha s survive d an d a settin g o f
Manzoni's od e II Cinque Maggio, whic h ha s not . Durin g al l thi s tim e
Verdi neve r los t sigh t o f Milan an d it s glittering prospects ; an d h e was
careful t o kee p i n touc h wit h hi s influentia l friend s i n th e Lombar d
capital, especiall y Massini. Both thei r name s had been mentione d wit h
praise in the theatrical journal U Figaro in connection wit h a performance
of Rossini's L a cenerentola a t th e Teatr o Filodrammatic o i n Apri l 1835 ;
some month s afte r Verdi' s return to Busseto Massini had conducted th e
Filodrammatici in the young composer's imperial ode mentioned above .
12 • V E R D I
But alread y a far more ambitiou s project was in view. I n August of th e

previous year Verdi had written fro m Busset o to Lavigna asking him t o
remind Massini about an opera libretto which he had promised to obtain
from on e Tasca. Over the next three years the opera remains the burden
of hi s correspondenc e wit h Massini . Before hi s departur e fro m Mila n
Verdi must have received some kind of libretto since at the end of July he
expresses the hop e 't o have sketched out al l the numbers ' b y his return
and would like to know th e vocal compass of the singers that Massini has
in min d fo r th e performance . Ther e fo r the momen t th e matte r reste d
since Verdi was confined to Busseto for the rest of the year. But with his
official appointmen t a s municipal directo r h e fel t fre e t o pla n fo r th e
following autum n whe n h e woul d b e grante d tw o month s holiday .
September came , an d still n o wor d fro m Massini . Th e oper a was no w
complete 'excep t for those little passages which wil l have to be patched
up b y the poet' . This time Massin i replied kindl y bu t withou t holdin g
out an y definit e hopes ; an d once mor e th e projec t wa s shelved for th e
best part of a year until in September 183 7 Verdi announced th e prospect
of a performance at the new Duca l Theatre i n Parma. Here for the first
time w e lear n th e nam e o f th e opera , Rocester, an d tha t th e poe t i s no
longer Tasc a but Piazz a who i s urged, vi a Massini, to 'prolon g the due t
for the two women and make it a really grandiose piece'. In the event the
impresario decline d t o risk a new oper a by an unknown composer ; an d
Verdi's thought s turne d onc e agai n t o a premier e i n Milan . Coul d
Massini possibly interest Merelli, impresario of La Scala? 'Tell him first of
all that I should like th e scor e to b e submitted fo r examination b y mu -
sicians of standing, and if their judgment were unfavourabl e I should not
want th e oper a t o b e performed.' 11 Tha t Massin i di d al l that wa s ex -
pected o f hi m w e kno w fro m Verdi' s ow n accoun t give n t o Giuli o
Ricordi many years later.
In August 1838 Verdi suffered th e first of those tragic bereavements to
which on e i s tempted t o ascrib e that indelibl e strea k of pessimism that
was to mark his character. At the age of seventeen months hi s first-born ,
Virginia, die d fou r week s afte r th e birt h o f he r brother , Icili o (bot h
names culled from the proudest day s of the Roman republic, a s set forth
in the pages of Livy and Alfieri). Verd i and Margherita handed ove r th e
11
WMV, pp. 25-7.
Early Life a t Busseto • 1 3
surviving infant t o th e car e of a wet-nurse an d set out fo r Milan, Verd i

having applied, rather oddly, in writing t o his father-in-law fo r a loan to
cover thei r expenses. It was not, he added, a mere pleasure trip; matters
of professional interest were involved ; an d he begged Barezzi to keep i t
a secret and to tear up his note. But the secret was soon out; and in a letter
of October t o a n unnamed Busseta n he admitte d tha t h e ha d com e t o
Milan i n orde r t o negotiat e abou t a n opera, thoug h ther e woul d b e n o
possibility of a première before the Carnival season at the earliest—'we're
dealing with a new oper a b y a new compose r t o b e stage d at th e first
theatre in the world...> I 2
Evidently thre e years ' absenc e i n provincia l Busset o ha d no t bee n
sufficient t o clou d Verdi' s hopes . Tha t sam e year the Milanes e fir m o f
Giovanni Canti brought out his Sei romanze for voice and piano, the first
of his compositions to appear in print. In the following spring they would
publish two mor e song s and a Notturno for three voices, piano and flute
entitled 'Guard a ch e bianc a luna ' whic h earne d hig h prais e fro m th e
Gazzetta Privilegiata d i Milano, a n officia l governmen t orga n whic h di d
not normall y revie w ne w publication s o f music. Thoug h nothin g ha d
been settle d abou t th e oper a by the tim e th e young coupl e returne d t o
Busseto, Verdi now judged the time ripe for him to pull up his roots. H e
handed i n hi s resignation t o th e Mayo r o f Busseto t o tak e effec t fro m
ID Ma y 1839 , th e dat e o n whic h hi s three-yea r contrac t wa s du e fo r
renewal. I n the even t it was on 6 February that he, Margherita and the
baby Icili o se t ou t fo r Milan , fro m whic h tw o o f the m woul d neve r
return.
I2
AGV, I, p. 249.
C H A P T E R T W O
Success and Failure in Milan
I N HI S 'STORI A D I MILAN O DA L 1 8 3 6 A L 1848 ' ANTONI O GHISLAN -
zoni, futur e librettis t of Aida, gives a pungent description of the cit y

at th e tim e o f Verdi's arriva l there . Capita l o f the Austria n province o f
Lombardy-Venetia, it had become an Italian Vienna, a walled city of some
150,000 inhabitants marked by hedonism, politica l torpor and—unti l th e
hygienic reforms of 1844-5—dirt. Bread and circuses were the order of the
day. The coronatio n o f the Emperor Ferdinan d I in September 183 8 had
provided the occasion for a round of public entertainments, open-air balls
lasting far into the night, equestrian and acrobatic displays—all referred to
by Verd i a s a 'bordello'. Austria n soldiery was everywher e i n evidence ;
police vigilanc e unceasing . But i n genera l th e live s of ordinar y citizen s
were rarely interfered with. From the safety of exile Mazzini might preach
rebellion; th e romanticall y minded might nouris h thei r dream s of Italian
unity o n th e writing s o f Pellico, Guerrazzi , Tommas o Gross i an d Man -
zoni; intellectuals might glanc e with env y across the border to the King-
dom o f Piedmont where , throug h th e activitie s of Massimo D'Azeglio ,
Carlo Alberto had granted a constitution. But, says Ghislanzoni, 'men who
chafed at the foreign yoke were few. Most people were not aware that Italy
existed'.1
Since th e Restoratio n clas s barrier s ha d bee n officiall y re-erected ;
but, a s in Vienna , musi c proved a good solvent . Th e Countes s Giuli a
I
Cit. WMV.pp. 30-1.
H
Success an d Failure i n Milan • 1 5
Samoyloff, wh o i s said , lik e Poppea , t o hav e bathe d i n asses ' milk ,

numbered amon g he r lover s th e Cza r Nichola s I , th e teno r Antoni o
Poggi an d Bellini's bête-noir, th e compose r Giovann i Pacini . I n salons
such a s those o f th e Countesse s Appian i an d Maffe i member s o f th e
aristocracy mingled wit h artists and men o f letters. Coffeehouses on th e
Austrian model had recently been introduced, causing a sensation. Many
of th e 'jeuness e dorée' , th e so-calle d youn g lion s o f Milanes e societ y
aped the manners of France; they drank absinthe and congregated at the
Gaffe de l Duomo where th e Journal de s Débats wa s available; but Mila n
remained essentiall y a n Austria n city , it s houses furnishe d i n th e fash -
ionable Biedermeie r styl e of the period . Th e artisti c quarter lay in an d
around the squar e in front of the Teatro all a Scala. Here musician s of all
kinds congregate d a t th e publishin g house s of Ricordi an d Lucc a just
as the y wer e accustome d t o d o a t th e house s o f Stei n an d Diabell i i n
Vienna.
The mos t powerful weapon of Austrian rule before 1848 was La Scala,
as Massimo D'Azeglio recalls in his memoirs. I t was run b y Bartolomeo
Merelli jointly wit h th e Kärntnerthortheate r i n Vienn a an d dispose d
of the sam e artists. With singer s such as Erminia Frezzolini , Napoleon e
Moriani, an d Giorgi o Ronconi , dancer s such a s Fanny Elssler and th e
latest circuse s and acrobati c displays from Americ a th e authoritie s kept
the Milanes e enchante d a s in th e garden s o f Armida. Rebellio n wa s a
long way off in 1839 ; and when it arrived nine years later it was as much
a result of outside events as of internal pressures.
Such, then, was the city in which Verdi and his family now settle d for
a period of hopes and set-backs. La Scala was not afte r all to give the ne w
opera during the Carnival season. A letter to Giuseppe Demaldé in April
indicates that Verdi had another theatre in view but ha d withdrawn th e
score due to the wretchedness of the proposed cast. Hopes re-surfaced of
a performance by th e compan y o f La Scala with Giuseppin a Strepponi,
Adelaide Kemble, Napoleon e Morian i an d Giorgio Roncon i at one o f
their charit y shows for the benefi t of the Pi o Istituto . Her e wa s indeed
a notabl e cast . Bu t thi s plan likewis e foundere d throug h th e illnes s o f
Moriani. However , Merelli promise d to take the opera into the autumn
season provide d Verd i woul d mak e changes in th e tessitur a of the sol o
parts t o sui t th e ne w cas t (n o triflin g task , this , sinc e while Streppon i
and Kembl e wer e bot h sopranos , thei r replacement s were respectivel y
16 • V E R D I
a dramatic mezzo soprano and a deep English contralto , an d Ronconi's

baritone part had to be adapted for a bass); the text would be overhauled
by Temistocle Solera, resident librettist and stage director of La Scala; and
Merelli suggested the addition of a quartet for the principals to be added
to the second act. There followed a miserable summer of preparation and
waiting. Verdi wa s obliged t o appl y fo r furthe r advance s fro m Barezz i
'certainly not i n the hope o f piling up riches but rathe r o f being some -
one amongs t m y fellow men'.2 At last th e oper a was scheduled fo r th e
autumn season. Rehearsals were already under way when Icilio followed
his siste r t o th e grave . However , th e oper a dul y ha d it s premièr e o n
17 Novembe r 1839 . It s titl e wa s Oberto, Conté d i San Bonifacio an d th e
libretto credite d exclusivel y to Solera . I n th e titl e rol e wa s the bas s Ig -
nazio Marini ; hi s errin g daughte r wa s playe d b y hi s wif e Antoniett a
Ranieri-Marini—both to prove loyal friends t o th e composer . Lorenz o
Salvi was the teno r seduce r and Mary Shaw the 'othe r woman'.
Oberto, Verdi sai d i n hi s accoun t o f iSyp 3 , wa s no t a n outstandin g
success but big enough for Merelli to exceed the number of performances
originally advertised. If anything this is too modest an estimate. In fact th e
opera create d a mild sensation . The Mila n corresponden t o f the Allge-
meine Musikalische Zeitung singled out fo r special praise the quarte t in Act
II which wit h the benefit o f hindsight we would cal l the most obviously
Verdian moment i n the opera. Giovanni Ricordi bought the vocal score
for the considerable su m of 2,000 Austrian lire; and Verdi was contracte d
for thre e more operas to be given at La Scala at intervals of eight months .
It remain s t o b e establishe d wha t connection , i f any , exist s betwee n
Oberto and Rocester.
In th e versio n o f events which h e dictate d t o Giuli o Ricordi, Gio -
vanni's grandson, Verdi is quite specific: 'Massini, who seem s to have had
some confidenc e i n th e youn g maestro , propose d tha t I shoul d writ e
an oper a fo r th e Teatr o Filodrammatico.. . and hande d m e a librett o
which afterwards , in par t modifie d by Solera , became Oberto, Conté di
San Bonifacio.' Howeve r a t mor e tha n fort y years ' distanc e Verd i ha d
a tendency to conflat e events . An earlier letter written t o Emilio Seletti ,
son o f Giuseppe , i n 187 1 confirm s tha t Oberto wa s adapte d fro m a n
2
AGV, I, p, 315.
3
A. Pougin: Giuseppe Verdi: vita aaeddotica (Milan , 1881) , pp. 40-6 .
Success and Failure in Milan • IJ
earlier opera, but give s its name as Lord Hamilton. More importan t i s the
fact tha t in his letters written a t the time Verdi speaks only of one opera ,
never two. I t is true tha t the published score of Oberto contains no due t
for th e tw o women , suc h a s Verdi mention s i n on e o f hi s letter s t o
Massini; bu t jus t suc h a due t wil l b e foun d i n th e composer' s hand -
writing in an appendix t o the autograph . Als o at the start of the quarte t
the nam e 'Rocester ' i s clearly visible , score d ou t an d wit h 'Riccardo '
written ove r the top—a curious slip of the pen considerin g that this was
the last piece to be composed, but a very informative one. Riccardo i s the
heartless seducer; such also was John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester, on e of
the livelies t poets o f the Restoration . Oberto takes its title fro m th e bas s
rather tha n the tenor . Wha t mor e likel y tha n tha t it was at some stage
decided t o d o th e sam e wit h Rocester? An d wha t bette r nam e fo r a n
avenging fathe r tha n Hamilton , murdere r o f th e Regen t Murra y i n
Mercadante's // Reggente? Finally to assume that Oberto, Conté di San Boni-
facio an d Rocester are two differen t opera s is to ignor e th e generi c nature
of Italia n opera plot s o f th e tim e an d th e eas e with whic h name s and
places coul d b e switched—indee d ofte n ha d to b e switche d fo r reasons
of censorship—whil e leavin g th e essentia l situation s an d thei r musi c
intact, and above all the sheer implausibility of a young composer a t the
start of his career completing a n opera, then shelving it indefinitely and
writing a n entirel y differen t one . I n thos e day s opera s wer e neve r
complete unti l they were performed. Verdi himself was to stipulate in all
his contract s that h e woul d no t begi n th e scorin g unti l th e pian o re -
hearsals were unde r way. The chance s of finding a 'lost' oper a by Verdi
are indeed slim. The mos t we coul d expec t to discove r would b e a lost
libretto abou t the famou s Restoratio n rake , the situation s of which, w e
may be sure , would bea r more tha n a passing resemblance t o thos e o f
Oberto, Conté di San Bonifacio.
For hi s nex t oper a Verd i wa s t o hav e se t a libretto b y th e vetera n
Gaetano Ross i (autho r of Rossini' s firs t internationa l success , Tancredi)
entitled U proscritto. The n Merell i foun d that h e wa s shor t o f a n oper a
buffa fo r th e repertory ; Verd i looke d throug h a number o f libretti an d
eventually chose on e b y Felice Romani, Ilfinto Stanislao written fo r th e
Austrian composer Adalbert Gyro wetz in 1818 . According to that law of
the Italia n theatre whereby a n ol d subjec t mus t always be give n a ne w
name it was decided to rechristen it Ungiomo di regno. Verdi worked a t it
l8 • V E R D I
with fa r mor e difficult y tha n a t Oberto. H e suffere d bout s o f throa t

trouble as he was often to do when composing an opera. Money ran short
as in th e previou s year; at one poin t Margherita , unknown t o he r hus -
band, pawne d he r jewellery i n orde r t o pa y for their modes t lodgings .
Then i n Jun e 'Throug h a terribl e disease , perhap s unknow n t o th e
doctors, ther e died i n my arms in Milan a t noon o n th e da y of Corpu s
Domini, my beloved daughte r Margherita in the flower of her years and
at the culmination o f her good fortune, because married to the excellen t
youth Giuseppe Verdi, Maestro di Música.'4 So runs an entry in Antoni o
Barezzi's diary for 1840 . Verdi allowed himself to be led home, an d over
the nex t fe w week s trie d t o ge t hi s contrac t wit h Merell i annulled .
Merelli refused; and two months later Verdi found himself back in Milan
bringing t o completion , the n rehearsing, an opera buffa. Th e first night
was a fiasco. 'Certainly the music was partly to blame', Verdi admitted in
1879, 'but so too were the performers.' This last is more than likely. Th e
cast had been assembled chiefly for the performance of the season's most
successful novelty , II Templario, Nicolai' s versio n of Ivanhoe. Apart fro m
the tw o bass i buffi , Scales e an d Rovere , wh o i n th e even t acquitte d
themselves with honour, none of the cast had any talent for comedy. It is
probable to o tha t critic s an d publi c alik e ha d decide d tha t th e comi c
genre wa s ill-suited t o th e compose r o f Oberto. Non e th e les s bot h i n
Venice in 184 5 and in Naples in 1859 the opera was revived and played to
well-filled house s under the origina l tid e ofllfinto Stanislao, a sure in -
dication that it had eclipsed Gyrowetz' settin g as completely as Rossini's
Almaviva ha d eclipse d Paisiello's Barbiere.
It is at this point that the narrative of 1879 loses all contact with reality:
'I was alone... alone... In the short space of two months three persons
dear to m e ha d gon e fo r ever : my famil y wa s destroyed.' A fine fea t o f
telescopic memory. Yet Verdi had long believed i t to b e true since the
same account appears in Michèle Lessona's Volere èpotere of 1869 where it
had Verdi's full approva l ('... that's the true story of my life, absolutely
and completel y true'). 5 S o we ma y be equall y sceptical about his claim
that he then and there decided to have nothing further t o do with music
and spent his time reading bad novels. Merelli's reaction to the fiasco of
4
WMV, p. 33.
5
AVI, p. 17 6
Un giomo di regno had bee n t o cance l all further schedule d performances

and replace them with Oberto. But Mary Shaw, the singer of Cuniza, was
no longe r o n th e roster ; i n he r plac e wa s Luigia Abbadia , a so-calle d
mezzo soprano, whose range was slightly higher than that of the Leonora.
In a performance in Turi n earlie r in th e year she had omitted he r due t
with Riccardo and imported a n aria by Mercadante. Fo r the reviva l in
Milan Verdi provided he r with a new cavatin a and a new due t with th e
tenor, bot h o f which ca n be foun d i n th e appendi x t o th e autograp h
along with th e due t for the tw o women . Fo r a revival in Geno a i n th e
Carnival seaso n of 184 1 Verdi adde d fresh music of which onl y a two -
movement due t for Leonora an d Oberto survives. This wa s again per -
formed i n a later reviva l i n Naples , in whic h th e titl e rol e ha d t o b e
modified for baritone. In every case the Leonora was the same Antonietta
Ranieri-Marini who ha d created the role ; clearl y Oberto was one o f the
few opera s which suite d her range and style of singing. I t was to remai n
Verdi's on e valuabl e asset unti l th e nex t break-through occurred . Th e
seed, it would seem, had already been sown in the winter of 1840-1. One
day Verd i ha d me t Merell i o n hi s wa y t o L a Scala . 'I t wa s snowin g
heavily' .. . Merilli complaine d tha t Ott o Nicolai , the n a t th e heigh t
of his Italian career, had turne d dow n a magnificent libretto b y Solera .
Verdi at once offere d tha t o f J 7 proscritto of which h e ha d no t se t a note:
and Merell i accepte d gratefully . H e insiste d tha t Verd i shoul d loo k a t
Solera's librett o an d with some reluctance the composer took it back to
his lodging wher e h e
... with an almost violent gestur e threw the manuscript on the table... The
book ha d opene d i n falling.. . Without knowin g how , I gazed at the page
that lay before me, an d rea d th e line :
Va, pensiero , sull'al i dórate .
I ran through th e line s that followed and was much moved , al l the mor e
because they were almos t a paraphrase from th e Bible, the readin g of which
had alway s delighted me .
I read one passage, then another. Then , resolut e in my determination t o
write n o more, I forced myself to close the booklet an d went t o bed. Bu t it
was no use— I couldn' t get Nabucco ou t o f my head. Unable t o sleep , I got
6
PVAF, cit. WMV, pp. 34-6.
20 • V E R D I
up an d rea d th e librett o no t once , bu t tw o o r thre e times , s o that b y th e

morning I knew Solera' s librett o almos t b y heart .
... That da y I returned t o the theatre and handed th e manuscript back to
Merelli.
Isn't i t beautiful? ' h e sai d t o me .
'Very beautiful! '
'Well then—se t i t t o music! '
'I wouldn' t drea m o f it.'
'Go on . Se t it to music! '
And so saying he took the libretto, thrus t it into my overcoat pocket too k
me by the shoulders and not only pushed me out of the room but locked the
door i n m y face .
What wa s I t o do ?
I returne d hom e wit h Nabucco in my pocket. On e da y one line , anothe r
day another, here a note an d there a phrase and little by little th e oper a was
composed.
According to Lessona, writing ten years earlier, Verdi began with th e

death o f Abigaille ('th e part which wa s later removed'); an d the 'pian o
which had remained silent so long' did not begin to sound again until the
spring. Whatever the truth of the matter, the bulk of Nabucco was clearly
written durin g th e sprin g and summe r o f 1841 , an d b y autum n i t was
complete. Onc e agai n Verdi was too late for the Carnival season, whose
cartello had already been made up. But he was no longer prepared to wait
meekly until the following winter for a production. Ther e were protests,
arguments, angry letters. Finally he had the satisfaction o f seeing Nabucco
(or Nabucodonosor a s it was called before a revival at the Teatr o Gigli o of
Corfu establishe d the shorte r title ) announce d fo r 9 Marc h 1842 . Th e
production was makeshift, scenery and costumes having been resurrected
from a ballet o n th e sam e subjec t give n fou r year s earlier; Giuseppin a
Strepponi a s Abigaille, th e sopran o lead, was in execrabl e voic e ('Eve n
her Verd i didn' t wan t he r i n hi s opera,' 7 wrot e Donizetti , indicatin g
beyond a doubt tha t she had been on e of his earliest supporters); but th e
success was immediate an d decisive. At one bound Verd i had arrived at
the fron t ran k o f Italian composers o f his generation. Donizetti , whos e
7 Letter to A. Vasselli, 4.3.1842, G. Zavadini, Donizetti— Vita, Musiche, Epistolario (Bergamo ,

1948) p . 579 -
Maria Padilla had been given in the sam e season, is said to have spent th e
coach journey to Bologna where he was to direct Rossini's Staba t Mater
murmuring t o himsel f 'Tha t Nabucco —beautiful, beautiful , beautiful! '
Fashionable societ y opene d it s door s t o th e youn g composer ; i n th e
words of Lessona, 'He found himself suddenly beset by a crowd of friends
who neede d t o tel l hi m ho w the y ha d alway s loved him.. . They all
wanted to press his hand, to walk arm in arm with him, to address him as
o
'Tu'. Fro m this period date his friendships with the Countesses Appiani,
Morosini an d Maffe i t o who m he addresse d letters of a somewhat ele -
phantine gallantry . H e visite d Rossin i i n Bologna , wh o receive d hi m
kindly ('Oh , i t i s a fin e thin g t o b e Rossini!' 9 h e wrot e t o Countes s
Morosini i n on e o f thos e cynica l tribute s to worldl y succes s tha t wil l
often occu r in his correspondence wit h Milanes e high society).
'With Nabucco m y caree r can be sai d to hav e begun', h e wrot e year s
later t o Coun t Arrivabene ; 'Sinc e the n I hav e neve r lacke d fo r com -
missions'.10 Thi s wa s tru e enough , even i f th e leve l o f achievemen t
might fluctuate in the years to come. For the moment h e rode high on a
tide of increasing vitality and self-confidence. His next opera, / Lombardi
alla prima crociata, again to a libretto by Solera based on Tommaso Grossi's
poem o f the sam e name, followed th e grandios e path of Nabucco thoug h
in a more secular vein and with a certain diffusion o f incident du e to th e
long time-spa n o f th e subject . Th e critic s were agai n favourable, th e
public enthusiastic . The choru s of crusaders dying of thirst i n the Syrian
desert (' O Signore, da l tetto natio' ) wa s to equa l 'Va, pensiero' in pop -
ularity. I t wa s ove r thi s oper a tha t Verd i ha d hi s firs t bou t wit h th e
censorship. Cardinal Gaisruck, Archbishop of Milan, had objected to the
massed band s o f crusaders , to th e baptis m o f a n infide l o n stage , an d
above all to the singin g of an aria beginning with th e words Ave Maria.
Verdi, whos e iro n wil l wa s becoming mor e an d more i n evidenc e (h e
had locked Solera in a room durin g the compositio n o f Nabucco until he
should hav e complete d th e tex t o f Zaccaria's 'Preghiera ' whic h Verd i
wished to substitute for a love duet in the second act), refused t o chang e
anything o r eve n t o discus s the matter ; an d i t wa s lef t t o Soler a an d
o
M. Lessona , Valere è poten (Florence, 1869 ) pp . 29 7 ff.
o
AGV, i , pp. 422-3.
10
AVI, loe. cit.
22 • V E R D I
Merelli to com e t o an arrangement wit h th e chie f of police, Torresani ,

whereby th e physica l act of baptism was not represente d an d the wor d
'Ave' changed to 'Salve' . Austrian complaisance was not s o surprising as
is sometimes implied. Whatever significance / Lombardi alia prima crociata
took on retrospectively in the light of 1848, its plot is politically anodyne,
with villain s an d heroe s fairl y distribute d o n eithe r side . I t i s her ow n
people at whom Giseld a hurls her imprecations, to be cursed in turn by
her father ; an d i t i s he r erstwhil e wicke d uncle , turne d hermit , wh o
effects th e reconciliation. Oronte , chief representative o f the Saracens , is
the mos t sympathetic of juvenile leads. There are far more implication s
of political subversion in Rossini's Mosé an d L'assedio d i Corinto, neither
of which encountere d any opposition from the censor s of Milan. I t was
without irony , therefore , tha t Verdi dedicate d th e scor e o f / Lombardi
to th e Austrian Maria Luigia of Parma, having first obtained permissio n
from the Court Chamberlain .
So far La Scala had been th e venu e for all of Verdi's operas. Now h e
decided t o ventur e furthe r afield . H e ha d already been i n contac t wit h
the authoritie s o f th e Teatr o L a Fenice , Venice , wher e Nabucco ha d
opened the Carniva l season of 1842—3 . For the occasio n he had supplied
a new 'preghiera' fo r the Fenena, Almerinda Granchi. He now accepted
a commission fo r a new oper a to be given the following year. La Fenice
differed from most opera houses in Italy in that its policy was determined
not b y th e impresari o bu t b y a committe e o f thre e noblemen . Th e
Presidente agl i Spettacoli , Coun t Alvis e Mocenigo , an d th e secretary,
Guglielmo Brenna, were to prove valuable allies to Verdi, doin g every -
thing i n thei r powe r t o accommodat e hi s demands whic h eve n a t that
stage of his career were exacting . As to his fee for / Lombardi, Verdi had
taken the advic e of Giuseppina Strepponi and asked for 10,00 0 Austrian
lire, th e su m tha t Bellin i ha d bee n pai d fo r Norma. Thi s h e no w fel t
justified i n raising to 12,000 , the final instalment to be paid after th e first
night, no t afte r th e thir d performanc e as had been originall y proposed ;
for wha t i f there wer e n o thir d performance ? As always he refuse d t o
supply the ful l scor e before the period o f piano rehearsal s since that was
when h e like d t o complet e hi s orchestration. Ove r thes e an d kindred
matters th e managemen t mad e n o difficulty . Bu t the n bega n th e lon g
search for a subject and a librettist. With the possible exception o f Bellini
none of Verdi's predecessors were so particular as to their choice of plots.
The correspondenc e wit h Mocenig o bega n durin g Verdi' s visi t t o

Vienna for the Austria n première o f Nabucco and continued throughou t
most o f th e summer . Tw o consideration s prevailed : th e desir e fo r a
congenial them e and the need t o avoid self-repetition. King Lear headed
the lis t o f possibilities, bu t wa s not t o b e realise d the n o r a t an y othe r
time. Fo r the presen t he dismissed it along with Byron's Th e corsair since
it required a baritone of the order o f Ronconi, creator of Nabucco, and
the Fenice theatre had no one suitable. Bulwer Lytton's Cola di Rienzi he
thought woul d mak e a fine subjec t 'i f treate d a s it shoul d be' , bu t th e
censorship would undoubtedl y prohibi t this . Alternatively he might tr y
his han d a t a prim a donn a opera—Byron' s Bride o f Abydos o r Dumas '
Catherine Howard o f which h e went so far as to draw up a synopsis. Then
he change d his mind i n favour o f Byron's Th e Two Foscari—'a Venetian
story which woul d reall y grip a Venetian audience , an d besides it's ful l
of passio n an d very eas y t o se t t o music.. . to m e it' s a mos t tellin g
subject and much more "simpático" than Catherine.' 11 H e sent a synopsis
to Venic e before settin g off for Senigalli a i n mid-Jul y t o tak e charge of
a revival of/ Lombardi, for which he would supply a new cabalett a for the
tenor, Antoni o Poggi . While he wa s there h e hear d tha t both Caterina
Howard an d / due Foscari ha d been rejecte d by th e censors , the first be-
cause o f its cruel streak, the secon d for fea r o f giving offenc e t o certai n
members o f the Venetian nobility .
It was at this point that Brenna put forward the name of a young friend
of his who ha d ambitions as a theatrical poet but s o far no experience; h e
was a t presen t writin g a librett o abou t Cromwel l an d i f afte r seein g
a specimen of his verses Verdi approved, he would complet e it for him to
set to music. His name was Francesco Maria Piave. Verdi was cautiously
favourable; an d s o bega n on e o f th e mos t fruitfu l partnership s i n th e
world of opera. Piave's lack of experience and therefore authority turne d
out t o th e advantag e of their collaboration ; for it meant tha t Verdi was
never overawed by him into accepting a word or a line of which h e was
not full y convinced . Piave , as Gabriele Baldini and other s have pointed
out, was in effec t Verdi' s literary amanuensis. Every line o f his librettos
was hammered out into the exact form that the composer wanted. It was
fortunate, too , tha t Piave himself proved s o malleable; for in those day s
11CBM, pp. 55-9.

24 • V E R D I
libretti wer e availabl e at ever y performanc e and , a s house light s wer e

never lowered, excep t for one brief period at La Scala, could be followed
as th e oper a proceeded ; an d Piave' s ofte n congeste d lines—fo r Verd i
insisted o n th e maximu m significanc e fro m th e fewes t numbe r o f
words—were regularly held up to ridicule. But he remained steadfas t in
his obedience to Verdi's wishes; and only a false aesthetic could fault hi m
for this . Th e poe t wh o mad e possibl e suc h achievement s a s Emani,
Macbeth, Rigoletto, L a traviata an d Laforza de l destino wa s no t a bungler.
Verdi himself , thoug h frequentl y impatient , sometime s angr y with hi s
collaborator, wa s alway s ready to sprin g to hi s defence. In 186 1 h e s o
helped to secure for him the post of resident stage director at La Scala—in
which, alas , h e prove d utterl y incompetent; no r wa s it throug h lac k of
Verdi's support that his application for the chair of theatrical poetry at the
Milan Conservator y wa s turne d dow n i n favou r o f th e youn g 'sca -
pigliato', Emilio Praga. When at the en d o f 186 7 Piave suffered a stroke
which lef t hi m paralize d for th e remainin g eigh t year s of his life, Verd i
helped t o organis e an 'albu m Piave' o f songs to which various eminent
composers woul d contribute , himsel f included , fo r th e benefi t o f th e
librettist an d hi s family . I n hi s funera l oratio n Giuli o Pvicord i tol d o f
Verdi's regular visits to the invali d whenever h e came to Milan .
The Cromwell opera on which Piave and Verdi first collaborated was
not, as several have guessed, Victor Hugo's drama but an operatic version
of Walter Scott' s Woodstock, wit h the actio n transferred t o Scotland . Its
title was originally Allan Cameron until Verdi suggested that it should be
changed to Cromwell —even thoug h th e Lord Protector, lik e Edward III
in Donizetti' s L'assedio d i Calais, di d no t ente r unti l th e fina l act . Th e
libretto wa s already complete whe n Verdi , actin g on a random remar k
thrown ou t by Mocenigo, suddenl y decided o n Victor Hugo' s Hemani,
offering t o recompens e Piav e fo r th e useles s wor k h e ha d pu t i n o n
Cromwell. (In fact Piave was able to offer his libretto under its original title
to th e compose r Pacin i i n 1848. ) Piav e wa s dismayed a t th e time ; bu t
once Verdi had made up his mind h e was not t o be shifted . Likewis e i t
required all the tact and diplomatic skill s of Brenna to ensure the kind of
cast which th e composer was determined t o have. During the summer of
1843 h e ha d agree d unconditionall y t o writ e a par t fo r on e Carolin a
Vietti, a very popular musico-contralto of the day. In Emani (as the opera
was to be called ) there wa s only on e part that would sui t her—the tid e
role, whom the play describes as a 'beardless youth'. Verdi however made
it clear, as he was to d o on mor e tha n one occasion , that he wa s totally
opposed t o th e traditio n o f the trouse r role (thoug h h e was to mak e an
exception i n his ideas for the Foo l in King Lear). After muc h argument it
was decided tha t of the three male principals Ernani should be allocate d
to a tenor, Carl o to a baritone, and Silva, originally intended for Antonio
Superchi, th e leadin g bariton e o n th e roster , shoul d b e entruste d t o
a young supporting basso profondo the burden of whose part would have
to b e correspondingl y lightened . Bu t th e difficultie s di d not en d there .
The seaso n opene d wit h a reviva l o f / Lotnbardi a t whic h Domenic o
Conti, th e propose d Ernani , san g so badly that h e wa s hastily droppe d
from th e roster. Arrangement s were mad e for Verdi to g o to Verona t o
hear anothe r tenor , bu t h e to o prove d inadequate . Eventuall y i t was
decided to await the arrival of Carlo Guaseo from Spain . He complaine d
that the new assignment would be too fatiguing, but the management of
La Fenice threatened to sue his 'appaltatore' if he refused . Al l this meant
that th e première ha d to be deferred until March . Th e Venetians , wh o
had receive d al l the previou s opera s badly, were no t i n a n accommo -
dating mood. 'If I have a failure I shall blow my brains out'12 Verdi wrote
to a friend; bu t i n th e even t thi s was not necessary . On th e first night
Guaseo was hoarse and Sofia Loewe, the Elvira, sang out of tune (she had
been put ou t a t having to finish the oper a with a terzetto instead of the
rondo-finale whic h singer s of her calibr e expected a s their right) . Th e
scenery was half finished. No matter . The audienc e went int o raptures.
Among them was Verdi's brother-in-law, Giovanni Barezzi, who wrote
home enthusiasticall y to hi s father abou t th e opera , it s reception—and
about Piave (' a big, jolly young man like Solera'). 13
If Nabuao ha d establishe d Verdi' s pre-eminenc e throughou t th e
peninsula, i t was Emani that made him a n international celebrity. Wit h
Bellini i n hi s grave , Rossin i i n virtua l retirement , Donizett i abou t t o
vanish fro m th e scene , an d Mercadant e declinin g int o self-repetition ,
Verdi's voice was recognised a s that of contemporary Italy . Audiences,
managements and publishers from no w o n waited eagerly for every fres h
creation. Critics , academic s and , fo r th e mos t part , fello w composer s
I2
AGV, I , pp. 481-2.
I3
AGV, I , p. 497-
20 • V E R D I
were to remain hostile for years to come. At a time when musical opinion
started t o divid e betwee n th e Mendelssohnia n conservative s an d th e
partisans of the New Germa n School of Liszt and Wagner, Verd i pleased
neither th e on e sid e nor th e other . Germanophile s o f all varieties wh o
managed t o exten d thei r toleranc e t o Bellin i an d the comedie s o f Do -
nizetti mostl y stoppe d short a t the 'coarseness ' o f Verdi. T o Fétis , th e
most authoritativ e voic e i n Frenc h criticism , h e merel y aggravate d th e
ruin o f vocal art that had begun with Bellini. In Austria Hanslick, whil e
admitting th e superio r energ y o f Ernani ove r al l the opera s o f Verdi' s
predecessors, would no t begi n t o tak e the compose r seriousl y until th e
appearance ofRigoletto. England' s two weightiest critics , H.F. Chorle y of
the Athenaeum and J.W. Davison of The Times, may have been mutuall y
opposed i n their view s o f Meyerbeer an d Berlioz bu t the y were unite d
in their antipathy to Verdi, though Chorle y graciousl y admitted that he
was not a nonentity. Bot h foun d hi m lacking in originality. Ther e were
frequent complaint s tha t he ruine d singers ' voice s (Bülo w in German y
called hi m th e Attil a o f the throat) . Amon g composer s Wagner , wh o
loved th e melodie s o f Bellini, coul d hardl y bear t o hea r Verdi's nam e
spoken. But his worst detractor at this time was Otto Nicolai, who wrot e
in hi s diary : 'th e Italia n oper a compose r o f toda y i s Verdi... But hi s
operas are truly dreadfu l an d utterl y degrading fo r Italy.' 14 Nicola i wa s
hardly a n objectiv e witness . Wit h th e librett o o f // proscritto whic h h e
obtained fro m Verd i i n exchang e fo r Nabucco h e achieve d a fiasco as
monumental a s that of U n giorno di regno. I t was the en d no t onl y o f his
stormy engagemen t t o th e sopran o Erminia Frezzolin i but o f an Italian
career which till then had been one of steadily mounting success. True, as
conductor o f the Vienn a Stat e Opera an d o f the Vienn a Philharmoni c
Orchestra, of which he was one of the founders, he was able to repair his
fortunes; but it can have been no pleasure to him to see his rival's operas
triumphing i n Vienna , hi s ow n newl y wo n hom e territory . Ye t Fat e
was t o lin k onc e mor e th e live s o f Verdi an d Nicolai . Bot h wer e t o
compose thei r las t operas , which ar e als o thei r comi c masterpieces , o n
Shakespeare's Merry Wives o f Windsor.
14
O. Nicolai , Tagebücher, nebst biographischen Ergänzungen vo n D. Schröde r (Leipzig , 1892) ,
p. 130 .
C H A P T E R T H R E E
The Journeyman
O looking
F MEDIU M HEIGHT ; NO T UNPREPOSSESSIN G BU T NO T GOOD -
1
either; solemn and haughty.' This vignette of 1845 by an
anonymous correspondent o f the Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung give s a
fair ide a o f the vie w o f himself that Verdi presente d t o th e world , an d
would continu e to present until mellowe d b y age. Fortunately we have
a more sympatheti c witness to th e rea l man.
Emanuele Muzio was born at Zibello in the Duchy of Parma in 1821 ,
the so n o f th e villag e cobbler . A s a boy h e studie d with Verdi' s rival,
Ferrari; and when Ferrar i moved o n i n 184 0 acted as supply organist of
the Collegiate Church . During this time he came under the patronage of
Antonio Barezz i wh o i n 1843 , afte r h e ha d faile d t o qualif y fo r th e
priesthood for which he was intended, obtaine d from the Monte di Pietà
a grant to enable him to study music in Milan either at the Conservatory
or, i f he wer e refuse d entry , under a private teacher. Like Verdi before
him, Muzio faile d th e entrance examination but remained to study with
Verdi himself . For th e nex t thre e year s he woul d pla y a similar role i n
Verdi's lif e t o tha t o f Ferdinand Rie s i n Beethoven's—par t pupil , par t
amanuensis (fro m 184 4 onward s h e woul d b e responsibl e fo r mos t o f
the piano-and-voic e reduction s of Verdi's operas) . If the goo d Busse -
tans hoped fo r another Verdi to enhanc e the town' s artisti c reputation,
they wer e t o b e disappointed . Loyal to hi s friend s an d fundamentally
1
cnv, p. i2.
27
28 • VERD I
good-hearted, Muzi o was a mediocrity, poorl y educate d and hampere d

by a tactlessness that made him enemies. That he was to make a career in
music a t all was due partl y to th e thoroughnes s o f Verdi's teachin g and
his recommendations, partl y to that routine competence that comes with
experience. H e compose d tw o operas , Claudia an d Giovanna l a pazza,
both of which reached the stage though neither were to remain there. In
1861 h e gav e th e firs t America n performanc e o f U n bailo i n maschera.
While there he met and married the young singer Lucy Simons, but the
marriage brok e u p afte r th e deat h o f thei r daughter . I n 186 9 h e con -
ducted th e openin g seaso n of the ne w Cair o Oper a hous e an d woul d
have give n th e premièr e o f Aida ther e i f he ha d no t i n th e meantim e
made himself so unpopular with singe n an d orchestra. He wa s resident
conductor o f the Theatr e de s Italiens from 187 0 until i t closed in 1876 ;
and h e ende d hi s caree r as a singing teache r in Paris . Both Patti sister s
went t o hi m fo r coaching.
From the time that he arrived in Milan in mid-April 184 4 he regaled
his benefactor with a stream of letters which no t onl y testif y t o Verdi' s
kindness o f hear t an d th e warmt h o f hi s companionshi p bu t revea l
a thousand details of his daily round. O f Verdi the teacher: 'Believe me ,
he doesn' t pas s a note , h e want s everythin g perfect . H e won' t hav e
two hidde n consecutiv e fifths o r octave s (ope n one s ar e o f course ex -
communicated); he wants all the parts to mov e like a scale with neve r a
jump... Up t o no w I hav e studie d harmon y an d I assur e yo u tha t i f
I had been under another teacher... I should have needed almos t a year
certainly, fo r Corbellini... in th e si x months that he ha s been studyin g
has not go t hal f as far as I have in the sam e subject i n suc h a short time .
[Verdi] i s so good t o m e tha t sometimes I can't hold bac k my tears; for
sometimes to finish a lesson he keeps people waiting no matter who the y
are... '2 Fro m Muzi o w e hea r o f the visitor s who dail y thronge d hi s
ante-room; th e Grand Duchess of Tuscany and her Cavalier who merel y
wished fo r th e honou r o f his acquaintance; the contralt o wh o wante d
him t o includ e a contralto ari a i n hi s next oper a (sh e was to b e disap -
pointed); the compose r wh o besough t hi m t o avoid a subject which h e
himself had already chosen; the importunities o f Giovannina Lucca, wife
of the publisher , Pvicordi' s rival, who begge d wit h tear s in her eye s for
2
GMB, pp. 15 7 £F . Se e also WMV, pp. 117-63 .
The Journeyman • 2 9
the rights in just one of Verdi's scores . ('The lady said that when they are
in be d the y d o nothin g bu t sigh ; an d th e Signe r Maestro aske d if they
really did nothing else but sigh ; and in that way he makes a joke o f it all
and get s ri d o f her.' ) Fro m Muzi o w e hea r wh y Verd i fel t unabl e t o
accept a commissio n fro m th e Cas a de ' Nobil i t o se t a cantat a by hi s
friend Andre a Maffei . ('I t wa s trul y beautifu l an d sublime ; i t wa s th e
breath o f Eternit y tha t create d wisdom ; bu t i t wa s decidedly impossi -
ble t o se t to music.. . There wa s no sens e of dialogue; an d th e Signo r
Maestro .. .wanted something dramatic.') We learn too of Verdi's dismay
on hearing that Prosper Derivis, creator of Zacearía in Nabucco, wanted t o
sing Do n Carl o i n Ernani ('Yesterda y th e Signo r Maestr o said , "Ho w
could h e want to sin g 'Vieni meco , so l di rose' with tha t great voic e o f
his?" '). Doubtles s i t wa s thi s consideratio n tha t le d Verd i t o permi t a
cabaletta fo r Silva , s o turnin g a comprimari o int o a principal par t an d
diverting all bassi profondi from a misguided ambition to star in what had
been conceive d a s a high bariton e role .
By th e tim e Muzi o ha d complete d hi s studies in 184 6 h e n o longe r
wished to return t o Busseto to compete fo r the post of organist and mu -
nicipal music master:
To tel l you th e trut h I shoul d b e extremel y sorry to hav e t o abando n the

Signor Maestro after h e ha s given me a second life an d i s always seeking to
have m e cu t a good figur e i n societ y I f only you coul d se e us! I don' t
seem to be his pupil but rathe r one o f his friends. Alway s together at lunch,
at th e coffe e house , playing together (fo r one hou r only , fro m twelv e t o
one); i n shor t h e goe s nowhere withou t me . A t hom e h e ha s procured a
large table and we both write at the sam e table and I always have the benefi t
of his advice. I t would be absolutel y impossibl e for me t o leav e him.
A sentiment tha t does much credi t t o the m both .

At first, however, Verdi preferred to travel alone for the production of
new operas . Verdi' s nex t commissio n wa s fo r th e Teatr o Argentina ,
Rome, where I due Fosean, rejected as a subject for Venice, was scheduled
for productio n i n November . With hi m wen t Piave , who, a s librettist,
was require d t o ac t a s stage manager . Her e th e poe t wa s o n familia r
ground, havin g spen t severa l years in th e city , where h e ha d moved i n
the highest literar y circles, becoming a member o f the Accademia Tibu-
rina, whos e leadin g lights include d th e vetera n Jacopo Ferrett i (poe t o f
JO • V E R D I
Rossini's L a Genérentela, Donizetti' s Torquato Tasso an d many lesse r

known opera s of the time). Hence a number of useful contact s for Verdi.
Indeed at a banquet given by the Duke of Torlonia, lessee of the theatre,
Ferretti himsel f recite d a long poe m i n honou r o f Italy' s latest musica l
genius.
As t o th e oper a itself , Verd i describe d i t i n a letter t o hi s Milanes e
friend Luig i Toccagni as a 'mezzo-fiasco', Piav e adding a postscript that
any othe r compose r woul d hav e calle d i t a triumph . Thoug h usuall y
regarded a s minor Verdi , / du e Fosean wa s t o prov e a n asse t ove r th e
following decades . With its modest lengt h an d requirements, it s unusual
plot, s o far removed fro m th e standar d pattern o f star-crossed lovers, i t
became the ideal 'opera di ripiego'—i.e . th e opera to fall back on when-
ever th e schedule d novelt y o f th e seaso n wa s delayed . Moreove r th e
rather studied, carefu l writin g was to ear n the compose r a critical pat o n
the back . For the genera l publi c Emani remained the favourite . Before
the year was out Verdi had been asked by Rossini to provide an extra aria
for hi s protégé th e teno r Nicola i Ivanof f t o insert into th e secon d act .
By the end of November Verd i was already at work o n his next com -
mission: Giovanna d'Arco t o a libretto b y Soler a due t o b e give n durin g
the Carniva l seaso n at L a Scala. Th e choic e o f subjec t appear s to hav e
been Solera's and designed to exploit that furrow of proven profitability,
the choral-historica l fresco , wit h th e adde d novelt y o f a prim a donn a
in who m al l the dramati c interes t i s concentrated. I t was , h e declare d
in a letter t o Ricordi, a n entirely origina l dram a bearing n o relatio n t o
Schiller's Jungfrau vo n Orleans —which wa s clearl y untrue . I t i s indee d
Schiller's dram a reduced to its essentials and with a love-interest betwee n
Joan an d th e Dauphi n added ; but i t provided opportunitie s fo r certain
untried effects, an d Verdi set to work on it with much zeal. Each number
is reported o n as it was written by Muzio who, characteristically , reserves
all his enthusiasm for the parts which toda y strike us as the weakest—the
ceremonial march , th e choruse s o f angel s an d demons . Th e seaso n
opened wit h / Lombardi, Verd i himsel f assistin g with th e rehearsals . 'I t
makes me very sad to se e him wearing himsel f out' , Muzio wrote . 'H e
shouts as if in desperation ; h e stamp s his foot s o much tha t he seem s t o
be playin g a n orga n wit h pedals ; he sweat s so much tha t drop s fal l o n
the score. ' Evidentl y h e wa s not wel l enoug h t o atten d th e firs t fe w
performances—the first sign that h e wa s taking o n mor e wor k tha n h e
could comfortabl y manage . Meanwhile a rumour ha d reache d Busseto

that he was being poisoned by a rival composer, as Demaldé wrote to him
in grea t concern . 'Fo r heaven' s sake' , Verd i replied , 'wha t centur y are
we supposed to be living in? ... We don't behave like that nowadays
On a more seriou s note , h e added , ' I a m better: th e mountai n ai r has
helped, an d still more th e rest ; but I' m afrai d tha t I shall again be poorly
when I get back to work. O h ho w I hope th e next three years will pass
quickly!'3
His healt h rallied an d Giovanna d'Arco wa s as great a success with th e
public as he could have wished. But there were signs that his honeymoon
with th e Mila n critic s was over. Severa l notices complained tha t he was
repeating himself; and that despite some beautiful moments th e opera as a
whole lacke d inspiration. Even the notice i n Ricordi's house magazine,
the Gazzetta Musicale di Milano, contained some wounding qualifications.
As alway s Verdi hel d th e edito r personall y responsibl e fo r th e view s
expressed by his correspondents .
That th e othe r journalist s shoul d spea k badl y o f m e i s i n perfec t order ;

nowadays they have openly declare d themselve s my enemies. Bu t from you
who claim to be my friend I don't much like to read here an article in defence
of m e whic h i s worse tha n a n advers e criticism , an d ther e a n observatio n
that i s almost a n insult... I am not writin g this in orde r t o ge t praise fro m
you but merely to know whether I must count you among my friends o r my
enemies. 4
The latter , s o it would appea r for the moment . 'H e i s thoroughly dis -
gusted with... Ricordi', wrot e Muzio , 'an d has written t o him tha t he
will neve r let hi m hav e another o f his scores.' I n March w e find Verdi
treating with Francesc o Lucca for an opera t o b e give n i n the Carniva l
season three years hence and als o offerin g hi m a group o f Romanze fo r
voice and pian o whic h the publishe r dul y brough t out the followin g
summer.
But for the next opera there was no question of breaking with Ricordi
to whom th e publishing rights had already been granted. This was Alzira,
contracted th e previou s year for productio n a t th e Sa n Carlo Theatre ,
3
LCV, IV, p. 80.
4
AGV,I, p. 541 .
32 • V E R D I
Naples. Not onl y was this the thir d o f Italy's leading oper a houses along
with La Scala, Milan and La Fenice, Venice; it boasted as its resident poet
and stag e director Salvator e Cammaran o who fo r th e las t te n year s had
taken Romani' s plac e a s Italy's most prestigiou s librettist . Bor n int o a
family o f actors and scene painters and clearly destined for a stage career,
Cammarano ha d been 'discovered' by Donizetti rather as Piave had been
discovered b y Verdi ; an d hi s first libretto, Lucia d i Lammermoor, already
shows th e qualitie s which woul d mak e hi m s o much i n demand . Hi s
verses ma y lac k th e chiselle d eleganc e an d clarit y o f Romani's ; no r
will thei r meanin g alway s bea r clos e scrutiny ; but the y ar e unfailingly
'musicable'. No librettis t showed greate r flair for evoking a mood or an
atmosphere withi n th e compas s of a single line; non e wa s more skilfu l
in reducin g th e mos t unlikel y o f plots t o th e standar d confrontation o f
soprano, teno r an d baritone , o r a t removin g th e politica l o r religiou s
barb (there is nothing in the libretto ofAlzira t o suggest that it is based on
the wor k o f a notorious sceptic) . Often Cammarano' s language sounds
like a parody of'librettese'. Yet it can convey information with eas e and
brevity—qualities whic h Verd i continuall y enjoine d upo n Piave , no t
always wit h success . T o b e fai r t o th e Venetian , however, hi s collabo-
ration with th e composer produced a string of masterworks; with Cam -
marano Verdi onl y achieve d one ; an d it was not Alzira.
Again th e choic e o f subjec t wa s no t Verdi's ; howeve r h e assure d
Cammarano that he had read and admired Voltaire's play. He added 'I am
often accuse d of being to o fon d o f noise an d o f maltreating the voice :
take no notice ofthat; put plenty of passion into it and you will find that
I write quit e passably.' 5 Work o n th e opera was once mor e interrupte d
by throat trouble , s o that Verdi ha d to as k for the premièr e t o be post-
poned. Flauto , th e impresario , wa s not impresse d b y th e medica l cer -
tificates h e receive d an d replie d tha t tinctur e o f wormwood combine d
with th e 'stimulatin g ai r o f Vesuvius' woul d wor k th e necessar y cure.
Verdi rejoine d wit h som e asperit y tha t wha t h e neede d wa s rest , no t
stimulation; an d he took th e precautio n o f applying to th e roya l cham-
berlain fo r confirmatio n tha t hi s certificat e had bee n receive d an d ac -
cepted. Possibl y Flauto suspected a diplomatic motive ; sinc e by delaying
the première o f the opera by a month Verd i would b e certain o f having
5
LCC, p. 429.
as hi s prim a donn a Eugeni a Tadolini , th e sopran o wh o ha d create d

Donizetti's Lind a d i Chamounix . Th e alternativ e wa s Ann a Bishop ,
runaway wife o f Sir Henry Bishop, who ha d arrived in Italy in a blaze of
totally undeserved publicity. ('La Bishop!' Donizetti exclaime d when she
had bee n offere d t o him , 'Ar e yo u joking???.') But , a s Muzio make s
clear, the illness was genuine enough; 'but we artists', Verdi grumbled t o
Cammarano, 'are not allowed t o be ill'.7
Verdi left Milan for Naples at the end of June, was recognised when h e
appeared a t the theatr e durin g a performance of / due Foscari an d calle d
out ont o th e stage . He di d no t lac k enemie s in Naples , which wa s the
stronghold o f hi s on e remainin g riva l o f an y consequence , Saveri o
Mercadante. The journalists were inclined to be ribald; but the public as
a whol e wa s eager an d interested . A s the premièr e approache d Verdi's
mood wa s one o f cautious optimism. Th e singer s liked thei r music, and
rehearsals were proceeding smoothly. ' I can't give you a definite opinio n
of th e work, ' h e wrot e t o Andre a Maffei , 'becaus e I wrot e i t easily ,
o
almost withou t noticing . Don' t worry , i t certainl y won't be a fiasco. '
Nor wa s it ; severa l number s wer e warml y applauded , especiall y th e
overture which had been written a t the last minute (i t replaced a shorter
prelude which , i f Muzio i s to b e believed , containe d a musical sunrise
modelled on that of Félicien David's cantata Le Désert, heard and admired
by Verdi shortly before he left Milan) . Alzira did not repea t the furore o f
Emani o r Giovanna à'Arco; bu t 'i t wil l remai n i n th e repertory' , Verd i
wrote, 'and , wha t i s more important , wil l g o the round s along with its
sister operas'. 9 Here h e was mistaken. Alzira proved of all his operas the
least successful. S o completely had it sunk below the horizon by the tim e
of his death that an English obituar y article referred to i t as Montezumal
In du e cours e Verd i himsel f cam e t o realise , a s one disastrou s revival
followed another , tha t the troubl e lie s 'i n it s vitals';10 an d h e mad e n o
attempt to reclaim it by revision. Fortunately he had reaped other mor e
lasting benefit s fro m hi s first experience o f th e Parthenopea n city : th e
acquaintance o f tw o singer s who woul d serv e him wel l i n th e future ,
6
Letter to T. Pérsico , 14.6.1843, Zavadini , p. 670.
7
LCC,p. 13 .
8
LCC, p. 431.
9
WMV, p. 138 .
IO
LCC,p. 432.
34 * VERDI
Filippo Colett i an d Gaetan o Fraschini , hi s favourite tenor fo r th e nex t

twenty years; also of the critic Opprandino Arrivabene, one of the few to
report favourabl y o n th e opera , though wit h th e ominou s qualification
that 'the beauties of the score were no t suc h as could be taken in at first
hearing.'11 To Arrivabene Verdi would i n later years reveal some of his
most interestin g thought s o n musi c in genera l an d th e curren t stat e of
Italian oper a in particular.
Verdi di d no t hav e t o wai t thre e year s for hi s first operatic ventur e
with Lucca. After the triumph ofEmani anothe r opera for La Fenice was
an obviou s desideratu m onc e Verd i shoul d hav e discharge d hi s othe r
commitments. B y the winter o f 1844- 5 th e cas t for the followin g Car -
nival season had already been fixed; and Verdi was urging Piave to loo k
out for a 'strong' subject suitable to the combined talents of Sofia Loewe ,
Fraschini, Constantin ! an d Marini . Th e contrac t seem s t o hav e bee n
arranged no t fo r onc e wit h th e Presidenz a bu t wit h th e impresari o
Alessandro Lanari . The n i n January 184 5 Lanar i withdrew , sellin g hi s
rights to Lucca . 'Now at last', Muzi o wrote proudl y t o Barezzi, 'Lucc a
will hav e the pleasure of publishing a n opera by the Signo r Maestro.'
The histor y o f musi c publishing i n nineteenth-centur y Ital y almost
merits a chapte r i n itself . I n th e norther n state s permissio n t o prin t
complete opera s could b e grante d only b y roya l patent. Thi s ha d bee n
obtained b y Giovann i Ricord i o f Mila n i n 1808 ; th e car e whic h h e
brought t o hi s task i n contras t to th e slipsho d methods o f his rivals in
Naples soon drew the flower of Italian composers within his orbit. Bellini
would have liked to contract with him for the publication of all his future
operas but this Ricordi regarded as too great a risk. In 1840 he had helped
to negotiat e a treaty between Austri a and th e Kingdo m o f Sardinia for
mutual recognitio n o f copyrigh t withi n eac h other' s territory . Bu t hi s
monopoly woul d no t remai n fo r long. A similar patent was granted in
1825 t o Francesc o Lucca, onc e a n engrave r i n Ricordi' s firm . Lucc a
set up his premises directly opposite those of Ricordi by La Scala theatre;
and fo r th e nex t hal f centur y th e tw o firm s divide d Italia n music be -
tween them—i n th e Nort h unti l 186 1 an d throughou t th e peninsul a
thereafter unti l the deat h of Giovanni's so n Tito and the arriva l on th e
scene of a far more deadly adversary, Edoardo Sonzogno, induced the m
11
GMB, pp. 217-19.
to amalgamate, the widow Lucca selling out to Giulio Ricordi. Each firm
had it s house magazin e as an aid in th e struggle : Ricordi, th e Gazzetta
Musicale di Milano, Lucca L'Italia Musicale. If Ricordi had the advantage of
being first in the field, Lucca was the more open to new ideas. He it was
who firs t regularl y abandoned th e ol d clef s fo r soprano and tenor , sub -
stituting th e G clef for both; likewise he was the first in Italy to bring out
his scor e i n th e uprigh t format , s o muc h mor e suitabl e fo r playin g a t
the new domestic piano. While Giovanni Ricordi aspired to the status of
artist an d gentlema n fo r himsel f an d hi s descendants, Francesc o Lucca ,
childless, was content to be a hard-headed ma n ofbusiness, as Verdi would
find to his cost. During the i86os , when the Italian operatic tradition was
beginning t o lose its vitality, it was Lucca who ha d the foresigh t to bu y
up th e right s i n Gounod , Meyerbee r and— a masterstroke—Wagner .
His mos t farseein g innovation , however , ha d been t o initiat e a system
whereby th e compose r coul d contrac t fo r a n oper a directl y wit h th e
publisher wh o woul d i n retur n tak e the responsibilit y fo r placing i t i n
a suitable theatre an d relieve th e compose r o f all practical dealings with
the management . Al l three o f Verdi's opera s published b y Lucc a came
into being in this way; so, at his own suggestion , di d two o f those sub -
sequently brought ou t by Ricordi. From Rigoletto onwards Verdi rever -
ted to th e ol d system until Giovanni' s grandson , Giuli o Ricordi , by far
the ables t o f the dynasty , coaxed hi m into entrusting everythin g t o th e
firm. By the i88o s this system obtained throughout Italy ; and composers
were mostly happy to accept it, especially as they were regularly granted
a hig h proportio n o f hirin g fees . Bu t i t pu t a n inordinatel y powerfu l
weapon int o the hand s of the publishers, i n the cours e of whose inter -
necine warfare many a false reputatio n was created and many a genuine
one hel d back—witnes s the respectiv e cases of Gobatti and Catalani.
No such consequences wer e foresee n i n 1845 . I n March , soo n afte r
the première of Giovanna d'Arco, Verdi paid a visit to Venice to assist with
a reviva l of I due Foscari (fear s tha t the subjec t migh t caus e local offenc e
had evidently proved groundless). It was then that he and Piave found the
ideal subject, so they thought, for La Fenice the following year: Zacharias
Werner's Attila. Not onl y di d it show th e Scourg e o f God turned bac k
from th e gate s of the Hol y City ; i t depicte d the grandeu r o f Rome re -
born o n th e lagoon s o f Venice. Als o it include d a number o f choruses
ready-made. Andre a Maffe i woul d dra w u p th e synopsi s and sen d it t o
30 • V E R D I
Piave, wh o shoul d meantim e stud y Madame d e Stael' s De l'Allemagne.

But soo n ther e wa s a chang e o f plan . 'Good , I se e you're thoroughl y
reasonable', Verdi wrote from Naples; 'so let's not think about the opera
for Venic e bu t rathe r abou t th e one s we'r e goin g t o d o fo r Genoa ,
Vienna o r wherever.' Evidentl y h e ha d decide d tha t Attila would b e
more suite d t o th e grandios e manne r o f Solera, no w release d fro m hi s
duties a t La Scala. I t was an unfortunat e decision. Befor e he ha d com -
pleted th e librett o Soler a followe d hi s wif e t o Spain , wher e sh e was
engaged t o sin g at the Teatr o Real , Madrid . Th e fina l month s o f 184 5
Verdi passed in alternating moods o f hope an d weary depression. O f the
opera itsel f he continue d t o expec t grea t things . Th e critic s might say
what the y like , h e declared , bu t h e ha d neve r tackle d a fine r subject .
He sent to the sculptor Luccardi in Rome for details of Raphael's fresco
in th e Vatica n depictin g Attila' s meetin g wit h St . Le o a t th e gate s o f
Rome—a foretaste, this, of the insistenc e on historica l accurac y that h e
would brin g t o Macbeth. H e even suggeste d t o hi s Frenc h publishe r
Escudier an adaptation of Attila as a suitable work with which to make his
debut a t the Pari s Opera . But n o amoun t o f prodding b y lette r woul d
obtain fro m Soler a the missin g passages from the las t act, let alone thos e
routine modification s o f line s her e an d ther e tha t inevitabl y becam e
necessary in the course of composition. Unabl e to wait any longer Verdi
entrusted al l this to Piav e and sen t the resul t to Soler a fo r his approval.
Only then did Solera react, declaring that a fine libretto ha d been turne d
into a mockery. 'Buttai voluntas tua' h e added; 'yo u are the one perso n
who ha s been abl e t o convinc e m e tha t th e professio n o f librettis t i s
not fo r me.' 13 I t was not a n encouraging lette r t o receiv e a few weeks
before openin g night .
In th e meantime Verd i ha d becom e increasingl y involve d wit h th e
firm of Lucca. In October he had confirmed his offer t o write for him an
opera fo r Carniva l 1848 . About th e sam e tim e h e receive d a visit fro m
Benjamin Lumley , impresari o o f He r Majesty' s Theatre Londo n wh o
had offere d a commission fo r th e summe r o f 1846 . Verdi ha d accepte d
and once agai n the casting and other detail s were lef t t o Lucca (one may
conjecture tha t he and Lumley moved i n the same business circles). Th e
I2
AGV, I , pp. 563-4.
I3
LCV, IV, p. 245.
subject wa s first to hav e been King Lear with Lablach e in th e titl e role ;
but, a s he woul d foreve r b e doin g i n th e future , Verd i shran k fro m
fulfilling thi s life-long ambition. Then Byron' s Corsair was proposed an d
temporarily agree d though ther e wa s some argumen t a s to wh o shoul d
write th e libretto: Verd i insisted that it should be Piave .
The Carniva l seaso n at L a Fenice o f 1845- 6 opene d wit h Giovanna
1
a Arco.I n th e titl e role wa s Sofia Loew e fo r whom Verd i wrot e a ne w
cavatina, now , alas , n o longe r traceable . Then durin g January he fel l ill
with gastri c fever an d it seemed as though h e migh t not b e abl e to com -
plete Attila before the end of the season; but complet e i t he did 'virtually
on m y deathbed' 14 unde r inexorabl e pressur e from Lucca . This i s con -
firmed by a letter from the tenor Nicolai Ivanoffto Lucc a expressing great
concern abou t Verdi's health o n behalf of the Italia n musical world. Th e
Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung eve n carrie d a notic e o f hi s death . Verd i
recovered slowly ; there wa s no questio n o f his fulfilling an y other com -
missions that year; and he neve r forgave Lucc a for his ruthlessness.
The succes s of Attila wa s rea l bu t slo w t o detonate , it s popularit y
increasing as it went th e rounds. I t is the only oper a in which Verdi was
asked to provide tw o alternativ e arias—one for Napoleone Moriani , the
other for Nicolai Ivanoff , onc e again at Rossini's request . The musi c has
all the forc e i f not th e freshnes s o f Nabucco o r Ernani; and th e subjec t o f
Italo-German confrontatio n wa s becomin g mor e topica l wit h ever y
month tha t passed. For 184 6 was the year of the 'liberal ' Pope Pius IX's
accession, heralding , i t was hoped, a new er a of freedom for Italy . At a
performance ofEmani i n Bologna th e audience chanted 'A Pió Nono sia
gloria e d onor' t o th e strain s that greeted Carlo' s grantin g of a genera l
pardon. Neve r ha d Verdi' s musi c bee n s o openl y associate d with th e
cause of Italian patriotism. One ma y even detect a trace of nervousness in
his reques t t o Soler a t o tel l hi m th e precis e meanin g o f Ezio' s word s
addressed to Attila:
Avrai t u l'univers o
Resti ritalia a me
He ha d t o be read y to answe r awkward questions . But a s in the cas e of

/ Lombardi the Risorgimentale associations have been exaggerate d in the
I4
LCC, p. 108 .
38 • VERD I
light of later events. Here too the honours and dishonours are distributed
evenly an d b y n o mean s i n favou r o f th e Italians . Attila i s a t leas t as
estimable as any of his opponents. When Lucca demanded a n exorbitan t
hire-fee fo r th e oper a fro m L a Scala i n th e autum n o f tha t year, i t was
the Austria n polic e wh o stepped i n an d compelle d hi m t o lowe r it —
which show s how muc h dange r th e authoritie s apprehended fro m tha t
quarter.
But if Verdi was still riding on a tide of success, the long illness of those
winter month s wa s a warnin g an d th e followin g month s o f enforce d
idleness a blessing in disguise . Fre e for a while fro m th e theatrica l mill -
race, h e wa s able t o tak e thought , t o re-conside r hi s artistic ideals and
so take the road which woul d lead to the goal of perpetual self renewal .
C H A P T E R F O U R
Florence, London and Paris
T HROUGHOUT TH E SPRIN G O F 184 6 VERD I ALLOWE D HIMSEL F T O

be nursed back to health, first by Piave in Venice, 'with a care that
was truly fraternal,' then by Muzio in Milan. By June he was fit enough
to stan d as witness togethe r wit h Giuli o Carcan o t o th e dee d o f sepa-
ration betwee n Andre a MafFe i an d hi s wif e Clarina ; the n h e followe d
both me n t o th e sp a of Recoaro, wher e h e spen t th e summe r i n thei r
company. MafFei and Carcano moved in the highest literary circles; both
were poet s an d translator s o f merit , steepe d a s the y wer e i n foreig n
literature. His association with them at such a critical time could not fai l
to broaden Verdi's horizons.
The firs t hin t o f re-awakene d creativ e powers come s i n a letter t o
Piave written in August.1 Now tha t the London project had been shelved
for th e tim e bein g Piav e had aske d whethe r h e migh t offe r th e boo k
of / / corsaro t o anothe r composer. Verdi' s reply is at first all incredulous
indignation. What , giv e u p a work o f which h e ha d alread y begun t o
sketch on e o f the duets ? Piave should have his head examined. Bu t th e
tone gradually changes. If Piave would write him another poem with all
the lovin g car e that h e ha d brough t t o th e Byroni c subject , then h e is
welcome t o tak e back his original libretto. I n th e even t U corsaro woul d
serve hi m fo r a less importan t occasion . Fo r th e presen t h e ha d large r
ideas.
1
BOV, I, pp. 363-4-
39
40 • VERD I
Attila had been on e o f two opera s contracted wit h th e impresari o La -

nari; the second , subjec t still unchosen, wa s now schedule d for the Car -
nival season of 184 7 in Florence . Fro m Muzio w e lear n that the subjects
under consideratio n wer e three : Schiller' s Di e Räuber, Grillparzer' s Di e
Ahnjrau an d Shakespeare' s Macbeth; an d tha t th e las t tw o wer e th e
most likel y choices . I f Fraschini were availabl e he woul d d o Di e Ahnfrau
(L'Avola); i f not, Macbeth. A note fro m Verd i t o Lanar i confirms this and
specifies th e opera' s genr e a s 'fantastic'. Fraschini , a s it turne d out , wa s
engaged elsewhere; but that did not mean the end of Verdi's conditions for
writing Macbeth. Ther e was , h e declared , onl y on e bariton e capabl e o f
sustaining the title role—Felice Varesi; and he did everything i n his power
to secure his services for the required period . H e wrote t o him personally,
insisting that his negotiations b e kep t secre t from the othe r leadin g bari -
tone o n th e roster. Once engaged, he worked closel y with Varesi on the
composition o f Macbeth's music, offering alternativ e versions of the same
passage an d askin g for suggestion s a s to th e scoring . H e wa s lavish wit h
instructions about the interpretation. Varesi was to pay more attention t o
the words tha n to th e music , to serve the poet rathe r tha n th e musician .
The phras e 'i n a n entirel y ne w manner' 2 continuall y recurs . H e woul d
rehearse both Vares i and hi s Lady Macbeth, Mariann a Barbieri-Nini, t o
within minute s o f the 'prov a genérale' , which wa s held i n public. Pietr o
Romani, who directe d th e orchestra , was driven t o despai r by the com -
poser's inabilit y to mak e his intentions clea r to th e players. But th e chie f
sufferer wa s Piave. On 5 September 184 6 Verdi ha d sen t him a synopsis,
using as his source Rusconi's translation o f 1838 . ('This tragedy is one o f
the greates t creation s o f th e huma n spirit . I f w e canno t mak e some -
thing grea t ou t o f it, le t us at least do somethin g ou t o f the ordinary'.) 3
Throughout the autumn and winter oftha t year the poet was subjected to
a barrage of letters asking for more verses and complaining o f those already
sent; they wer e to o prolix , insufficientl y theatrical ; they lacked character .
The reason , Verdi was sure, was that Piave had taken on too muc h wor k
and that he himsel f was suffering fo r it. That throughou t th e preparatio n
Verdi wa s undul y exigent , tha t h e drov e th e maestro concertatore, Pietr o
Romani, to despair by his difficulty in making his intentions clea r need no t
2
GVIM, pp. 437-9.
3
AGV, i , p. 643.
Florence, London an d Paris • 4 1
be doubted, but that he insisted on rehearsing the grand duet of Act I more
than 15 0 times and to within minute s of the publicly attended prova genérale
must surely be one of those stories that grow with the telling (it comes to us
from a journalist, who ha d it from a friend o f the prima donna, Marianna
Barbieri-Nini, whos e memoirs , th e suppose d source , hav e neve r com e
to light—if indeed the y eve r existed).
As noted above, it was normal practice for the librettist of a new oper a
to act as stage director an d to supervise the visual side in consultation wit h
the impresario. Even here Piave was found wanting ('Lanari is complaining
of yo u an d s o a m I'). 4 Whe n Verd i aske d fo r som e line s fo r a dance d
chorus, Piav e pointed out , reasonabl y enough, tha t th e oper a woul d b e
given in Lent when dancin g on stage was forbidden. Verdi wrote bac k in
exasperation tellin g hi m t o d o a s he wa s bid an d no t make needless dif-
ficulties. A t length h e decide d t o dro p Piav e from the productio n alto -
gether an d t o arrang e everythin g himsel f directl y wit h Lanar i includin g
the 'phantasmagorica T (i.e . magic lantern) effects. Fo r final adjustments t o
the witches ' choru s i n Ac t II I an d the sleepwalkin g scen e h e turne d for
help to Maffei. Piave was roundly told: 'Oh certainly you're not in the least
to blam e excep t fo r havin g neglecte d th e las t tw o act s i n a n incredibl e
way... If I must speak frankly I couldn't hav e set them to music... Now it
has all been put right—b y changin g practically everything, however.' 5 In
fact MafFei' s contributio n ha d been trifling, but Piave' s name was omitte d
from the first printed editio n eve n though h e himself was paid in full. Bu t
the las t laugh was his as Verdi ruefull y admitte d years later; fo r th e line s
which provoke d th e most ridicule on the first night were b y MatFei.
'The opera was not a fiasco, ' Verd i wrote to Clarina Maffei. Tha t was
an understatement. Antoni o Barezzi , with th e ai d of Muzio (bot h me n
present for the first time at a Verdi première), described to their friends in
Busseto the wild enthusiasm, the thirty-eight curtai n calls, the crowd that
escorted them all to their hotel. Barbieri-Nini presente d to the compose r
a golde n crow n inscribe d 'fro m th e Florentine s t o Giusepp e Verdi' .
Clearly Verd i ha d bee n shrew d i n hi s choice o f venue fo r s o novel a n
opera. Arme d wit h suitabl e letters o f introductio n fro m hi s friends in
4
Ibid., p. 656.
5
Ibid., pp. 676-7.
6
Verdi's Macbeth: a sourcebook, ed . D . Rose n an d A . Porte r (London , 1984) , p. 57 .
42 • VERD I
Milan, h e ha d been mad e much o f in th e hig h cultura l an d aristocratic

circles o f th e Italia n Athens : th e Márches e Capponi , Baro n Ricasol i
(soon t o pla y a prominent rol e in th e short-live d Tusca n republic) , th e
poets Niccolin i an d Giust i an d th e sculpto r Dupré al l paid hi m court .
True, a few voices suggeste d that th e applaus e was more fo r th e com -
poser of Attila, which had preceded Macbeth; an d Giusti, while predictin g
a glorious futur e fo r the ne w opera , cautioned the compose r agains t the
lure o f the foreig n an d the exoti c an d urge d hi m t o 'accompan y wit h
your noble harmonie s that high and solemn sorro w whic h fill s the hear t
of th e Italia n nation'. 7 Verd i acknowledge d th e implie d rebuke ; h e
hoped on e day to find a dramatic poet capabl e of devising a truly national
type of melodrama; bu t i n fac t h e wa s very pleased with Macbeth. Years
later h e wa s to tel l a Germa n journalist tha t fro m th e star t i t ha d rep -
resented for him a 'total art work' in the Wagnerian sense. No r fo r once
did he allow it to be dedicated to a person of high rank. 'For a long time' ,
he wrot e t o hi s father-in-law , 'i t ha s bee n i n m y min d t o dedicat e
an oper a t o you , wh o hav e bee n t o m e a father , a benefacto r an d a
friend.... Here no w i s this Macbeth, whic h i s dearer to m e tha n al l my
other operas , an d whic h therefor e I dee m mor e worth y o f being pre -
sented t o you . Th e hear t offer s it ; ma y th e hear t accep t it an d ma y i t
bear witness to my eternal remembrance, an d to the gratitude and love of
your mos t affectionat e G . Verdi.'9
He returned to Milan i n late March to begin work o n his next com -
mission, th e oper a for He r Majesty' s Theatre , London . Thi s ha d bee n
a casualt y o f Verdi's illnes s of 1846 ; an d al l Lumley's glowing account s
of the reception give n to / Lombardi were powerless to entice hi m from
Italy that summer. Bu t a London première , th e first to be accorded to a
foreigner sinc e Weber' s Oberon o f 1826 , wa s no t t o b e passe d over .
Accordingly Verd i resume d negotiation s i n th e winte r o f 1846 , speci -
fying, however , tha t th e oper a was no longe r t o b e U corsaro, which h e
had no w begu n t o fin d dul l an d untheatrical , bu t / masnadieri (Die
Räuber), libretto by Andrea Maffei, o f which Verd i claimed (a n unlikely
story!) to have already composed a third. The chie f roles were to include
7
LCC, pp. 449-50.
8
cnv, p. 105.
9
LCC, p. 451.
Jenny Lind , th e Swedis h nightingale , an d Gaetan o Fraschini—o n tha t

Verdi was insistent; though o n receiving reports that Fraschini had been
heard in London an d not liked he was content t o accept the young ítal o
Gardoni, no t a star , perhaps , bu t highl y praise d b y a s knowledgeabl e
a judge a s the bariton e Charle s Santley . Then, a s for th e nex t hundre d
years, th e mai n oper a seaso n i n Londo n bega n i n th e earl y summer .
Accordingly Verd i lef t Mila n wit h Muzi o i n th e las t week i n Ma y and
made hi s wa y northwar d ove r th e St . Gotthard an d the n b y steame r
down th e Rhin e t o Cologne—possibl y t o absor b local atmospher e fo r
the German drama, some have conjectured; thence to Brussels and over-
land t o Pari s where h e remaine d fo r a few days , having heard rumours
that Jenny Lin d would no t appea r after all . However, Muzio, who m h e
dispatched i n advance , wa s able t o repor t he r presenc e an d Verd i fol -
lowed. ('I t is true', he wrote to Clarin a Maffei, 'tha t the impresari o has
reason to complain of my behaviour, but if he says one word to me I shall
say ten t o him an d come straigh t back.')10
In fact the impresario had rather more on his mind than the caprices of
a young composer. Benjami n Lumley, by profession a lawyer, had been
called in to sort out the tangled finances of Her Majesty's Theatre in the
Haymarket an d ha d staye d o n t o tak e ove r th e rein s o f management .
Tough, enterprising and infinitely persuasive, he established a strong and
efficient regim e durin g th e 18405 , bu t h e mad e powerfu l enemies .
Shortly before Verdi's arrival he had quarrelled with his chief conductor,
Michael Costa , one o f the leading figures in the English musica l world.
Costa had walked out, takin g with hi m three of the stars of the 'Puritan i
quartet' (secon d edition)—Giulia Grisi , Giovann i Mari o an d Antoni o
Tamburini. Onl y Luig i Lablach e remaine d loyal . Th e seceder s se t u p
a rival company at Coven t Garde n unde r di e managemen t o f Persiani,
husband of Fanny, star and creator of the tide role in Luda di Lammermoor.
To th e afore-mentioned star s could be added Giorgio Ronconi , creator
of Nabucco, and the contralto Marietta Alboni whose phenomenally low
range enable d he r t o undertak e th e rol e o f Don Carl o i n Emani. ('I n
England a bariton e an d a contralt o ar e th e sam e thing' Muzi o com -
mented.) Both companies opened their season with / due Foscari. Durin g
his stay in London Verd i was careful t o hold aloof from th e rival camp.
10 . . .
Ibid., p . 457.
44 ' V E R D I
He refused Ronconi's request to help him with the role of the Doge; and
he wrot e a stif f littl e not e t o Mari o reproachin g hi m fo r singin g a n
alternative cabalett a fo r Jacopo Foscar i tha t Verdi ha d writte n speciall y
for hi m but whos e receip t h e had never bothered t o acknowledge. O n
the othe r han d h e was favourably impressed by Jenny Lind , finding her
character refreshingly simple and untheatrical though clearl y she was not
the singe r fo r him ; ('Sh e i s inclined t o er r i n usin g excessiv e fioriture ,
turns an d trills' , wrot e Muzio , doubtles s relayin g hi s master' s voice ,
'things which wer e like d in the last century but no t in i847.') TI Verdi' s
impressions of Dickensian London were mixed. H e was impressed by the
city, th e docks , th e surroundin g countrysid e wit h it s beautifully clean
houses but dislike d th e climat e and th e fog—'lik e livin g o n a steamer'.
Nor di d he care much for English mannen—'or rather I should say they
do not sui t us Italians'. He was, he said, unlikely to return 'thoug h I like
the cit y extraordinarily well'.12
In th e week s precedin g th e premièr e Verd i appear s t o hav e le d a
secluded life. He refuse d a n invitation to be presented to the Queen; but
he di d atten d on e o f Lumley' s famou s dinne r partie s a t whic h Loui s
Bonaparte wa s present; an d at some point h e me t th e patriot Giusepp e
Mazzini, whos e politica l ideal s h e shared . H e als o pai d th e residen t
Italian librettist , Manfrede Maggioni , th e complimen t o f setting one o f
his poems ('I I poveretto'). Th e omen s for the opera appeared favourable.
The cas t a t He r Majesty' s was a stron g one , includin g Lablach e an d
Coletti as well as Lind and Gardoni. Verdi, for the first time in his public
career, conducted from the podium with a baton. Muzio' s account of the
première i s predictabl e i n it s enthusiasm : 'Th e maestr o wa s cheered ,
called o n stage alone and with th e singers , flowers were throw n a t him,
nothing wa s to b e hear d excep t 'Viv a Verdi! Bietifol... Th e Times, th e
Morning Post an d th e Morning Chronicle etc . ar e al l very complimentar y
both abou t the music and the libretto . . . > I 3 One ca n only hope that the
savager verdicts were kep t from master and pupil: 'the worst oper a eve r
to hav e bee n give n a t He r Majesty' s Theatre' 14 (Chorley).. . 'A ne w
11
GMB, pp. 327-32.
I2
LCC, pp. 458-9.
13
GMB, pp. 344-9.
14
TGV, p. 56.
Florence, London and Paris • 45
opera b y Signe r Verdi.. . the musi c ver y nois y an d trivial ' (Quee n
Victoria's Diary). Musical England was still the lan d of Mendelssohn.
Verdi left England for Paris after th e first two performances, thereafter
handing ove r th e bato n t o Michae l Balfe . Onl y tw o mor e followed .
Clearly th e oper a ha d don e nothin g t o enhanc e Verdi' s reputatio n i n
London. Somethin g o f thi s mus t hav e penetrate d t o Muzi o wh o ob -
served that 'the English are a matter-of-fact and thoughtful people wh o
don't kno w to o muc h abou t musi c and thin k i t ill-bred t o mak e a lot
of noise'.15 Proposals for further engagement s were made both by Verdi
and Lumle y but nothin g wa s concluded (Verdi' s claim that Lucca's re-
fusal t o releas e him fro m hi s contrac t o f Octobe r 184 5 prevente d hi m
from writing for Her Majesty's the following summer is arrant nonsense).
London woul d neve r agai n have a Verdi premièr e apar t from the Inno
delle nazioni o f 186 2 an d th e revise d Liber Scriptus o f th e Requie m i n
1875-
The possibilit y of adapting / Lombardi for the Pari s Opéra, ha d been
mooted a s early a s November 1845 . Now , wit h Verd i o n th e spot , i t
became a reality. The director s of the Opéra were Duponche l an d Ro -
queplan, the poets Royer and Vaëz, authors of Donizetti's La favorite,and
the publishers Léon and Marie Escudier ('here everyone comes in pairs',
Verdi wrote 1 ) . Althoug h th e crusadin g ambience remained , th e char -
acters wer e altered ; s o to o certai n o f th e situations . The addition s in -
cluded a ballet an d a special scene for Gilber t Duprez , sta r of the Paris
Opéra an d mor e surprisingl y creato r o f tha t mos t Italianat e o f teno r
roles, Edgard o i n Lucia di Lammermoor. Th e oper a was given wit h rea -
sonable success on 26 November, causin g one critic to remark that it had
granted the composer a patent of French nationality and the Opera a new
masterpiece. Muzio , wh o ha d proceeded straigh t to Milan , confidentl y
expected his master's return afte r the premièr e of Jérusalem. But for one
reason or another Verdi kept putting it off. First, he wished to dispose of
// corsaro with as little trouble as possible. By February 1848 the oper a was
complete and Verdi himself ready to go and assist with the production a t
the Teatro Grande, Trieste; but a feverish chill prevented him. The opera
was mounted i n hi s absence by Luigi Ricci, not howeve r befor e Verdi
I5
GMB, pp. 351-3.
16
LCC, pp . 462-3.
40 • V E R D I
had sent a letter to Marianna Barbieri-Nini with detailed instructions for

the interpretatio n o f th e femal e lead . Despit e a stron g cas t whic h in -
cluded Gaetan o Fraschini in th e titl e rol e an d Achille De Bassin i as the
villain, II corsaro wa s a fiasco . A s Donizetti ha d foun d more tha n once ,
it i s always dangerous for a compose r no t t o b e presen t a t on e o f hi s
premières. Critics and public alike are inclined t o tak e it as an af&ont .
Verdi did return to Ital y that year, but onl y briefly , i n orde r t o pur -
chase the Fattori a S. Ágata two mile s outside Busseto and onc e a family
possession. Her e h e installe d his parents and woul d late r come t o liv e
himself. Bu t hi s home remaine d Pari s until July o f the followin g year.
Those for whom all explanations can be found in the principle 'cherchez
la femme' woul d in this case be right .
Composers are not alway s fortunate in their choice of wives. Anyone
familiar wit h th e matrimonia l affair s o f Haydn , Glinka , Wagne r an d
Puccini—even Mozart—might well conclud e tha t in remaining bache-
lors Beethoven an d Brahms had chose n the bette r part . Of thi s Verdi's
case provides a magnificent refutation. Th e woma n who no w bega n t o
share his life is one of the most remarkable ever to figure in a composer's
biography. Giuseppina Strepponi was born at Lodi in Lombardy in 1815 ,
the daughte r o f a minor compose r an d th e eldes t o f fou r children . A t
fifteen sh e was accepted at the Mila n Conservatoir e wher e sh e showed
great promise as a pianist and a singer. Two year s later her father died; she
was granted a bursary so that she might complete her studies. In 183 5 she
made a successfu l debu t a s Adria i n Rossini' s Matilda di Shabran; fro m
then o n sh e became the breadwinner of the family .
At firs t i t seem s to hav e been roses , rose s al l the way . Giuseppin a
undoubtedly ha d sta r quality ; she wa s equally at hom e i n comed y an d
tragedy. She had the flexible technique for Donizetti's Lucia, the tragic
dignity fo r hi s Antonin a i n Belisario an d Bellini' s Beatrice , th e comi c
sparkle for Adina, the simple pathos for Amina. Donizetti was to write for
her the tide role ofAdelia i n 1841 . But singers' careers were usually short
in those days because they began too early ; and Giuseppina's was shorter
than most . Th e necessit y of accepting an uninterrupte d strea m of en -
gagements in orde r t o fee d he r family , a love-life whic h produce d he r
three illegitimat e childre n i n th e spac e of thre e year s undermined he r
health; an d afte r 184 2 sh e appeare d less an d les s frequentl y an d onl y a t
minor theatres , eventually retiring to Paris as a singing teacher, aged only

thirty-one.
The mor e critical moments o f her career are illustrated by a number of
vivid, sometimes harrowing letters written t o the impresario Lanari who
from 183 8 acted as her manage r or 'appaltatore ' ( a frequent arrangement
in those days). From various hints in their correspondence Fran k Walker
deduced tha t the fathe r o f her children , lon g believed t o hav e been th e
impresario Merelli , wa s in fac t th e teno r Napoleon e Moriani . Tha t h e
was indeed the father of the last-born, Adelina , who cam e into the world
prematurely i n Novembe r 1841 , ther e ca n be n o possibl e doubt . Th e
paternity o f the bo y Gamill o (b . 1838 ) an d Giusepp a (b . 183 9 and late r
adopted) is impossible to establish with certainty. Her agent Cirelli made
himself out to be the father, possibly in order to protect the name of some
star singer with a family, but no less possibly because the children were in
fact his . Hopes o f regularising her position by marriage to a n admirer—
referred t o by Moriani a s 'that nasty lame devi l who give s her suc h bad
advice'—or o f formin g a liaiso n wit h a n unname d Coun t (probabl y
Camerata)—came to nothing . A t one point he r doctor s threatene d he r
with consumption . Ye t throug h al l her misfortunes there shine s a noble
and courageous spirit.
Her attraction to Verdi seems to have begun with his music. It was she,
together with Ronconi, who firs t pressed the cause of Oberto; it was to he r
that Verdi brought th e scor e ofNabucco i n December 184 1 when Merell i
had faile d t o includ e i t amon g th e opera s announce d fo r th e Carniva l
season; and it was her agreemen t t o sin g in i t that carried the da y in th e
composer's favour. True, by the time of the première she was in wretched
vocal condition, but her friendly relations with Verdi were unaffected. Th e
next year they met in Parma, where she gave him sound financial advice;
and ther e wa s anothe r encounte r i n Bergam o i n th e sprin g o f 184 4
where sh e wrote a letter o n hi s behalf t o Giovannin a Lucc a abou t th e
'sei romanze ' fo r which Verd i ha d contracte d wit h th e firm . Letter s to
Giovannina from Paris give the clearest evidence of her continuing interest
in Verdi and his career. She was especially concerned tha t his interests in
France should not be compromised b y Lucca's dealings over / Masnadieri.
('The Escudier brothers are still gazing open mouthed and with eye-glasses
to thei r eye s t o mak e sur e tha t they'v e rea d correctl y fo r th e amoun t
48 • V E R D I
you ar e demanding for I Masnadieri (1 0 thousand francs!)17 Ther e is even

some evidence that she may have travelled to Florence for the première of
Macbeth: a portrait sai d t o b e o f Giuseppin a Strepponi (thoug h lookin g
nothing lik e her) was painted in Florence in the spring of 1847. Certainly
by th e tim e Verd i arrive d i n Pari s t o wor k o n Jerusalem sh e an d th e
composer were seeing a good deal of one another. Barezzi, who had been
persuaded to pay Verdi a visit, in November writes warmly to Verdi about
the kind reception given to him by Verdi himself and 'La Signora Peppina'
from who m h e i s expecting a letter. Bu t th e cleares t proof o f the rela -
tionship between compose r and prima donna is to be found i n the auto -
graph scor e of Jérusalem. Th e ne w tex t o f the lovers ' due t i s written ou t
partly i n Verdi's , partl y in Giuseppina' s hand, th e line s being s o appor -
tioned betwee n them as to form a declaration of love in terms appropriate
to the situation of each. It was a union that would endur e to Giuseppina's
death fifty years later. Their qualitie s complemented on e another . Verd i
was shor t o n tac t an d humour ; Giuseppin a ha d a n abundanc e o f both .
Where Verdi was tough and sometimes over-exigent, sh e was vulnerable
and compassionate . For al l his intelligenc e an d cultur e Verd i wa s never
much of a linguist; Giuseppina had an aptitude for languages which stoo d
him i n good stea d in th e opera s which h e too k fro m foreig n sources. I t
is even arguable whether // trovatore or Simon Boccanegra would eve r have
come int o bein g withou t he r t o translat e th e origina l plays . Above all ,
though sh e adored Verd i wit h al l her hear t an d pu t u p wit h hi s ofte n
tyrannical moods with the patience of a Griselda, she never ceased to be a
'person' i n he r ow n righ t wit h he r ow n view s o n everything—view s
which wer e by no mean s always those of her husband.
Over the political event s of 184 8 they were o f one mind . Eve r since
the accessio n of Pope Piu s IX , Italia n patriots had bee n foreseein g the
imminent daw n of freedom. Th e Austrians could no longer count on La
Scala as a weapon o f government. I n Februar y Fanny Elssler was hissed
during th e cours e of a ballet, fainte d o n stag e and abruptl y returned t o
Vienna. Ther e ha d bee n demonstration s whe n Cardina l Romill i suc -
ceeded Cardinal Gaisruck as Archbishop of Milan, and hymns were sung
in prais e o f Pope Pi ó Nono . Satire s circulated; riots broke out . 'Al l is
quiet now', Muzio had written t o Barezzi, 'but only a spark is needed to
I7
AGV, I, p. 709.
set everything in flames. ' O n 1 8 March the powder ke g exploded. Th e

T 8
Austrians were drive n ou t o f Milan i n the 'fiv e days ' (Cinqu e Giornate)
of street-fighting . The n Venic e declare d itsel f a republic . Verd i an d
Giuseppina, bot h arden t Mazzinians , wrot e t o thei r friend s exultantly ,
Giuseppina from Pari s to Pietro Romani , musical director a t the Teatr o
délia Pergola , Florence , Verd i fro m Mila n (e n rout e fo r Busseto ) t o
Piave, no w a soldier citize n in th e Republi c o f Venice: 'Honou r t o all
Italy which a t this moment i s truly great! The hou r ha s sounded—make
no mistake—of her liberation. I t is the people that wills it, and when th e
people wills there is no absolute power that can resist.' (Needless to say he
was using the word 'people ' in the Mazzinia n not th e Marxist sense— a
nation unite d b y cultur e an d language , no t th e toilin g masse s o f th e
world.) 'Yo u tal k of music to me! ! What ar e you thinkin g of ? Do yo u
think I want to concern myself now with notes and sounds? There is and
should b e onl y on e kin d o f music pleasing to th e ear s of the Italian s of
1848—the music of the guns! ' But Verd i was not a fighting man. ' I to o
if I ha d enrolle d woul d wis h t o b e a common soldier , bu t no w I ca n
only b e a tribune an d a wretched tribun e a t that a s I am onl y eloquen t
by fits and starts.' 19 Tha t b y 'tribune ' h e wa s intimating tha t Mazzin i
had devise d fo r hi m a specia l positio n i n th e even t o f victor y seem s
unlikely. T o th e classicall y educate d Verdi the ter m probably mean t n o
more tha n a popular orator . I t might eve n be conjecture d that his main
motive fo r comin g t o Ital y at the tim e wa s less th e desir e to b e present
at a historic occasion but rather to buy his property under cheap wartime
conditions.
But h e undoubtedl y ha d the Italia n caus e at heart and did his best to
serve i t i n th e wa y hi s talent s would allow . I n Octobe r h e compose d
a battle hymn, 'Suon a la tromba', to words by Goffredo Mameli , hopin g
that i t migh t b e 'sun g ami d th e firin g o f th e gun s upo n th e plain s of
Lombardy.'30 But it was Mameli's 'Fratell i d'ltalia' composed by the less
gifted N o varo tha t wa s destined t o becom e th e Italia n Marseillaise. I n
July, when th e wa r had taken a bad turn fo r Italy and Milan wa s forced
to capitulate, Verdi was one o f the signatories to an appeal for French aid
l8
GMB,p. 355 -
I9
WMV, pp. 187-8.
20
LCC, pp. 469-70.
5O • V E R D I
handed to General Cavaignac. But it was with an opera that he hoped to

make his most valuable contribution t o the Italian cause. At first it was to
have been a setting of Guerrazzi's L'assedio di Firenze, a novel tha t tells of
the downfall of the Florentine Republic under papal forces assisted by the
Prince o f Orange . H e despatche d a synopsi s t o Piave , whos e militar y
duties however prevente d him from doin g anything about it. Meanwhil e
a contract remained outstanding for an opera to be given in Naples. Th e
upheavals of 1848 had temporarily unseated Flauto from the managemen t
of San Carlo; s o Verdi suggeste d writing the commissione d wor k wit h
Cammarano for Ricordi under the same kind of contract that he had had
with Lucca. Ricordi would place it in a suitable theatre and arrange for a
worthy cast . The oper a was to be called La battaglia di Legnano and woul d
deal with the defeat o f the Emperor Frederic k Barbarossa by the army of
the Lombard League in 1184 . For lack of an existing play on the subject
Cammarano ha d recours e to Joseph Méry' s La battaille de Toulouse. Int o
this, a t Verdi' s suggestion , h e wov e suitabl y topica l scenes , includin g
a confrontation betwee n th e two heroe s and Barbarossa. The oper a was
composed i n Paris during the autumn and winter o f 1848. The premièr e
took plac e o n 2 7 January 184 9 a t the Teatr o Argentin a i n Rome wit h
Teresa De Giuli-Borsi (the second Abigaille) Fraschini and Filippo Colini,
creator o f Giacomo i n Giovanna d'Arco. Verdi travelled to Rome for the
production.
Time and place could no t hav e been better chosen . Despit e th e set -
back i n th e North , th e Italia n cause wa s by n o mean s lost. Venic e stil l
held out. There were uprisings in Tuscany and the Papal States; in Central
Italy Garibald i was recruiting an army. Meanwhile, b y his Allocution o f
April 1848, in which he dissociated himself from the Risorgimento, Pope
Pió Non o forfeite d al l the sympath y hi s previou s amnest y ha d gaine d
him. Indee d th e en d o f the yea r found hi m a prisoner i n th e Vatican ,
from whic h h e manage d t o escap e to Gaita , just acros s the Neapolita n
border, disguise d as an ordinary priest. On 9 February, two week s afte r
the première of Verdi's opera, Rome was proclaimed a republic. That La
battaglia d i Legnano wa s a clamorou s succès d'occasion coul d hav e bee n
foreseen. Th e las t act , in whic h th e slaye r of Barbarossa is borne i n o n
a litter and dies amid the acclamation s of his people wa s encored a t each
performance. Bu t whe n th e tid e o f war turne d agains t the Italian s th e
opera's fortune s wane d accordingly . O n 2 0 Marc h Carl o Albert o o f
Piedmont denounce d th e armistic e and once mor e invade d Lombardy ,

only t o b e defeate d b y Genera l Radetzky . Venic e wa s besiege d an d
capitulated, leaving Radetzky to pick off the remaining cities of the north
at his leisure. Austrian troops re-entered Florence i n May and Rome in
July. Garibald i became a fugitive, eventuall y reaching safety i n America
after a series of dangers and misfortunes which include d the deat h of his
wife. Th e Pop e wa s restored t o Rom e wit h th e ai d of French troops .
From Paris Verdi could only wring his hands; 'Force still rules the world',
he wrote to Luccardi, 'Justice? What use is it against bayonets? All we can
do i s to wee p ove r ou r wrong s an d curs e the author s of so many mis -
fortunes.'21 A fortnight later he returned t o Ital y with Giuseppina .
Once h e ha d taken the decisio n to write L a battaglia d i Legnano for his
publisher, Verd i thought h e had finished with th e Neapolita n commit -
ment. But Naples had not yet finished with him. By the autumn of 1848
Flauto was back in the saddle and demanding the opera stipulated in the
original contract. Unable to put pressur e on a Verdi resident in Paris, he
and th e managemen t turne d th e hea t o n Cammarano . Eithe r th e sai d
opera would b e given in 184 9 or the poet would b e fined and, if unable
to pa y the fine , pu t i n prison. Wit h a wife an d six children t o support ,
Cammarano wrot e t o Verd i i n a pani c beggin g hi m t o com e t o hi s
rescue; and Verdi agreed grudgingly to do so ('I will write the oper a for
Naples nex t yea r for your sake alone; i t wil l ro b m e o f tw o hour s peace
every day and of my health'). 22 However th e project was as yet months
away. First there was the subject to be chosen. Verdi wanted to return to
L'assedio di Firenze but could hardly have been surprised when the censors
of Royalist Naple s turned it down. Cammaran o the n took up an earlier
suggestion of the composer' s fo r an opera based on Schiller' s Kabale und
Liebe, a product o f the author's 'Stur m und Drang ' period wit h a polit-
ical element tha t Cammarano could be guarantee d to defuse . I t is also a
'bourgeois tragedy ' and as such offer s the compose r opportunitie s for
a mor e intimate , poeti c styl e o f expression . Beginnin g wit h Abram o
Basevi all commentators hav e recognised i n Luisa Miller, as it came to b e
called, a 'second' manner, gentler and less grandiose than the first. 23
2I
AGV, II , p. 23.
22
LCC,p. 55.
23
BSV, pp. 156-9.
52 • VERD I
Correspondence abou t the opera continued throughout th e spring and

summer o f 1849 . Muc h o f it i s of interest a s showing th e collaboratio n
between tw o experienced men of the theatre. From Cammarano, unlike
Piave, Verdi was prepared to learn . As usual he liked t o kee p as close as
possible t o th e origina l source . Bu t h e allowe d hi s desir e t o includ e
Schiller's Lad y Milford 'i n the full extensio n o f her character' 24 to be set
aside o n th e ground s tha t n o prim a donn a coul d b e induce d t o pla y
a character of such doubtful morals, especially if she had a rival in the title
role. H e als o yielded t o Cammarano' s insistenc e that Luisa' s fals e dec -
laration of love should be written t o the villainous Wurm rather than to
the Cour t Chamberlain , a s in Schiller . 'Did I not fea r th e imputatio n o f
being Utopian' , Cammaran o wrote , ' I woul d b e tempted t o say that to
achieve the highest degree of perfection in an opera it would be necessary
for word s an d music to b e th e produc t o f one an d the sam e mind, an d
from this ideal follows my firm opinion tha t when it has two authors they
must at least be like brothers, an d that if Poetry should not be the servant
of Music still less should i t tyrannise over her.' 25 No t altogethe r sound ,
perhaps, bu t indicativ e o f a thoughtful an d seriou s attitud e towar d hi s
craft al l too rar e in theatrica l poets of the time .
The schem e finally agreed , Verdi returned from Pari s early in August
to begin work on the score. His base was no longer Milan, but his home
town of Busseto, where a new, mor e settle d existenc e awaite d him.
24
LCC, pp. 470-2.
25
Ibid., pp. 473-4-
C H A P T E R F I V E
Return to Busseto
I must be accounte d a n exception. Fro m th e star t h e wa s determined

F A S A RUL E GREA T ARTIST S AR E RAREL Y GOO D BUSINESSMEN, VERD I
that th e mone y h e earne d shoul d no t h e idle . I n 184 4 followin g th e

success ofEmani h e had bought som e property near his native hamlet of
Le Roncóle. This he sold in 184 8 putting the proceeds to the purchase of
the farm house, S. Ágata, where for the time being he settled his parents.
In 184 5 he had acquired the Palazzo Cavalli in the main street of Busseto.
Clearly th e Bussetani ca n have been i n no doub t tha t their mos t distin -
guished citizen would soone r or later come to live amongst them. Wha t
they underestimate d wa s hi s desir e fo r independence . Alread y whe n
arranging fo r th e dedicatio n o f / Lombard! ther e ar e sign s tha t h e was
finding th e behaviou r even o f such a valued frien d a s Demaldé intoler-
ably officious. Abou t this time it was planned to build a municipal theatr e
in Busseto. Verdi ha d given th e ide a a cautious blessing, adding tha t he
might b e prepared to write a n opera for it when hi s other engagement s
should permit ; tha t eve n Frezzolin i an d Pogg i migh t b e persuade d t o
appear. Soon thi s began to b e talke d about as a certainty; and Verdi fel t
obliged t o write t o Barezzi pointing ou t tha t h e had promised nothing .
When the theatre project did eventually come t o fruition i n 185 9 it was
to prove on e of the biggest bones of contention between Verd i and the
Bussetani. I n the meantim e a greater cause for friction ha d arisen. Verdi
took u p residence in the Palazzo Cavalli in August. A month later he was
53
54 • VERD I
joined by Giuseppina, on her return from Florenc e where she had visited
her so n Camillin o no w i n th e car e o f on e Livi a Zanobin i wit h th e
sculptor Lorenz o Bartolin i a s hi s tutor . Tha t Verd i shoul d b e livin g
openly in their midst with a woman no t his wife—and o f a by no means
unblemished reputatio n a t that—wa s deepl y shocking, no t onl y t o th e
clerical party that had opposed him years before. Little is known of his life
in Busseto for the nex t tw o o r three years ; but mor e tha n one lette r to
Piave hint s at an intolerable stat e of affairs . Meanwhil e Giuseppin a was
ignored i n the street and no one sat near her in church. For all her native
charity she would no t forge t thes e insults in the year s to come .
That Barezz i did not a s yet join i n th e genera l disapproval, that rela-
tions betwee n hi m an d Verd i wer e unimpaire d i s clea r from th e fac t
that both me n lef t fo r Naples on 3 October for the productio n o f Luisa
Miller. It was a slow journey: first by land to Genoa then by sea to Pisa and
Rome wher e the y wer e detaine d b y a choler a epidemic ; her e Verd i
received a n ominous lette r from Cammaran o indicating that the finan -
cial affair s o f the Sa n Carlo Theatre wer e i n disorder , tha t the manage -
ment ha d no t ye t pai d hi m hi s fe e an d tha t Verd i woul d d o wel l t o
demand th e advanc e due t o hi m a s soon a s he se t foo t i n Naples . Sure
enough th e advanc e was not forthcoming ; whereupo n Verd i declare d
that he would suspend rehearsals. The managemen t countered by threat-
ening t o invoke a law whereby h e coul d be detaine d indefinitel y at His
Majesty's pleasure. In that case Verdi would seek asylum aboard a French
vessel anchored in the Bay. Fortunately it did not come to that. Verdi was
paid and rehearsals proceeded normally. Barezzi, having visited the sights
of Naples , wa s oblige d t o retur n hom e befor e th e firs t performance .
Fortified by those two Verdian stalwarts, Achule De Bassini, the original
Doge Foscari , a s th e heroine' s father , an d Antoni o Selva , creato r o f
Don Ru y Gome z in Emani, as the inflexible Count Walter, Luisa Miller
was well liked by the public, though the critics were captious; the highl y
original las t act , cooll y receive d a t first , gre w i n popularit y with eac h
performance; and Verdi left Naple s having again added to the list of last-
ing friendships—th e compose r Capocelatro , th e clarinettis t Sebastiani ,
the character bass Marco Arati, who ha d created Wurm in the opera, and
most importan t o f all , th e merchan t Cesar e D e Sanctis . Fo r th e nex t
thirty od d year s unti l hi s failur e t o repa y a loa n pu t a n en d t o thei r
friendship D e Sancti s was t o b e Verdi' s 'ma n i n Naples' . I f i t wa s a
Return t o Busseto • 5 5
matter of prodding the dilatory Cammarano into action or sounding out

the affairs , financia l o r artistic , o f th e Sa n Carl o o r arrangin g accom -
modation, De Sanctis was the contact. Verdi and Giuseppina would stand
as godparents to hi s son.
By 185 0 Verdi had made enough money t o retire on his earnings had
he s o wished. Rossini had don e so at the sam e age; and Verdi made this
ambition the burden o f many a letter t o hi s friends i n Milan. Ye t in fac t
the next three years were to be the most fertile of his life. He lef t Naple s
with grandios e plan s for a King Lear in whic h al l the traditiona l form s
were t o b e abandone d an d th e 'convenienze ' o r clas s distinction s o f
singers left ou t o f account. I n fac t thi s meant five principal roles and at
least four heavy supporting ones. Cammarano dutifull y promised to mull
this over; but thoug h Verd i continued t o talk of this project as though it
were a possibility for Naples the following year, it proceeded n o furthe r
than th e drawin g board. Presumabl y word o f his intentions ha d spread
abroad becaus e tha t sam e year, 1850 , h e receive d tw o suggestion s fo r
Shakespearean operas : fro m Mari e Escudie r fo r a Tempest a t He r Ma -
jesty's an d fro m Giuli o Carcan o fo r a Hamlet t o hi s own libretto . Th e
second Verdi declined on the ground that 'if King Lear is difficult t o set to
music, Hamlet i s still more so'; 1 the first because the tim e proposed was
too shor t an d th e fac t tha t Lumley ha d commissione d a n oper a o n th e
same subject fro m Halév y looked suspiciousl y like an impresario's stunt.
Nevertheless 'I do plan to compose Th e Tempest, indee d I plan to do th e
same wit h al l the majo r work s o f th e grea t tragedian'. 2 Bu t hi s nex t
Shakespearean venture would b e a long wa y in th e future .
Because they could not agre e on terms the Neapolitan contrac t came
to nothing ; an d Verdi proposed t o write R e Lear for Ricordi under th e
same conditions a s La battaglia di Legnano. Then in th e sprin g of 185 0 he
was approached by Marzari of the Teatro La Fenice, Venice, for an opera
for th e carniva l season of 1850—1 . Dumas ' Kean an d Gusmano i l Buono
were considered; also a Stiffelius b y Souvestre and Bourgeois; 'but I would
have anothe r subject' , h e wrot e t o Piave , 'which , i f th e polic e wer e
prepared to allow it would be one of the greatest creations of the moder n
theatre. Who knows ? They permitte d Ernani and might permi t thi s too;
'LCC, pp. 482-3.

2
AGV, II , pp. 56-7.
50 • VERD I
and there would be no conspiracies in this one.'3 Later 'Oh, le roi s'amuse
is th e greates t subject an d perhaps the greates t drama of modern times .
Triboulet is a creation worthy o f Shakespeare!' 4—than which h e coul d
bestow no highe r praise. Piave was urged to get the subjec t approved as
quickly a s possible; this he di d bu t onl y b y word o f mouth. Th e con -
sequences would b e fel t later .
By June it was clear that Cammarano would not finish Re Lear in time
for th e autumn . Accordingly Verdi allowed Stiffelio, a synopsis of which
he ha d rea d an d liked, t o b e announce d fo r productio n i n th e Teatr o
Grande, Trieste, with Maria Gazzaniga Malaspina (creator of Luisa Miller,
now a countess), Gaetano Fraschini and Filipp o Colini . Th e choic e o f
subject bears witness to Verdi's growing spiri t of enterprise: a Protestant
minister wh o discover s hi s wif e i n a n adulterou s intrigu e an d i s thus
impelled b y honou r t o a course of action whic h hi s cloth forbids ; an d
who end s by forgiving her publicl y fro m th e pulpit . Nothing like tha t
had eve r bee n see n o n th e Italia n stage . Tha t summe r Piav e cam e t o
Busseto where, blessedl y unaware of what lay ahead, both he and Verdi
worked o n Stiffelio an d Rigoletto, as it would eventuall y be called . Fro m
this period w e may presumably date that remarkable document, th e so -
called Rigoletto sketch : fifty-si x page s of text , voca l lin e an d bas s wit h
indications o f connecting material , all relatively free from cancellations
and differin g s o littl e fro m th e finishe d oper a a s to sugges t that neve r
had Verdi's creativ e powers been mor e spontaneousl y ignited.
In Septembe r h e wen t t o Bologn a t o supervis e a revival of Macbeth;
thence he returned to Busseto where a feverish chill prevented him fro m
setting out fo r Triest e a t the appointe d time . Luig i P>Jcc i wh o ha d di -
rected H corsaro a t th e sam e theatre too k charg e o f th e earl y rehearsals.
Verdi arrived with Piav e at the en d of October t o find everything pro -
ceeding smoothly. But they had reckoned without the censor. Protestant
ministers were no t allowe d to have spiritual authority, least of all if they
were married . Certai n lines , essential to the dramati c logic, were there -
fore change d an d rendere d meaningless ; wors t o f al l in th e fina l scen e
there wa s no church , n o Bibl e an d onl y a vague platitud e fo r Christ' s
words of forgiveness for the woman take n in adultery. Verdi was used to
3
Ibid., pp. 59-60 .
4
Ibid., pp. 62-3.
having certai n subject s rejecte d an d t o seein g hi s work s bowdlerise d

when revived in Naples or the Papal States. This was the first time he had
suffered th e mutilatio n o f a work a t it s première. I t wa s received wit h
respect and its composer with enthusiasm; but Verd i was determined for
the futur e t o find some way of rendering it censor-proof .
Piave had completed the libretto ofRigoletto, o r La maledizione as it was
called at the time, and sent it to Verdi in Busseto, Brenna having assured
both partie s that th e authoritie s would no t mak e an y difficultie s abou t
the subject . Together the y pu t th e finishin g touches t o i t durin g th e
rehearsals for Stiffelio', afte r which the submission of it to the censors could
be regarded as a mere formality. Then on i December Marzari reported
that 'despit e all the effor t o f the Presidenz a and the poe t th e subjec t has
been absolutel y forbidden; i t i s eve n prohibite d t o mak e an y amend -
ments whatsoever'. Enclosed with th e lette r was a copy o f the censor' s
report, regrettin g that 'the poet Piave and the celebrate d Maestro Verdi
have not been able to choose some other theme on which to exhibit their
talents tha n on e o f suc h repellent immoralit y an d obscen e trivialit y as
the subjec t o f the librett o entitle d La maledizione'?
Undoubtedly what alarmed the Venetian authorities was the spectacle
of royal profligacy i n action ; an d eve n while th e lette r wa s on it s way
to Busseto, Piave, with th e unlikel y help o f the polic e officia l Martell o
who ha d signe d th e censor' s report , wa s alread y tryin g t o rende r th e
plot mor e palatable . Franci s I wa s turned int o i l Duca d i Vendôme, a
nobleman havin g an affai r lik e an y other ; ther e wa s no specifi c plo t t o
have him murdered ; an d Gild a was spared the indignit y o f being thrust
into a sack.
Verdi meanwhil e ha d reacte d violently agains t the censoria l ban, as
usual throwing th e blam e on Piave for having given fals e assurance s and
suggesting Stiffelio wit h a new endin g by way of a substitute. Nor wa s he
much impresse d by th e first redraft o f the ne w libretto . 'Th e Duke i s a
nonentity', he wrote .
The Duk e absolutel y mus t b e a libertine ; without tha t ther e ca n b e n o

justification fo r Triboletto' s fea r tha t hi s daughter might come ou t o f he r
hiding place... In th e las t ac t wh y eve r shoul d th e Duk e g o t o a remote
tavern withou t an invitation and without an appointment?
5
LCC, p. 48?.
58 • VERDI
I don't understand why th e sack should have been take n out. Ho w doe s
the sack concern the police? Are they afrai d i t won't be effective? Bu t might
I be permitted t o ask why they suppose themselves to be better judges in the
matter tha n I ? . . .
I observ e finall y tha t w e ar e t o avoi d makin g Tribolett o ugl y an d
hunchbacked... Putting o n th e stag e a character who i s grossly deforme d
and absurd but inwardl y passionate and full o f love i s precisely what I feel t o
be s o fine . I chos e thi s subjec t precisel y fo r thos e qualities , thos e origina l
traits, and if they are taken away I can no longer write music for it. If you tel l
me that my music can stay the same even with this drama I reply that I don't
understand thi s kind o f reasoning, an d I must sa y frankly that whethe r m y
music is good or bad I don't write it at random, but I always try to give it a
6
definite character .
An irrefutabl e testimony , this , bot h t o Verdi' s humanit y an d t o tha t

feeling for dramatic logic which i s sometimes denied t o him .
The Presidenz a saw the point, and a suitable compromise wa s worked
out whereb y local e an d perio d wer e change d bu t th e character s and
situations remained as in Victor Hugo. (Curiously, although Francis I was
turned without difficult y int o Vincenzo Gonzaga, patron of Rubens and
Monteverdi, he was not allowe d t o be mentioned b y name, but onl y as
the Duk e o f Mantua , eve n if , a s Piave pointed out , everybod y kne w
who wa s reigning i n Mantu a at tha t time. ) Th e onl y casualt y wa s th e
scene i n whic h Blanch e (Gilda) , abducted into th e palace , flees into a
nearby room an d locks the door ; whereupo n he r seducer triumphantl y
produces the key—and enters. At about the new year Piave paid a visit to
Busseto with hi s old frien d Brenn a to giv e mora l suppor t (the y woul d
have to share a room Verdi told them as he had his mother stayin g in the
house). Piave and Giuseppina took t o each other at once; and from no w
on Verdi' s letter s t o hi s collaborato r woul d ofte n b e accompanie d b y
Giuseppina's postscripts . Verd i arrive d i n Venic e earl y i n Februar y t o
begin rehearsals. The première took place on n March 185 1 with Felice
Varesi, th e first Macbeth, i n th e titl e role , RafFael e Mirat e a s the Duk e
and Teres a Brambilla , on e o f th e many singers of that name, a s Gilda.
Verdi's boldes t an d mos t revolutionar y oper a t o date , i t ha d a succes s
which surpassed all expectations and of which the caution of La Gazzetta
6,, .,
Ibid., pp . 109—11 .
di Venezia an d th e grudgin g respec t of Lucca's L'Italia Musicale ca n giv e

very little idea. When it reached Paris even Victor Hugo was won round ;
having pronounced Verdi's Emani a clumsy counterfeit of his own work ,
he no w regrette d tha t i n a spoken drama there was no wa y of makin g
four character s expres s differen t sentiment s simultaneously , a s i n th e
Rigoletto quartet. Rossini declared that Rigoletto was the first opera which
made him awar e of the composer' s greatness.
Verdi's elation, his renewed strength of artistic purpose can be glimpsed
from hi s letters to De Sancti s and Cammarano during the following sum-
mer ove r his next operatic project. Cammarano was still dragging his feet
over Re Lear, so Verdi had suggested another subject—El trovadorby Garcia
Guttiérez—'very beautiful, imaginative and full o f strong situations'.7 And
to D e Sancti s 'th e mor e Cammaran o provide s m e wit h originalit y and
o
freedom o f form th e better I shall be able to do'. Bu t i t was to be a long
time before Cammarano was to be able to give Verdi what he wanted; and
when a t last after nearly two year s U trovatore reached the stage it did so in a
form rathe r different fro m tha t which Verd i had originally envisaged.
Meanwhile lif e a t Busset o wa s becomin g increasingl y irksome. I n
January, wit h Rigoletto stil l i n gestation , Verd i decide d fo r whateve r
reason to take up residence at S. Ágata, which woul d become his home
for the rest of his life. His parents he moved to a more modest dwelling in
Vidalenzo, enlisting th e ai d of a lawyer in comin g t o a suitable financial
arrangement. I t was an unhappy time fo r both parties. That summer , in
the mids t o f a painful famil y situation , hi s mother died . I n th e month s
that followe d h e an d Giuseppin a withdre w furthe r an d furthe r fro m
Bussetan society into their rural solitude. Then in the winter they left for
Paris where Verdi would arrange a contract with the Opéra, thi s time for
a wholly origina l work (i t would become Les vêpres siciliennes). While he
was away Verdi receive d a letter fro m Barezz i which reall y upse t him .
('If thi s lette r wer e no t signe d 'Antoni o Barezzi' , tha t i s by m y bene -
factor, I should have replied very sharply or not at all.') Unfortunately the
document has not survived; but Verdi's reply contains enough to suggest
to the romantic biographer tha t he may have reproached his son-in-law
for livin g with a loose woman—a Germon t to Verdi's Alfredo .
7
MV, p. 151 .
8
LCV, I, pp. 4-5 .
60 • VERD I
'In my house', Verdi retorted , 'ther e lives a lady, free, independent, a lover
like myself of solitude, lik e myself possessing a fortune that shelters her fro m
all need. Neithe r I nor sh e owes anyon e a n account o f our actions. . .Who
knows whether she is or is not m y wife? And i f she is, who know s what th e
particular reason s are for not makin g th e fac t public?.. . In m y hous e sh e is
entitled t o a s much respec t a s myself—more even.. .
But thi s is mere self-defenc e against the routin e gossi p of the Bussetani .
Barezzi himself had never shown th e slightest disapproval of Giuseppina.
The nu b o f the quarre l must be sough t in an earlier passage.
What har m i s there if I live in isolation ? If I choose no t t o pa y calls on tide d

people? I f I tak e n o par t i n th e festivitie s an d rejoicing s o f others ? I f I ad -
minister m y farmlands becaus e I enjoy doin g s o ... I come t o th e sentence i n
your letter: 'I know very well that I am not the man for serious charges because
my tim e i s over, bu t I should stil l be capabl e of doing small things.'...
In other words Barezzi was blaming his son-in-law for cutting himself of f
from hi s old friends ; fo r n o longe r entrustin g hi m wit h littl e errand s as
he onc e did . Bu t h e was not askin g him t o give up Giuseppina ; and if a
faintly caustic note occasionally creeps into her own references to 'Father
Antonio' and his reverence for the nobility , h e was a frequent and wel -
come visitor to S. Ágata. His touching devotion t o Verdi almost amount -
ing t o worshi p i s attested by Léo n Escudie r wh o late r tha t sam e yea r
visited Verdi to bring him the cross of the Légion d'Honneur .
While Verd i an d Giuseppin a wer e stil l i n Pari s a darin g pla y b y
Alexandre Duma s the younger wa s produced a t the Vaudeville Theatre ,
La dame au x camélias. A t abou t th e sam e tim e Verd i receive d fres h
overtures from the management o f La Fenice, Venice, anxiou s t o follow
up the success ofRigoletto. Whethe r o r not the two events were linked in
Verdi's mind from the start we cannot be sure. Certainly before accepting
the contrac t for Venice h e insisted that there shoul d b e a good sopran o
available; only his term, 'donna di prima forza' raises doubts as to whether
he had in mind a consumptive heroine . O n th e othe r han d th e accoun t
given by Brenna o f his visit to S. Ágata in late April contains a reference
to on e Gian i Vives who ha d played the comprimari a in II corsaro (als o o n
the cartello of the forthcoming carnival season) whom it would be as well
9
LCC, pp. 128-31.
Return t o Busseto • 6l
to keep in reserve for the new opera. But the question was still unsettled
when Verdi finally signed the contract in May, and the subject remained
to b e chosen . Fo r th e momen t h e ha d th e mor e pressin g matter o f //
trovatore to conten d with . Hi s collaboration with Cammaran o had been
fraught wit h difficultie s fro m th e start ; their chie f bon e o f contentio n
being the gyps y woman Azucena , whom Verdi saw as a more comple x
character tha n di d hi s librettist. H e wa s now i n a stronger positio n t o
assert his authority than he had been with Luisa Miller, an d Cammaran o
did his best to mee t hi s wishes, if sometimes with a bad grace ('... my
entire faul t lie s in havin g begun a work abou t whic h w e wer e no t i n
complete agreement, and with the only hope that as I went ahead I might
remove som e o f th e obstacles'). 10 Bu t remov e mos t o f the m h e di d
within the limits of a traditional strategy. In July the faithful intermediar y
De Sancti s reported tha t the poet wa s ill, but forebor e to sa y how seri -
ously. Not unti l Augus t did Verd i rea d in a theatrica l journal tha t
Cammarano had died on July 17 , having completed th e libretto a week
earlier; the composer's enthusiastic response had arrived too late to cheer
his bed o f sickness. Verdi had lost a valued friend a s well as a collaborator,
and stil l a fair amoun t remained t o be don e t o th e librett o o f // trovatore
before he was completely satisfied with it. Fortunately he had to hand the
young poet Leone Emanuele Bardare, who, it seems, had been co-opted
by Cammaran o i n th e final weeks of his illness, and who, accordin g to
De Sanctis , 'i s i n hi s sevent h heave n a t th e prospec t o f writin g fo r
Maestro Verdi'. To hi m we ow e th e texts of the Count's aria in Act II,
'II bale n de l su o sorriso' , whic h replace d a similar number i n Ac t III,
and Leonora' s cantabile i n Ac t IV , 'D'amo r sull'al i rosée' , a s well a s a
shortened versio n of Azucena's canzone 'Stride la vampa'.11
Under the composer's guidance the role of Leonora, originally a com-
primaria, was brought into parity with tha t of Azucena, a fresh romanza
written fo r the coun t and the oper a shaped into the form that we kno w
today. Out o f respect for the dead man, Cammarano's was the only name
to appea r on th e printed libretto an d the published score.
It was about the time of Cammarano's death that the authorities of La
Fenice became restive over the opera for the carnival season. The librett o
IO
CMVC, p. 228.
"LCV, i, pp. 11-14.
02 • V E R D I
should have been ready for the censor by early September and the subject
had not eve n been chosen. Letters to Piave and the baritone Varesi, then
in Spain , sho w tha t th e searc h wa s stil l goin g o n bu t withou t result .
At length, a s in th e past , it was decided to sen d Piave to Busseto with a
view t o workin g ou t somethin g o n th e spot . Fro m th e 'Thebaid ' o f
S. Ágata in the middle o f a rainy November i n which 'one must contin-
ually loo k a t onesel f i n th e mirro r t o b e sur e that.. . one hasn' t bee n
turned int o a toad o r a frog' Piav e was able to announce t o Brenna that
when h e had practically finished th e librett o (unnamed ) Verdi suddenly
asked hi m t o dra w u p a scenario for L a dame au x camélias. ' I thin k tha t
Verdi will write a fine opera, because I can see he is very worked up.' 12
Certainly i f there wa s a theatre a t which s o bold an d unconventiona l a
subject would be likely to pass unscathed it was La Fenice; and apart from
changing the proposed title from Amore e morte to La traviata the censorship
raised no objections. On New Years Day Verdi announced triumphantly
to D e Sanctis , 'Fo r Venice I' m doin g L a dame au x camélias... a subject
for ou r time! Others wouldn't have attempted it for a thousand reasons—
the costumes , th e perio d an d a thousan d othe r sill y scruples . Bu t I' m
doing it with the greatest of pleasure.'13 By this time U trovatore was ready
to go into rehearsal. Verdi, it seems, was still putting the finishing touches
to on e oper a whil e •workin g o n anothe r (h e ha d stipulate d wit h th e
impresario, Jacovacci, that a piano should be put at his disposal during his
stay i n Rome). Despit e th e presenc e o f only tw o star s amon g th e fou r
principals—Carlo Baucardé and Rosina Penc o ('tak e care, Maestro', De
Sanctis had warned, 'she's a very devil and will certainly make mincemeat
of the othe r prim a donna') 14—the premièr e of/ / trovatore was an out -
standing success . On e o r tw o critic s complaine d abou t th e excessiv e
number o f deaths—'bu t isn' t lif e al l death?', 15 Verd i wrot e t o Clarin a
Maffei.
He no w hurrie d bac k t o S . Ágat a t o complet e L a traviata. H e ha d
heard disturbing reports o f the cast , even o f Varesi who wa s to sing the
12
CIV, pp. 85 .
I3
LCV,I, pp. 16-17 .
14., .,
Ibid., pp. 11-14 .
I5
LCC, p. 532.
baritone lead . A claus e i n hi s contrac t ha d allowe d hi m t o engag e a

different prim a donn a i f Fann y Salvin i Donatelli , fo r who m h e ha d
agreed somewhat reluctantl y to write, should prove unsuitable; in which
case th e managemen t woul d nee d t o be informe d befor e the middl e o f
January; but Verd i wa s too engrosse d in th e rehearsal s for // trovatore t o
observe th e dat e o f expiry . Hi s subsequen t protests were therefor e ig -
nored. However h e onc e agai n obtained permissio n fo r Piave t o com e
to S . Ágata for th e fina l modifications . Having don e al l in thei r powe r
to mee t hi s term s th e managemen t wer e dismaye d t o receiv e a letter
written in Piave's hand but dictate d by Verdi to the effec t tha t the entire
company o f singer s was unworth y o f a theatr e such a s La Fenice; tha t
Verdi himself was suffering fro m rheumatis m in th e ar m and might no t
even b e abl e t o complet e th e opera : in which cas e h e woul d sugges t //
trovatore instea d which woul d a t least be ne w fo r Venice. Thi s wa s to o
much; in firm but friendl y term s the Presidenza recalled the composer to
his obligations . I n a thoroughly ba d humou r Verd i se t ou t fo r Venice .
'I've jus t receive d a note' , h e tol d Piave , 'tha t unles s th e teno r an d
baritone are changed the oper a will be a disaster. I know, I know and I'll
prove it to you.' 1
As t o wha t happene d durin g tha t notoriou s firs t nigh t o f 6 Marc h
1853 writer s ar e stil l dispose d t o argue . A sobe r consideratio n o f th e
documents show s that , whil e no t a fiasc o o n th e scal e o f U n giorno di
regno, th e oper a wa s poorl y received . Tw o o f th e ol d myth s ma y b e
disposed o f straigh t away . I t di d no t fai l becaus e it wa s give n i n con -
temporary costumes . Indee d Verd i had intende d tha t it be playe d in
modern dres s but he had been overruled. Th e tim e was put bac k to the
beginning o f th e eighteent h century ; an d eve n whe n Gemm a Bellin -
cioni bega n th e fashio n o f playin g Violett a i n a crinolin e th e me n
continued t o wea r full-bottome d wig s an d breeches. Also it i s not tru e
that Fann y Salvini-Donatelli disappointed . An old-fashione d flori d so -
prano, sh e distinguishe d hersel f nobly i n th e firs t ac t and wo n consid -
erable applause ; th e res t o f th e oper a howeve r gav e n o scop e fo r he r
particular skills; and the spectacle of so robust a soprano apparently dying
of consumption carrie d little conviction. Varesi , on the othe r hand , was
I6
CBM, p. 324.
04 • VERD I
sufficiently stun g by criticisms of his singing as to write to Lucca's L'ltalia

Musicale a lette r o f self-defenc e i n whic h h e declare d roundl y tha t i f
anyone was to blame for the failur e o f La traviata i t was Verdi, who ha d
simply no t know n ho w t o mak e us e o f the qualitie s o f his singers; h e
added wit h characteristi c singer's egotis m tha t th e publi c wer e angr y
with Verd i for not havin g provided Vares i himself with a part suc h as
Macbeth o r Rigoletto.
His lette r conclude s wit h a n accoun t o f th e thir d performance . ' A
wretched house . A littl e applaus e for th e brindis i an d a good dea l fo r
Salvini's cabaletta , with tw o curtai n calls . I n th e gran d due t betwee n
Salvini and myself there was some applause for the adagi o and cabaletta.
Applause for the final e t o Ac t I I and two curtai n calls for the compose r
and the artists. Third act—n o applause; one curtai n call to sa y good-bye
to the compose r who was known to be leaving the nex t day.' 17 For a
composer who use d to declar e that the thermomete r o f success was the
box offic e taking s at the sixth performance this was a poor omen. Clearly
La traviata ha d no t take n off. 'My fault' , Verd i wrote to Muzi o 'o r that
of the artists ? Time will tell.' I n the meantim e he refuse d t o have th e
T ft
opera mounted anywher e else until he could be assured of a suitable cast,

so deprivin g himsel f o f a considerabl e sourc e o f revenue . Composer s
with Verdi' s ey e to profi t d o no t ac t thus without goo d reason . A year
passed before La traviata wa s revived a t the Teatr o Gall o (formerl y San
Benedetto) unde r th e nose , s o to speak , of La Fenice. Th e proprietor ,
Antonio Gallo , had urged Verd i t o ton e dow n th e thir d act ; but Verd i
refused. H e di d howeve r mak e som e significan t change s in fiv e o f th e
numbers, improvin g th e oper a immeasurabl y in th e process. This don e
he was content to let Piave take charge of the production i n his absence.
The resul t was all that he coul d hav e hoped for . The 'poo r sinner', 19 as
he put it, had been redeemed in the eyes of the world and soon joined th e
front ran k of Verdian favourites .
Despite hi s defiant words t o Barezzi , i t was some tim e befor e Verdi
was prepare d t o tak e Giuseppin a wit h hi m t o hi s Italia n premières .
17
Letter fro m Vares i t o Lucca , 10.3.1853 . F . Schlitzer , Mondo teatrale dell'ottocento (Naples ,
1954), PP - 157-8 .
l8
LCC,p. 533 -
I9
LCV, I, 23-4 .
Sometimes she would take the opportunity of his absence to visit her son,
Gamillo, i n Florence ; mos t o f the tim e sh e remained a t S. Ágata, fro m
which sh e regale d he r love r wit h a series of letters, hal f plaintive , half
humorous i n tone. Throug h all of them her devotio n run s like a refrain.
Thus, afte r hi s departure fo r Venic e for L a tmviata:
Our yout h is over; nevertheless we ar e still the whol e world to eac h other
and watch with high compassion all the human puppets running hither and
thither, climbing , slipping , hiding, reappearin g al l trying to ge t t o th e to p
place or to the first row of the social masquerade ... As long as God leaves us
good health , our simpl e and modes t pleasures an d desire s wil l chee r and
comfort u s even in ol d age ; our affectio n an d characters , s o well matched,
will leave no room for those frequent an d bitter altercations which diminish
love an d end b y destroying every illusion. 20
In fact thei r fifty years of life togethe r would hav e to weather more tha n
one suc h altercation; but th e bond s o f mutua l affectio n prove d stron g
enough t o hold.
Characteristically the first Italian city to which Verdi was prepared to
travel with Giuseppin a was Naples—then a s now foreig n territor y t o a
North Italian . D e Sancti s wa s aske d discreetl y i f h e coul d fin d a n
apartment where tw o peopl e coul d pas s th e winte r together incognito .
De Sanctis hastened to make the necessary arrangements; but by October
it became clear that Verdi's presence was required in Paris in connectio n
with his contract with th e Opéra. Accordingly he and Giuseppina left for
France where they were to remain for more than two years. Neither was
sorry to leave Busseto. Already in the summe r Verdi had received wha t
he considere d anothe r snu b fro m hi s fellow citizens . The pos t o f mu -
nicipal musica l director ha d agai n become vacant . Muzio' s applicatio n
was strongl y supporte d b y Verdi wh o recommended tha t h e b e spared
the competitive examination and allowed th e fre e tim e necessary to fulfi l
certain conductin g engagements . The Counci l refuse d bot h conditions .
Muzio withdre w an d ha d th e humiliatio n o f seein g a riva l applican t
appointed withou t an y examinatio n whatever . 'I n an y othe r town' ,
Verdi wrot e t o th e Philharmoni c Society , 'wher e musi c i s concerne d
20
WMV, pp . 213—14 .
66 • VERD I
I shoul d hav e succeede d i n obtainin g wha t yo u an d I want ; i n an y

other tow n I shoul d hav e ha d th e suppor t o f th e civi l an d ecclesias -
tical authorities.. . Elsewhere I shoul d hav e succeeded ; a t Busseto —
ludicrously—I have failed. It is an old saying: Nemo propheta in patria.'21
It was not th e las t time h e would invok e tha t adage.
21 ,
Ibid., p. 217 .
C H A P T E R S I X
Viva V.E.R.D.L
B were installed i n the Rue d e Richter 4, Paris. The oper a for which
Y TH E THIR D WEE K I N OCTOBE R 1 8 5 3 VERD I AN D GIUSEPPIN A
Verdi had been contracted in 1 8 52 was not du e for production for at least
a year ; bu t th e schedul e ha d falle n behind . Eugèn e Scribe—an d Verdi
would no t settl e for a less distinguished collaborator—ha d no t supplie d
the librett o b y th e dat e stipulate d (Jul y 1853 ) fo r th e goo d reaso n that
the subject had not yet been agreed between them . Fro m the start Verdi
had demanded 'somethin g grandiose, original and full o f passion; an im -
posing an d overwhelmin g mise-en-scene'. 1 Scrib e proposed Le s Circas-
siens; Verdi turned it down, a s he di d Wlaska o u les Amazones de Bohème,
('those female soldiers strike me a s odd').2 Then II trovatore and L a traviata
claimed his attention and so time went by until it became clear that only
a persona l meetin g woul d resolv e th e problem . A t thi s poin t Scribe ,
according t o hi s ow n account , propose d adaptin g L e Du c à'Albe, a li -
bretto intended for Donizetti, only a part of which the composer had set.
Verdi a t firs t demurre d a t thi s offe r o f second-han d good s bu t finall y
agreed if the setting were changed from th e Low Countries to Sicily, the
scheme enlarge d fro m fou r t o five act s an d certain of the situation s and
characters modified. Verdi's own recollectio n o f the even t i s somewhat
different. H e was to insist that he had no idea that Les vêpres siciliennes had
1
PVS, p. 96.
2
Ibid., p. 98.
67
68 • VERD I
originated i n L e Duc d'Albe unti l h e sa w Donizetti's oper a mounte d i n

1882 wit h addition s b y Matte o Salvi . B e tha t a s it may , h e professe d
himself satisfie d with th e libretto when it arrived on the last day of 1853.
To D e Sanctis , to who m h e ha d already applied for information abou t
Sicilian histor y and local customs he wrote, ' I can't tel l you th e name of
the oper a becaus e I don't kno w i t . . . All I can tell you i s that the scen e
of th e actio n wil l b e Naple s o r Sicily , probably , th e latter', 3 an d h e
continued wit h a request for examples o f Sicilian fol k music .
Throughout 1854 Verdi remained in France, moving from Paris to the
country tow n o f Mandres fo r the summe r months . H e se t to wor k o n
the new opera slowly, taking plenty of time to spy out the land. Since the
events of 1848 Italians of the Mazzinian persuasion were not looked upo n
with much favour in a country whose government ha d seen fit to restore
the Papa l authorit y i n Rome . True , b y sendin g 15,00 0 me n t o figh t
alongside the British and French in the Crimea, Kin g Victor Emmanue l
had helped to win respect for the cause of Italian unity but the attitude of
Paris t o al l things Italia n remained patronising . I n th e Grea t Exhibitio n
of 185 5 Ital y would ear n prizes only fo r th e wine s o f Baron Pvicasol i in
Tuscany and the manufactur e o f watches in Turin—by a French work-
man; while ther e wa s much tal k of Italian decadence in the field of the
visual arts. Accordingly Verdi remained aloo f and mistrustful. H e scorn -
fully repudiate d th e suggestio n tha t h e might , lik e Rossini , pu t dow n
roots i n France . T m to o fon d o f my wildernes s an d m y sky' , h e tol d
Clarina Maffei. ' I certainly don't intend to spend the few thousand franc s
won b y th e swea t o f my bro w i n advertisements , claque s an d al l such
filth', a reference, this, to the publicity tha t had preceded th e appearance
of Meyerbeer's L'étoile du nord at the Opér a Comique. 'I was at the first
performance', he added, 'and I understood littl e or nothing; but this good
public understood i t all and found it all sublime, beautiful, divine.. . And
this same public afte r twenty-fiv e o r thirty years has not ye t understoo d
Guillaume Tell... '4 Any line in Les vêpres siciliennes which cas t the faintes t
aspersion on Italian courage or sense of honour he was careful to remove .
But th e ne w oper a wa s not th e onl y projec t tha t h e ha d o n hand .
There wer e th e alterations—smal l bu t significant—t o b e mad e t o L a
3
LCV, I, pp. 22-3 .
4
LCC, pp. 539-40.
Viva V.E.R.D.I. • 6 9
traviata before its triumph a t the Teatr o Gall o in Venice in May. He was
also concerne d t o restor e La battaglia di Legnano to circulatio n by fittin g
it ou t wit h a plo t mor e acceptabl e t o th e Italia n censor s an d addin g
fresh musi c where required.
Meanwhile th e groundwor k wa s being lai d o f a far more ambitiou s
undertaking—the R e Lear whic h wa s to remai n Verdi' s cherishe d bu t
unattained goal for years to come . Durin g hi s last visit to Venice he had
made th e acquaintanc e of Antonio Somma , a lawyer by professio n an d
the autho r o f several plays , tw o o f them i n th e repertoir e o f the actres s
Adelaide Ristori . A n arden t Italia n patriot an d republican , h e ha d also
served as secretary to the Assembly of the Venetian Republic o f 1848. For
today hi s plays hav e n o mor e literar y merit tha n a libretto b y Piav e o r
Solera; bu t Verd i ha d single d hi m ou t t o inheri t th e mantl e o f Cam -
marano, a s the onl y possibl e poe t fo r what woul d b e hi s own operati c
masterpiece. Fro m thei r correspondence , mos t o f which run s fro m th e
summer o f 185 3 to 1854 , it is clear that Somma had much mor e to learn
about th e librettist' s craf t tha n Piave; an d i t wa s a long tim e befor e th e
text had been pared and shaped to Verdi's satisfaction. Whether a note of
the scor e was written a t the tim e remain s a mystery. Certain i t i s how -
ever, tha t durin g th e 1850 5 R e Lear came neare r to bein g realise d tha n
at an y other rime .
By September Verdi could inform De Sanctis that the first four act s of
his ne w oper a wer e complete ; al l that remaine d wer e th e fift h act , th e
ballet and the scoring. ('An opera for the Opéra is enough work t o fell an
ox. Five hours of music. Phew!')5 Rehearsals began the following month
only t o b e suspended by the sudde n disappearance of the prima donna ,
Sophia Cruvelli . Know n throughou t Europ e fo r he r caprice s à la Mali-
bran, her lates t exploit instantl y became universa l news. (Londo n sa w a
new burlesque entitled 'Where' s Cruvelli?') Verdi's reactio n was to de -
mand t o be released fro m hi s contract, but withou t success . Soo n Cru -
velli re-appeared ; sh e had bee n o n a pre-marital honeymoo n wit h he r
prospective husband , Baro n Vigier . Someon e ha d bee n instructe d t o
inform th e management , sh e said, but ha d evidently forgotten . Th e re -
sultant scandal cost Roqueplan hi s post as intendant and he was replaced
at the end of the year by Crosnier, t o whom Verdi addressed a long letter
5
LCV, I, p. 26.
70 • V E R D I
of complaint , chiefl y abou t Scribe . No t onl y ha d h e faile d t o provid e

moving an d dramatic situations; he coul d no t b e bothered t o com e t o
rehearsals t o mak e adjustment s wher e required . Abov e al l he ha d no t
kept hi s promise t o remov e everythin g tha t reflecte d badl y on th e Si -
cilians; that he ha d made of the patrio t Procida ' a common conspirator
with the inevitable dagger in his hand. Good Heavens ! There are virtues
and crimes in the history of every people an d we are no worse tha n the
others. At all events, I am Italian before al l else and come what may will
never b e part y t o a n insul t offere d t o m y country. ' H e wen t o n t o
complain o f the criticism s of his music he wa s continually overhearin g
in th e foye r an d ende d b y onc e mor e askin g t o b e release d fro m hi s
contract. Evidently h e was pacified fo r the moment bu t rumour s of fur-
ther dispute s and difficultie s continue d t o circulate . 'Verd i i s having t o
wrestle with al l the Opéra people', Berlioz wrote t o a friend. 'Yesterday
he mad e a terrible scen e at the dres s rehearsal. I fee l sorr y for th e poo r
man; I pu t mysel f in hi s position . Verd i i s a worth y an d honourabl e
artist.'7 Nevertheless Les vêpres siciliennes was on th e whole well received
at it s première i n June an d achieve d a respectabl e numbe r o f perfor -
mances, exceeding those which th e contract had stipulated. But it neve r
entered that charmed circle of grand operas that were repeated year afte r
year, such as Meyerbeer's Robert le Diable, Les Huguenots an d L e Prophète,
Halévy's La Juive, Auber's La muette d e Portia and even , i n it s mutilated
form, Rossini's Guillaume Tell. Nor wa s Verdi justified in blaming Scribe
for negligence , sinc e the existin g correspondence between the m makes
it clea r that th e final shaping of the librett o wa s carried ou t strictl y ac-
cording to Verdi's wishes. At all events they appear to have parted with
mutual good will .
Still Verd i di d no t retur n t o Italy . Afte r a brief visi t t o Londo n t o
arrange about the English rights of the new opera he passed the rest of the
summer at Enghien-les-bains, whence he dispatched the score to Ricordi
together wit h it s Italian translation which th e poe t Eugeni o Caim i had
made unde r hi s supervision. (' I fee l fo r al l translators, because it's im -
o
possible to mak e a good one'. ) Jus t as La batíaglia d i Legnano had ha d t o
6
LCC, pp. 157-9 .
7
AGV, II, p. 293.
8
Ibid., p. 297.
be transforme d into L'assedio di Arlem with a total disregar d for Dutc h

geography, s o Le s vêpres siciliennes wa s transforme d int o Giovanna d e
Gusman and set in Portugal. No t unti l the liberatio n o f Italy were bot h
operas permitted t o resum e their original tides .
But Verdi' s chief reason for remaining in Franc e was the necessit y of
defending hi s interests at th e Theatr e de s Italiens, where severa l of his
operas had been give n in pirated versions. After som e acrimonious cor -
respondence with th e manager, Calzado, he agreed to supervise the first
performance there o(H trovatore, given an adequate cast. He als o discussed
with Crosnie r a forthcomin g Trovatore i n Frenc h a t th e Opéra ; an d a
translation b y Emilien Pacin i wa s put i n hand . However , nothin g wa s
concluded for that season, and Verdi returned to Ital y in Decembe r fo r
the first time without havin g a firm contract to meet. 'Sometimes I fear,'
Giuseppina ha d written t o hi m durin g the rehearsal s of // trovatore, 'tha t
the love of money will reawaken in you and condemn yo u to many years
of drudgery. My dea r Mage, tha t would b e very wrong o f you.'9 And
Verdi, it seems, had taken her advice.
Not tha t he was indifferent t o money, then or at any other time. From
Paris h e ha d writte n t o Tit o Ricordi , Giovanni' s so n an d successor ,
complaining of the conditions under which his foreign rights were being
sold, an d especiall y of th e firm' s habi t o f makin g availabl e the plate s
rather than the scores , so depriving him o f his own percentage . H e was
much concerne d ove r hi s rights in England, where th e Hous e o f Lords
had recentl y passed a bill refusin g copyrigh t i n a stage work unles s the
author were the subjec t of a country with whic h England had a special
treaty. He therefor e urged the lawyer Ercolano Balestra to promote such
a treat y betwee n Parm a an d Britain ; h e eve n considere d changin g his
citizenship. I n 184 8 Verd i ha d bee n a republican. Now h e ha d a more
practical reaso n fo r favourin g a unite d Ital y unde r th e Kingdo m o f
Sardinia, whic h ha d just such a treat y with England . I n Februar y 185 6
through th e agenc y o f Cavour , soo n t o b e hi s political hero , h e wa s
awarded th e orde r o f S. Maurizio and S . Lazzari.
Meantime h e ha d purchase d another propert y an d woul d soon , h e
told Crosnier , nee d t o take up his pen onc e more t o clear his debts, but
he wa s i n n o hurry . Ther e wer e thre e project s o n th e horizon : th e
9
WMV, p . 209. 'Mage' o r 'Wizard ' was one o f her pet names for Verdi.
72 • VERD I
revision ofStiffelio wit h Piave, of L a battaglia di Legnano with Bardare and,

more important , a possible Re Lear for Naples. Hence a long drawn ou t
exchange o f letter s wit h Somma , th e impresari o Torelli an d a certai n
Paolo Mitrovic h wh o seem s t o hav e acte d a s agen t fo r th e sopran o
Marietta Piccolomini , London' s favourit e Violett a an d Verdi' s idea l
choice fo r Cordelia . Fo r th e Foo l h e wante d th e contralt o Giuseppina
Brambilla; in the title role he would prefer Colett i t o Colini. There was
no nee d t o engag e Fraschin i because the tenor , Edmund , wa s a com -
primario; an d so on. Whethe r becaus e the righ t combinatio n o f singers
could no t b e foun d o r whethe r i n th e even t Verd i fel t unequa l to th e
subject (late r he told th e young Mascagni that he ha d always baulked at
the scen e on th e heath) , nothing wa s settled. Meanwhile Bardar e duti-
fully sent, via De Sanctis , drafts for a revised Battaglia di Legnano but non e
of them satisfied Verdi; so this plan was also shelved. There remained the
re-fashioning o f Stiffelio, fo r whic h Piave , no w residen t stag e directo r
at La Fenice, had hope d fo r a visit from Verd i early in 1856 . But Verdi ,
remembering wha t h e ha d suffere d durin g rehearsals for Attila, had n o
intention o f spending the winte r months i n Venice . However , agains t
the possibilit y of a 'Giovanna d e Gusmarí a t La Fenice, he sen t Piave th e
so-called 'mise-en-scène ' o f Les vêpres—that i s the bookle t containin g a
detailed descriptio n o f the stag e actio n with th e hel p o f diagrams, that
was regularly compiled for most if not al l productions at the Paris Opéra.
'It's very fine', Verdi wrote, 'and if he read it with care, a child would be
able t o moun t th e opera.' 10 Unde r th e titl e of'disposizion i sceniche '
these booklet s wer e fro m the n o n printe d b y Ricord i fo r al l Verdi's
operas, though only a handful have survived. They provide an invaluable
insight int o nineteenth-centur y notion s o f staging and shoul d b e con -
sulted by all who aspir e to produce Verdi' s operas today (se e p. 402) .
In mid-March Verd i allowed himself to be lured to Venice to witness
the triump h o f L a traviata o n th e ver y stage on whic h i t ha d faile d s o
disastrously three years before. There followed a return visit of Piave to S.
Ágata whic h laste d most o f April. I t was decided, muc h agains t Verdi's
inclination, t o turn the Protestan t minister into an English crusader and
add a n entirel y ne w las t ac t settin g th e scen e o f reconciliatio n i n th e
Scottish Highlands. The first performance, envisaged for Bologna in that
IO
AGV, II , pp. 315-16.
autumn, would not take place till nearly a year later, by which time much
had happened. Fo r during that spring Verdi had been persuaded to com -
pose a new oper a t o b e given a t La Fenice during th e carniva l season of
1856-57 to a libretto by Piave. There is no mention o f the subject on th e
contract whic h Verd i signe d durin g May ; no r d o w e kno w fo r certai n
how h e cam e t o settl e fo r Simon Boccanegra; bu t a s the playwrigh t wa s
Garcia Gutiérrez and no Italian version of it exists we may guess that, like
El trovador, i t was brought t o hi s attention b y Giuseppina . Bot h spen t a
brief holida y i n Venice in June (th e first time tha t Giuseppina ha d eve r
accompanied hi m there ) durin g whic h h e ca n onl y hav e discusse d the
subject wit h Piav e very briefly i f at all . But h e promise d t o sen d him a
synopsis from Paris , where event s had onc e agai n called him .
Calzado ha d wante d t o follo w u p th e succes s o f / / trovatore wit h
productions o f L a traviata an d Rigoletto. Verdi, convince d tha t if he wer e
not ther e to assist, the operas would fail , instructe d Escudier to withhol d
the scores . Accordingly Calzad o availe d himself o f pirated editions , an d
Verdi decide d t o tak e hi m t o court . Th e cas e wa s hear d durin g th e
autumn o f 185 6 an d Verdi lost it . But h e wa s amply compensated with
the productio n of L e trouvère a t the Opér a on 7 January 1857 , for whic h
he added the statutory ballet music and made a number o f modifications
to sui t the exigencie s o f the Opér a an d of Parisian taste. But al l this had
taken u p valuable tim e whic h shoul d hav e been spen t on polishin g th e
score of Simon Boccanegra with th e hel p o f his librettist. There are letters
to Piav e with copiou s suggestions for the castin g and staging and always
promising hi s imminent retur n t o Ital y so that they could arrange details
by wor d o f mouth. Bu t a s delay followed dela y Verdi fel t th e necessity
of having a collaborator o n th e spot . H e therefor e turne d t o Giusepp e
Montanelli, a n exiled Tusca n patriot . How muc h o f the final text i s his
and how muc h Piave's remains uncertain. Verdi merely despatche d it to
Piave wit h th e words , 'Her e i s the librett o o f Boccanegra shortene d an d
altered more o r less as it had to be. You ca n put your name to it or not as
you like . I f you're sorr y about this I am sorry too, perhaps even more so
than you; but I can only repeat, "It had to be".'11 Piave made no demu r
at the tim e but i n a subsequent letter to a friend h e cam e nearer tha n at
any other time to complaining o f his lot as a librettist ( ' . .. a donkey tie d
"CBM, p. 401.
74 • VERD I
up i n hi s master's stall; Verdi i s my tyrant and you canno t believe ho w

many an d how variou s are the demand s he make s on m e and my poo r
verses').12
Produced o n 1 2 March 185 7 with th e Frenc h baritone Leone Giral -
doni in the tid e role , th e Spanis h basso profondo Giusepp e Etcheverria
as his antagonist and a soprano and tenor both 'd i forza' (Luigi a Bendazzi
and Carlo Negrini), Simon Boccanegra was not a success. Some blamed th e
plot an d th e libretto ; other s th e experimenta l natur e o f th e music .
Dr Cesar e Vigna , a psychiatrist by professio n and Venetia n correspon -
dent o f the Gazzetta Musicale d i Milano an d a friend o f Verdi's sinc e th e
time o f La traviata, had a more siniste r explanation. The oppositio n wa s
organised by on e Lev i 'of th e ancien t tribe ' whos e oper a Giuditta ha d
suffered th e fat e o f Holopherne s i n Venice . 'Some' , Vign a continued ,
'see in all this the hidde n hand of Meyerbeer'.13 I t was to Verdi's credi t
that he paid no attention to this kind o f gossip; but h e was furious whe n
he heard also from Vign a that he himself was rumoured t o be the author
of the much-abused libretto; and he concluded that the canard must have
been started by Piave, to whom h e had said nothing about Montanelli's
contribution. The letter that he wrote to Piave has not survived, but fro m
the poet' s deepl y wounded bu t dignifie d repl y it s contents ca n all too
easily be guessed. The stor m died down a t once, however; an d one can
even sense a somewhat uneasy conscience in Verdi's reply to Vigna: 'that
story abou t th e librett o bein g m y compositio n wa s just abou t th e las t
straw! A libretto with Piave's name on it is always judged thoroughly bad
poetry i n advance ; and frankl y I should be quit e happy i f I were goo d
enough to write lines like "Vieni a mirar le cerule... Delle fac i festanti al
barlume" an d various others... 'I4 The contretemp s wa s all the mor e
unfortunate sinc e Verdi had tried without succes s to include in his con -
tract a clause that entitled Piave to a small percentage of the hire fees, since
he considered th e librettist's position 'neithe r just nor honourable'. 15
Unlike L a traviata, Simon Boccanegra i n it s origina l for m neve r wo n
acceptance except when directed by Verdi himself. At Florence that same
I2
AGV, II, p. 429.
13
Ibid., p. 395.
I4
LCC,p.553.
I5
CBM, p. 400.
year it wa s laughed off th e stage . A disastrous performance in Mila n i n

1859 prompted Verd i t o som e bitter reflection s on th e publi c tha t had
once 'maltreated the opera of a poor sick young man pressed by time and
with hi s hear t tor n b y a horribl e bereavement.. . I don' t inten d t o
condemn th e public ; I allow it s right to b e severe; I accept its hisses o n
condition that I'm not asked to be grateful for its applause.'1 By the late
i86os th e fortune s of Simon Boaanegra ha d reache d s o low a n eb b tha t
Giulio Ricordi , Giovanni' s grandson , an d alread y th e mos t powerfu l
voice in the family's firm, suggested that Verdi might care to revise it; and
so he did , but many years later.
By contrast the première ofAroldo (the revised Stiffelio) at the Teatro
Nuovo, Rimini, in August was all that Verdi could have wished for. Press
and public were alik e enthusiastic; no on e coul d foresee that the oper a
would en d i n a n eve n mor e profoun d obscurit y than Simo n Boaanegra.
Today i t is among the most rarely revived. But it had brought Verdi on e
lasting benefit: the experience of working with Italy's leading conductor,
Angelo Mariani , wit h who m h e woul d for m a close friendship , artistic
and personal, that would las t for the nex t twelv e years.
The conductor' s art is of fairly recent provenance. It came into bein g
with th e growth o f the Romantic orchestra; and it is fitting that the firs t
composer-conductors o f distinction shoul d hav e been Webe r and Ber -
lioz, the first using a role of manuscript paper grasped in the middle, th e
second the new-fangle d baton , sai d t o hav e been introduce d b y Spohr .
Without a central control of this kind the grandiose orchestral effects o f a
Wagner o r a Meyerbeer coul d no t hav e been conceived . B y the mid -
century the conductor was established throughout mos t of Europe eve n
if at the Paris Opéra, for instance, he might still conduct from a first violin
part with th e mor e importan t cue s marked in. But i n Ital y hi s functio n
remained divided between th e maestro concertatore, who rehearse d the
singers at the piano, and the violin o principale, who gav e the beat with
his violin bo w a t points wher e i t wa s particularly needed. Italia n con -
ductors suc h as Spontini, Cost a an d Ardit i wh o ha d learne d th e ne w
system remaine d workin g abroad . There wa s no plac e for the m i n th e
tightly-knit organisation s of La Scala o r L a Fenice.
16LCC, pp. 556-7 -

70 • VERD I
To Angelo Mariani must go the credit for bringing about a change—a

gradual one, admittedly, and by no means painless; as late as the mid-i 86os
the singer Charles Santley recalls the altercation s at La Scala between th e
conductor Alberto Mazzucato and Ernesto Cavallini, the first violin, who
considered that his position was being usurped. Mariani himself, born in
Rimini in 1821 , ha d begun hi s career a s a violino principal e i n various
small theatres in the peninsula. By the age of twenty-one he had already
begun t o mak e a name for himself, as well a s (by his own account ) nu -
merous enemies—presumably th e maestr i concertatori whose authority
he had successfully challenged. A letter of Verdi's to Lanari, the impresario
at Florence , suggest s that he woul d hav e liked Marian i t o conduc t th e
première o f Macbeth i f his demands had no t bee n beyon d th e manage -
ment's purse. By 185 2 Mariani had been appointed resident conductor at
the Teatr o Carl o Felice, Genoa, a comfortable post which allowe d hi m
opportunity to travel and which he retained to th e end of his life. I t was
from Geno a that he wrote t o Verd i in 185 3 offerin g t o secur e a worthy
performance o f La traviata that would redeem th e opera' s failure i n Ve -
nice. Verd i declined, bu t i n term s tha t suggeste d that h e ha d a war m
regard for the conductor . Th e las t act of Aroldo with it s orchestral storm,
its elaboratel y written 'Ángelus ' praye r sung by th e choru s behin d th e
scenes, bears witness to th e stimulatin g effect o n a composer's imagina-
tion of properly coordinated forces. From this time on new possibilities of
sound and technique were brought within Verdi's reach.
As a person Mariani seems to have been amiable but with little strength
of character. He wa s vain, indecisive, loquacious ('If only', Giuseppina
said, 'he would manag e to chatte r for 2 3 instead of 25 hours a day'),17 a
snob who love d to mov e i n title d society, a boaster, and, s o it i s said, a
womaniser (his only marriage had broken up when, a s a biographer puts
it, he surrendered to the flattering smile of a local countess). But to Verdi
his devotion was simple and profound. He soon became a frequent visitor
at S . Ágata ; together h e an d Verdi would spen d hours a t the pian o o r
shooting i n th e wood s b y th e bank s o f the Po . Fro m Geno a an d else -
where Mariani would give detailed accounts of the operas of Verdi's that
he was conducting, interspersed with many a flattering comment o n th e
music. No commissio n was too great or too trivial for him to execute on
I7
LCV, I, pp. 77-8 .
Verdi's behalf. It was through Marian i that in 186 6 the Verdi s acquired
their winte r quarters in th e Palazz o Sauli in Genoa , where the y woul d
spend th e firs t thre e o r fou r month s o f eac h year. The coolin g o f that
friendship an d its change into ope n enmit y is one o f the saddes t episodes
in Verdi's life; nor ca n we d o more than guess as to the cause . But thi s is
to anticipate.
During thi s time Verdi' s interest was ever mor e engrosse d in hi s es-
tates. In July 185 7 he wrote t o his friend th e sculptor Luccardi in Rome
for hi s advice in buying tw o larg e Friulian horse s (Friuli was Luccardi's
native province). But he had kept the Neapolitan managemen t danglin g
too long over a possible King Lear for him to let them down. In a letter of
September to the impresario Torelli he recounted his search for a suitable
subject fo r thei r Carniva l seaso n of 1857-8 ; tha t h e wa s working o n a
scenario of Gustavus HI o n a subject by Scribe of which he was only half
convinced; and he ended by suggesting that for that year he could direct
revivals of Simon Boccanegra, Aroldo and a Battaglia di Legnano with altered
venue and some extra pieces added. This would no t d o for Torelli, wh o
wanted an entirel y ne w work , preferabl y Lear. ' I hea r tha t La traviata, a
real musical and social revolution', he wrote, 'was written i n a very short
time. Le t this be anothe r Traviata fo r us.' 1 Bu t Verd i with man y mis -
givings settled for Gustavus III, eventually an d afte r man y a difficulty, t o
be calle d U n bailo i n maschera. A s fo r R e Lear th e librettis t wa s t o b e
Antonio Somma , who fo r this occasion chose the pseudonym Tommas o
Annoni possibl y because he knew th e subject to be a dangerous one and
feared tha t hi s line s woul d b e maltreate d b y th e censorship . I n 178 9
Gustavus Adolphus , Kin g o f Sweden , ha d bee n assassinate d durin g a
court bal l by a n officer , Anckarstroem , whos e motive s wer e unknow n
and who eve n unde r tortur e refuse d t o nam e an y accomplices. I n 183 3
this even t ha d bee n mad e th e subjec t of a grand oper a b y Scrib e an d
Auber who turne d th e murder into a crime of passion—the revenge of a
private secretary , with whos e wif e Gustavu s had bee n havin g a lov e
affair—and spice d the actio n with a mischievous page and a witch wh o
prophesies the disaster. The fictiona l nature of this version of events was
doubtless apparent to all, especially to those who were aware of Gustavus'
real proclivities. Bu t in the Austrian-dominated Ital y of the 1850 5 regicide
I8
AGV, II , pp. 447-8.
y8 • V E R D I
of any kind was , theatrically speaking, tabu. Verd i was well awar e that
Scribe's plot would need to be disguised; none the less he preferred to set
Somma t o work o n the libretto eve n before sending the synopsis to th e
Neapolitan management . A s Somma decline d a n invitation t o S . Ágata,
Verdi was compelled t o instruc t him at a distance. Like the letters about
Re Lear, those o n th e genesi s of U n bailo in maschera tell u s much abou t
what Verdi, and doubtless many of his fellow opera composers, expecte d
from a libretto. Thus:
The onl y thing that needs to be retouched is from 'Strega mia' dow n t o 'ti
tradi'. All this passage is insufficiently'theatrical. True , you sa y what has t o
be said but the words don't sculpt properly, they don't stand out and there-
fore Gustavus ' indifference , th e witch' s astonishmen t o r th e terro r o f th e
conspirators d o no t emerg e clearl y enough . Perhap s th e metr e an d th e
rhyme prevent this. In tha t cas e make this passage into a recitative, I prefe r
a good recitativ e t o mediocr e lyrical verses, I would ask you t o chang e m e
'e desso— a desso' . Thes e rhyme s bein g s o close , soun d badl y i n music .
Remove to o 'Di o no n pag a i l sabato' [Go d doe s not pa y on th e Sabbath] ;
believe me , al l proverbs... are dangerous i n the theatre.. .
This concern with th e 'parola evidente e scenica' recurs more an d more

frequendy in Verdi's correspondence. Importan t words had to leap to the
ear; the y mus t expres s th e situatio n a s immediately an d graphicall y as
possible. The resul t might look od d on paper, but, as Verdi would ofte n
put it, 'there are times when both poets and musicians should renounc e
their callin g in the interest of theatre'.20
In du e cours e th e memorandu m fro m Naple s arrive d insistin g on a
change of locale. 'We can have all the North', Somma noted, 'excep t for
Norway an d Sweden . Bu t wha t centur y should w e choos e fo r th e ac -
tion?'21 Hi s ow n suggestio n wa s for twelfth-centur y Pomerani a a t th e
time o f th e Teutoni c Knights , th e oper a t o b e calle d II Duca Ermanno.
Verdi approve d th e plac e bu t no t th e time . 'It' s suc h a rough , bruta l
period,' h e wrote , 'especiall y i n thos e part s tha t i t seem s t o m e utte r
nonsense to set in it characters who ar e tailored t o the Frenc h style like
I9
RCVS, p. 212.
20
See for instance LCC, p. 641 .
21
RCVS, p. 235.
Gustavus an d Osca r an d a drama tha t has suc h sparkle and i s so muc h

modelled accordin g to our moder n ways . We mus t find a princeling ,
a duke , o r som e devi l o r other , s o long a s he's fro m th e North , wh o
has see n somethin g o f th e worl d an d ha d a whif f o f th e cour t o f
Louis XIV. Onc e you'v e finishe d th e dram a you ca n think abou t i t at
leisure.' The y solve d the problem (o r so they thought) by moving the
action forwar d fiv e centuries . It s ne w titl e wa s t o b e Un a vendetta i n
domino.
Verdi arrived in Naples on 1 4 January 185 8 in time to attend a perfor-
mance of Batilde di Turenne (hi s own Vêpres siciliennes again rechristened)
with Fraschin i and Coletti a s Arrigo and Monforte. H e wa s recognised ,
cheered, dragge d to th e footlights . The orchestr a repeated the overtur e
in hi s honour . Bu t th e cordia l atmospher e di d no t las t long . Earl y i n
February Verdi wa s writing t o Somm a 'I' m i n a sea of troubles! It's al-
most certai n tha t the Censorshi p wil l forbi d our libretto . Why , I don't
know... They've begu n b y takin g exceptio n t o certai n expressions ,
certain words, and from word s they've gon e o n to scenes. They've sug -
gested th e followin g modifications (and that by way of kindness):
(1) Change th e protagonis t int o a gentleman, completel y removin g th e ide a

of a sovereign
(2) Change th e wif e into a sister
(3) Change th e scen e wit h th e witch , puttin g i t back int o a n ag e in which
such thing s were believe d i n
(4) No bal l
(5) The murde r mus t tak e place behind th e scene s and so on an d so forth. 23
Somma replie d somewhat drily authorising Verdi and the Neapolitan

censorship to make what use they wished of his verses provided tha t the
title was changed and no librettist's name mentioned. Th e managemen t
duly refashione d the librett o alon g th e line s suggested above, settin g it
in thirteenth-century Florence , with th e title Adelia degli Adimari. (It was
probably th e work o f Domenico Bolognese , resident librettist and stage
director a t the San Carlo afte r Cammarano' s death.) Verdi annotated th e
text of Adelia degli Animali, as he calle d it, wit h satirica l comments.
22...,
Ibid., p. 243.
23Ibid., p. 270 .
8O • V E R D I
The managemen t removes and add s lines at its own goo d pleasure, a s who
should sa y 'You're a composer , cobbl e you r note s aroun d this.. . what,
you've alread y writte n th e piece ? Wha t doe s tha t matter ? Lengthe n it ,
shorten it , twis t i t around , i t will be al l right.. . W e want music , w e want
your nam e an d yo u a s ou r accomplic e i n gullin g tha t poo r publi c tha t
pays!... Drama, good sense?... Bah! Rubbish!' That's how i t is; and that's
the respec t the y hav e for their public, fo r art and for artists ...2 4
Verdi offere d th e managemen t tw o alternatives : t o releas e hi m fro m

his contract o r to tak e him t o law. The managemen t chose the second;
Verdi's defence wa s that the oper a which he was being asked to se t was
not th e one for which h e had been contracted. With the help of an able
lawyer, Arpiño , h e wo n hi s case. Th e Tribunal e d i Commerci o rule d
that 'th e differenc e betwee n th e tw o librett i wa s sufficient t o d o har m
to th e music' . Verdi wa s free to tak e hi s score elsewhere ; while o n its
part th e Sa n Carl o managemen t woul d commissio n th e compose r t o
mount a revival of Simon Boccanegra i n th e autumn . I n genera l Neapol-
itan feelin g wa s runnin g strongl y o n Verdi' s side . Prominen t amon g
his supporters was the King' s brother, th e Coun t o f Syracuse, who le d
more tha n on e demonstratio n in his favour. Eve n Mercadante, once an
embittered rival , ha d bee n wo n over ; ne w friend s woul d includ e th e
distinguished sculpto r Domenico Morelli an d the archivis t of the Con -
servatory, Francesc o Florimo, known a s Lord Palmerston for his aristo -
cratic presence . (I t wa s i n Naple s tha t th e sloga n 'Viv a Verdi ' firs t
acquired the hidden significance: 'Viv a Vittorio Emanuele Re d'ltalia'. )
The autum n visit was a particularly happy one, commemorate d b y th e
cartoonist Melchiorre Deifico in a series of lively cartoons: Verdi at th e
piano rehearsing Coletti an d Fraschini and singing more vigorously than
either; Verd i o n stag e stampin g an d flingin g hi s arm s aroun d t o ge t
some life into the performance; Verdi scowling over a sixteenth-centur y
motet presente d t o hi m b y a graciousl y smilin g Florimo ; Verd i an d
Giuseppina, voluminou s i n blac k crinoline , findin g th e erran t Maltes e
spaniel Lul u ('A h ther e yo u are , yo u so n o f a bitch!') . Cesarin o D e
Sanctis, marrie d fo r ove r a year, ha d no w becom e th e fathe r o f a son.
Correspondence betwee n th e tw o familie s continue d with unremittin g
cordiality for nearly twenty years, until De Sanctis , a victim o f the eco -
24
LCV, I, p. 251.
Viva V.E.R.D.I. • 8 l
nomic recession of the 18705 , was unable to repay a substantial loan with
which Verdi had helped to set him up in business. He agreed to have the
debt liquidate d by a regular supply of good Neapolita n pasta; but fro m
then o n i t was Giuseppina who wrot e th e letters.
Even while the cas e against him was pending Verdi had written to his
friend Luccardi in Rome for information about a play on th e subjec t o f
Gustav ///which he had heard was being performed there. If it resembled
Una vendetta i n domino migh t no t th e sam e censorship permit th e opera?
And if so, what a triumph to be able to produce it on Naples' doorstep,
so t o speak , i f Jacovacci, impresari o o f th e Apoll o Theatre , coul d b e
persuaded t o spen d enoug h t o assembl e a suitable cast. Th e repl y was
sufficiently encouragin g for Verdi to send the libretto to Jacovacci, who,
as on e wh o pride d himsel f o n havin g influenc e i n priestl y circles ,
promised t o ge t it approved. He wa s over-optimistic: whethe r because
lyric a s distinct from prose dram a was supposed to hav e greater powe r
to corrupt , o r whether because the political clouds were gatherin g ever
more densely , the Roma n censorshi p threatened t o b e a s obstructive as
that of Naples. But her e Verdi had a valuable ally in the lawyer Antonio
(Toto) Vasselli , Donizetti' s brother-in-law ; an d throughou t th e sum -
mer o f 185 8 he wa s ready to bargain and haggle ove r th e variou s mod -
ifications suggeste d by th e censors , despite th e growin g exasperatio n of
Somma who coul d not understan d why Verdi refused t o have the opera
produced i n Turin o r Venice where th e subjec t might hav e passed un-
harmed. Forbidde n the whol e of Norther n Europ e as a venue for the
plot, it was Verdi himself who suggeste d North America 'at the time o f
the Englis h domination' ; late r h e woul d eve n declar e tha t th e oper a
had gaine d thereby . Durin g a brief visit to Venice in July h e persuaded
Somma t o modif y certai n expression s whic h th e censor s ha d foun d
unacceptable, but not to acknowledge paternity of the libretto; and so the
last obstacle s to a performance were removed .
In the middle of January 1859 Verdi and Giuseppina travelled to Rome
via Genoa an d then by boat in rough weathe r to Civitavecchi a ('almos t
nineteen hour s at sea' Verdi wrote t o D e Sanctis ; 'Peppina wa s very ill;
the grea t Lul u wasn' t wel l either' ; I gav e nothin g t o th e se a but tha t
malaise and then having to lie in bed sixteen hours without moving!'). 25
25
Ibid., p. 51.
82 • V E R D I
Arrived in Rome, his ill-humour persisted . Their lodging s (arrange d by

Luccardi) were ugly . Th e cas t fo r U n bailo i n maschem, as the oper a wa s
finally called, was inadequate, the heroine, Madame Julien Dejean, being
particularly ill-prepared . 'Bu t Maestro, ' sh e remonstrated , ' I expecte d
you t o teac h me th e par t yourself.' ' I a m not a professional répétiteur',
Verdi snapped;2 and it needed all Giuseppina's tact to restore peace.
Leone Giraldoni , th e baritone , creato r o f Boccanegra, wa s continually
indisposed an d at one point ha d to be taken to th e theatre under polic e
escort. And ye t th e premièr e o n 1 7 February was a huge success and all
subsequent performance s playe d t o a n increasingl y packe d house . All
the same , Verdi wrote t o Torelli at Naples, 'afte r th e third performance
I couldn't hel p saying to Jacovacci, "Look, yo u houn d o f an impresario,
if I ha d a goo d ensemble , wha t a succes s that woul d hav e been! " D o
you kno w wha t he replied? "Heh, heh! What mor e d o you want? Th e
theatre i s ful l ever y night . Nex t yea r I'l l fin d som e goo d wome n an d
the oper a wil l b e ne w agai n fo r th e public . Hal f thi s year... half later
on!"'27
It wa s th e las t tim e tha t Giuseppin a Strepponi woul d eve r hav e t o
accompany th e compose r i n a n equivoca l capacity . For o n 2 9 August
1859 at Collonges-sur-Salève, in the diocese of Annecy, Haute Savoie, in
a ceremony conducte d by one Mermillod, rector of the Church of Notre
Dame i n Geneva , an d wit h th e sam e secrecy tha t ha d characterise d all
his action s wit h regar d t o he r i n th e eye s o f th e world , Verd i a t last
made Giuseppin a hi s wife. They woul d hav e no children—'sinc e Go d
is perhaps punishin g m e fo r m y sin s i n ordainin g tha t I shal l hav e n o
legitimate joys before I die,'2 as Peppina put it six years before—but
they woul d adop t th e orphane d chil d o f one o f Verdi's cousins , Mari a
Filomena ('Fifao') , who woul d i n due cours e marr y the lawye r Albert o
Carrara, from whom th e composer' s heir s are descended.
26.._..
MVA, pp. 75-6.
27
AGV, II, p. 529.
? 8
WMV, p. 209.
C H A P T E R S E V E N
The New Order
F OR AL L THA T VERD I CONSIDERE D U N BALLO I N MASCHERA TH E

most harmles s drama in the world, the scruple s o f the Roman and
Neapolitan censorship were not hard to understand. True, order had been
restored ofte n brutall y throughout th e peninsul a since 184 9 but durin g
the decad e tha t followe d th e symptom s o f unres t gre w eve r mor e
alarming. In 185 7 there had been an attempt on the life of Ferdinand I of
Naples. In Verdi's own province o f Parma Carlo III , the restored Bour-
bon monarch , a s profligate an d irresponsibl e a s an Empero r fro m th e
pages o f Gibbon, wa s assassinated in th e theatre . His successor, another
Maria Luigia, far less politic tha n the first, attempted to rule with th e aid
of an Austrian garrison, which, after much hostile demonstration sh e was
persuaded to withdraw. Crack s in the Holy Alliance were deepening, t o
the advantag e of Ital y as well a s France. In England , popula r sympathy
was o n th e Italia n side , Gladston e havin g describe d th e rul e o f Kin g
Ferdinand I I a s 'the negatio n o f Go d erecte d int o a system'. I f the re -
publican idea l o f Mazzin i seeme d a los t cause , a unite d real m unde r
Victor Emmanuel of Piedmont offere d a distinct prospect of success. No t
only did Piedmont hav e a constitution; under the leadership of statesman
such as Gioberti and Cavour it s subjects prospered; it could put a n army
in th e field ; and , t o th e approva l o f libera l opinio n throughou t Italy ,
the law s exemptin g th e priesthoo d fro m civi l jurisdictio n ha d bee n
abolished. Eventually Napoleon II I entered into an agreement, the Treaty
of Piombières , wit h th e taci t blessin g of Palmerston' s Englan d t o en d
83
84 • VERD I
Austrian influenc e in Italy . In th e sprin g of 185 9 hostilities began. Th e

combined troop s of Piedmont an d France fought successful i f indecisive
battles at Magenta an d Solferino ; but tha t was as far as Napoleon II I wa s
prepared t o go . B y the Treat y o f Villafranca Austri a was made t o ced e
Lombardy but retained Venetia; elsewhere the status quo was to remain.
At th e star t o f th e wa r Verd i ha d bee n al l enthusiasm . H e woul d
have like d t o follo w th e exampl e o f th e patrio t Montanelli , hi s part -
collaborator on Simon Boccanegra, and take up arms himself even at forty-
five—'but wha t could I do', he wrote t o Clarin a MafFei, 'wh o couldn' t
even undertak e a marc h o f thre e miles ? M y hea d won' t stan d fiv e
minutes of sun, an d a breath of wind o r a touch of damp sends me to bed
for week s on end.' 1 But in June 185 9 he led his fellow citizens in a sub-
scription fo r th e familie s o f those falle n i n battle . Napoleo n II I h e wa s
ready to adore 'as I adore Washington an d even more; and I would bles s
that grea t natio n an d even pu t u p wit h thei r insolen t politesse and con -
tempt fo r everythin g tha t isn' t French'. 2 Bu t h e resiste d Carcano's in -
vitation to collaborate on a hymn for the Emperor's nameday , ostensibly
because time was short but more probably because this kind of occasional
ode had never appealed to him. H e would declin e a similar invitation t o
write a hymn i n honou r o f Victor Emmanuel , whil e prepare d t o sub -
scribe handsomely t o th e gif t o f a cannon fro m th e citizen s of Busseto.
The term s o f Villafranc a depresse d hi m utterly . T o Clarin a MafFei :
'Where is the longed-for independenc e o f Italy that we've been prom -
ised? What an outcome afte r so many victories! How muc h blood spilt to
no purpose! And Garibaldi who eve n gave up his long-held conviction s
to the cause of a king without achievin g his purpose! It's enough to drive
one mad.. . It's perfectly clea r that w e hav e nothin g t o hop e fo r fro m
foreigners, n o matte r o f what nation.' 3 Muc h woul d b e gaine d never -
theless. The smalle r state s of Northern and Centra l Italy , papal territory
excepted, wer e now relieved of the Austrian presence and were thus free
to decid e thei r ow n destiny . Temporar y 'dictators ' wer e establishe d in
Modena, Parma , the Romagna and Tuscany to preside over a plebiscite.
All voted fo r annexation wit h Piedmont . Nex t year, with Cavou r onc e
T
LPB, II , pp. 517-19 .
2
LCC, pp . 577-8-
3
Ibid., pp . 579-80.
The Ne w Order • 8 5
more a t th e hel m afte r a brie f retiremen t Victo r Emmanuel' s troop s

invaded Umbri a and the Marche s while Garibald i lande d with a n army
in Sicily and speedily toppled the Bourbon Kingdom . Th e Italia n nation
was now se t to becom e th e Italia n state.
As on e wh o ha d long bee n identifie d in th e popula r min d wit h th e
cause o f Italian freedom , it fel l t o Verd i to carr y the vote s of his fellow
citizens to Turin ; a mandate which h e acknowledged t o the mayo r in a
rare moment o f rapport with th e Bussetani; 'In the annexation t o Pied-
mont reside s the futur e greatnes s and the regeneratio n o f our commo n
fatherland. Anyon e wh o feel s Italia n blood flowin g i n hi s vein s must
wish fo r i t deeply an d steadily so the da y will dawn fo r u s in which w e
can say that we belong to a great and noble nation.' 4' Perhaps the lid had
been take n too suddenl y off the cauldron. On th e steps of Parma station
the hate d chie f of police Colone l Anviti was recognised an d murdere d
by a n enrage d mob . Wit h Mariani' s hel p Verd i wa s instrumenta l i n
procuring rifles with whic h t o arm the national guard of Busseto against
similar outbreaks.
That he should stand as parliamentary candidate for the local borough
of Borgo San Donnino was never in Verdi's mind; no r would anythin g
short o f a persona l appea l fro m Cavour , seconde d b y th e Britis h am -
bassador, Sir James Hudson, hav e induced him to do so. But Cavour had
spoken o f the nee d fo r ever y patriotic citize n t o mak e sacrifice s fo r his
country, an d Verd i reluctantly yielded, addin g that h e woul d resig n as
soon as decently possible. The stor y of his political career he summed up
in a letter to Piav e six years later:
I was elected and during the earl y days I frequented th e Chamber up till th e
great da y in which Rom e was declared Capita l o f Italy .
Having recorded my vote I then approached the Count (Cavour) and said to
him,
'Now I think it's time for me t o g o about m y business.'
'No', h e answered, 'let' s first go to Rome.'
'Will we go?'
'Yes'.
'When?'
'Oh, when, when ? Soon '
4
Ibid., p. 580.
86 • V E R D I
Those wer e th e las t word s I hear d hi m speak . A fe w week s late r h e wa s

dead.
... For tw o lon g year s I wa s absent fro m th e Chambe r an d afterward s
I attende d onl y rarely . Severa l times I was about t o han d i n m y resignatio n
but som e obstacl e alway s came up a t the las t moment an d I'm still a deputy
against every wish, every desire, without havin g the slightest inclination no r
aptitude no r talent . Ther e you hav e it. Anyone wh o wishe s o r who ha s to
write my biography a s member o f Parliament has only to print in large letters
in the middl e o f a blank sheet o f paper 'The 450 are really onl y 449 because
5
Verdi a s a deputy doesn' t exist .
The mai n benefi t t o Verd i of those parliamentary days was his growin g
intimacy wit h tw o publi c figures : Giusepp e Piroli , deput y fo r Parm a
and hi s ol d all y Coun t Opprandin o Arrivabene , no w edito r o f th e
Gazzetta di Torino, hi s futur e confidant s o n matter s o f politic s an d ar t
respectively.
Composition seem s t o hav e playe d littl e par t i n Verdi' s lif e durin g
those momentou s years . Hi s hobbie s wer e no w shooting , collectin g
autographs, planting his garden with various blooms an d shrubs acquired
with Mariani' s help and developing hi s estates. To Léo n Escudier, wh o
had recentl y announce d Verdi' s nominatio n a s a membe r o f th e Aca -
démie Française , he wrote askin g him to procure a rifle of the latest type
'now that I no longe r manufactur e note s but onl y plan t bean s and cab -
bages'. Eve n when Piave, now married and a father, reported the success
of U n bailo in maschera in Bologna h e professed himself indifferent, addin g
If people knew this they would how l m e down and accuse me of ingratitude
and o f not likin g m y art .
Oh no ! I'v e alway s loved i t and d o s o still. And whe n I' m alon e an d at
grips with m y note s m y hear t throbs , th e tear s pour fro m m y eye s and m y
joy an d emotion ar e indescribable, but when I think tha t these notes of mine
have to be thrown t o beings of no intelligenc e an d to a publisher who the n
sells them fo r th e amusemen t an d mocker y o f the masses , then I don't lik e
anything any more.7
5
Ibid., pp. 601-2.
6
AGV, II, p. 568 .
7
Ibid., p. 591 .
He had already been disturbed by an unwelcome voic e fro m th e past:

'Fate that decrees that I shall ever be a wanderer has brought m e here t o
Bologna... Could yo u dispens e a little charit y t o a n ol d frien d befor e
he lose s al l hope? ' I t wa s Solera , destitut e after , i t i s said , a serie s o f
adventures worth y o f Casanova . Verd i complie d wit h hi s request onl y
to receiv e another , thi s time fro m Leghorn , askin g him to put Solera' s
name forwar d fo r th e editorshi p o f th e Gazzetta Ufficiale o f Piedmon t
which ' I woul d promis e t o rais e to th e leve l o f France' s L e Moniteur.
Understandably Verd i took n o action. To Clarin a MafFei who suggeste d
raising a subscription for Solera's benefit h e wrote, 'I f you inten d doin g
something fo r Soler a I commend you r goodnes s o f heart bu t i t woul d
be to n o purpose; after a week yo u would b e back where yo u started.' 9
None th e les s he woul d b e prepare d t o contribute , bu t anonymously .
In the end Clarina took his advice and did nothing. Happil y Solera's luck
took a tur n fo r th e better : an d fo r som e year s h e ra n a n antiquaria n
bookshop in Florence, where he had the pleasure of a visit from Verdi in
1870. To th e en d o f his life (h e died i n Milan in 1878 ) h e woul d regre t
that Verdi had come t o prefe r Piave' s libretti t o hi s own, 'bu t then' , he
would conclude , 'h e is as weak a s a woman'.10
That Verdi's farewell to the muses was not a s absolute as might appear
had alread y been hinte d b y Giuseppin a ('h e doesn' t fee l lik e swearin g
never to write again; for in that case he would becom e a slave of his own
vow, an d h e like s hi s independence s o much' 11). Indee d n o on e di d
more tha n sh e to star t the wheel s o f creation turnin g onc e more . Th e
occasion presente d itsel f in th e for m o f a letter fro m th e teno r Enric o
Tamberlick, engaged at the Imperial Theatre St . Petersburg for the win -
ter seaso n of 1860-1. Would Verd i accept a commission t o compos e a n
opera fo r th e followin g winter ? ' I hav e heard fro m Corticell i wh o ha s
arrived her e wit h Signor a Ristor i tha t i t migh t no t b e impossibl e t o
induce you to add another gem to the splendid crown of your operas, the
series o f which yo u ar e threatening to close.' 12 Maur o Corticelli , sec -
retary to the actress Adelaide Ristori, an d soon to be 'fattore' at S. Ágata,
Q
Ibid., p. 66 8 ff.
9
LCC, pp . 520-1 .
IO
WMV, p. 146 .
11
VBISV, IV , p. 287.
I2
AGV, II, pp. 625-6.
88 • VERD I
was an old friend o f Giuseppina's from her theatrical days. The invitatio n
had in fact been his idea, as he explained in a letter to her; and she in turn
promised t o d o al l she coul d t o persuad e her husband , the n abou t hi s
Parliamentary duties in Turin, to accept , 'usin g the method s whic h ar e
said to be successful with the most illustrious St. Peter... that is, to worry
and make a nuisance of oneself until you get what you want. It is true that
Verdi i s less patient than St. Peter; but afte r al l if he packs me of f to be d
it won't be the first time...>I3
In the event Verdi needed little persuading. The only problem was the
subject. Ru y Blas, hi s firs t choice , wa s unacceptabl e t o th e Imperia l
censors; whereupon Verd i declared himself in a quandary and unable t o
proceed. A t once the objection to Hugo's drama was removed an d Verdi
was allowed an y conditions h e care d to impos e 'shor t o f proclaiming a
republic i n Russia,' 14 as Giuseppina put it . But th e interes t in Ru y Blas
had now retire d in favour o f a 'huge, powerful and very singular drama'
which I like very much and I don't know if the public will find it as I do
but certainl y it's something out of the ordinary'. 15 This was Don Alvaro o
La fuerza de l sin by Ange l d e Saavedra , Duqu e d e Rivas , whic h h e ha d
considered settin g a s long ag o a s 1856 . Accordingl y a search was insti-
tuted for a copy of Sanseverino's Italian translation which would serv e as
basis for th e libretto . Havin g foun d one , Verd i dre w u p a synopsis and
sent i t t o Piave ; a t the sam e time h e mad e contac t wit h Maffei , whos e
translation o f Schiller's Wallensteins Lager he intende d t o dra w upo n fo r
the encampmen t scen e o f th e thir d act . Eve n Arrivabene , apprise d o f
developments, submitte d a gipsy-girl's son g for the same context, whic h
however Verd i neve r sa w fi t t o use . A serie s o f letters , brisk , ofte n
peremptory, writte n to Piave between Augus t and November 186 1 bear
witness t o th e car e which Verd i brough t t o ever y detail , an d sho w u s
how muc h of the eventual wording was his. By 22 November Laforza de l
destino was finished, all but th e scoring. Five days later, armed with a good
supply o f Neapolita n past a an d Frenc h wines th e Verdi s set of f fo r St .
Petersburg by way of Paris. A few weeks later their friends were surprised
to hea r tha t th e oper a woul d no t b e give n tha t seaso n afte r all . 'Th e
13
Ibid., p. 627.
14Ibid., pp. 629-30.
15Ibid., p. 634.
singers' voices' , wrot e Giuseppin a to Arrivabene , 'ar e as fragile a s 1

leave you to finish the sentence.'1 La Grúa had fallen ill; so the opera
would b e deferre d t o th e followin g winter . No t greatl y distressed , the
Verdis returned for a few weeks to Paris, where th e composer accepted a
commission t o contribut e a piece fo r th e Grea t Londo n Exhibitio n o f
1862. At a grand concert on i May at Kensington Palac e four of the great
nations o f Europe wer e t o b e represente d eac h b y a new compositio n
from thei r senio r composer : Aube r fo r France , Meyerbee r fo r Prussia;
Sterndale Bennett fo r England an d i f possible Rossini for Italy . But th e
'swan of Pesaro' ha d protested age and infirmity; and so the choice fell o n
Verdi who , fo r the las t time an d mos t reluctantly , agreed t o compos e a
ceremonial piece, introducing the anthems of England, Franc e and Italy.
Partly o n th e advic e o f Auber , wh o ha d writte n a n overtur e fo r th e
occasion, Verdi ha d decided o n a cantata with a prominent sol o part for
Tamberlick. Th e tex t wa s b y a young ma n o f twenty , fres h fro m hi s
studies at the Mila n conservator y and fortunatel y residen t i n Paris at th e
time, havin g been awarde d a travelling scholarship; his name was Arrigo
Boito. Alread y a protege o f Clarin a Maffei , h e wa s receive d affabl y b y
Verdi, who approve d the text and rewarded th e poet with a gold watch .
But th e performanc e di d no t g o accordin g t o plan . Th e concer t wa s
given but withou t Verdi' s contributio n o n th e grounds tha t he had not
sent i t i n o n tim e an d tha t i n an y cas e h e ha d bee n commissione d fo r
an instrumenta l piece . I n a letter t o Th e Times, translate d into suitable
English b y hi s ol d frien d Maggioni , Verd i defende d himsel f agains t
both charges . Th e resultan t publicit y di d fa r mor e goo d tha n th e
scheduled performanc e would hav e done; an d at last throug h th e goo d
offices o f James Henr y Mapleso n o n 2 4 Ma y i n Verdi' s presenc e th e
Inno delle nazioni was performed a t Her Majesty' s Theatre, conducte d b y
Luigi Ardit i an d wit h th e sopran o Thérès e Tietjen s a s soloist. Honou r
satisfied, Verd i returne d t o Paris , an d thenc e t o S . Ágata . 'Artisticall y
speaking', he wrote t o Tito Ricordi, 'it's a stroke of good fortune not to
have "occasional " piece s performed . Nothin g in the m i s or ca n be ef -
fective.'17 Howeve r h e gav e instructions fo r hi s Inno delle nazioni t o b e
printed.
16
AVI, pp . 13-15 .
I7
AGV, II, p. 698.
9<3 • V E R D I
In September , deepl y saddene d b y th e recen t deat h o f thei r do g

Lulu, Verd i an d hi s wif e agai n se t ou t fo r St . Petersburg . Th e oper a
took plac e a s planne d wit h Tamberlic k outstandin g a s th e her o an d
De Bassini once a 'noble baritone' amusing in the part of Melitone (this
was Verdi's own casting) . If the criticism s were mor e mixe d tha n migh t
have bee n expected , th e reaso n lies rather i n Verdi' s positio n a s a for -
eigner i n a lan d wher e musica l nationalis m wa s burgeoning . T o hi s
insignia was now added the Order of the Royal and Imperial Order of St.
Stanislas.
The Verdi s were bac k i n Pari s by the en d o f the year, whenc e the y
proceeded t o Madri d fo r anothe r productio n o f L a forza de l destino
scarcely les s prestigiou s tha n th e first , inasmuc h a s it wa s given i n th e
country of the play's origin and in the presence of the author. 'Admirabl y
performed by chorus and orchestra; well done b y Fraschini (Alvaro) and
Legrange (Leonora) ; the rest.. . null o r bad . Despit e that , a success. '
T 8
Nevertheless he was already aware that something woul d have to be done

about th e dénouemen t wit h it s excess o f corpses; but i t wa s not till six
years late r that th e solutio n occurre d t o him . Afte r a tour o f Andalusia
and o f the majo r Spanish cities he returne d ye t agai n to Pari s where fo r
the firs t time fo r some years a revival of Les vêpres siciliennes was in view at
the Opér a wit h a new tenor , Villaret , in the par t o f Henri. Fo r his sake
Verdi wa s prepared t o brea k a rule o f nearly eightee n year s standing—
never t o compose an alternative aria for an old score; hence the romanc e
'O to i que j'ai chérie ' in place of the aria 'O jour de peine'. It was not a
happy occasion. Discipline in the orchestra was at a low ebb. Dietsch was
no more able to secure an efficient performanc e of Verdi's oper a that he
had been of Tannhäuser in 1861 . Verdi, exigent a s ever, had insisted on his
repeating a passage whic h h e ha d take n to o slowly . Th e orchestr a re -
sponded b y playin g i t slowe r stil l an d Verd i lef t i n a fury. Dietsc h wa s
dismissed forthwit h an d replace d b y Hainl ; an d Verd i reluctantl y con -
sented t o stay for the first three performances. But the revival had hardly
been wort h the trouble . Villare t proved a mediocre interpreter ; th e star
of the show was the ballerina Mile Vernon, in whose honou r Auber' s La
muette de Portici was given for the 45Ot h time, while Verdi's opera relapsed
once mor e int o obscurity .
18
AVI, p. 23.
The Ital y to whic h th e Verdi s returne d afte r tw o year s of travel had

changed fro m th e tim e the y ha d left . Ne w cultura l force s wer e cornin g
into play ; and a climat e was being create d t o whic h Verd i fel t himsel f
increasingly alien. These wer e th e day s of the 'scapigliatur a milanese' , a
radical artistic movement dedicate d to the overthro w o f traditional val -
ues, no t leas t the libera l Christianit y o f Verdi's idol , Manzoni . Lik e th e
'Sturm un d Drang ' o f the previou s centur y it was essentially a reaction
against decade s of emotional conformity . It s adherents live d disordere d
lives, argued and declaimed i n cafés , dran k absinthe and fought duels. Its
chief musical representative wa s Boito, alread y acquiring th e reputatio n
of a young firebran d wit h hi s critical writings. Man y o f his notions ar e
pretentious and vapid. ('T o the Sublime onl y th e grand form, the divin e
eternal universa l for m wil l match : th e spherica l form . Th e horizo n i s
sublime, th e se a is sublime, th e su n i s sublime. Shakespear e is spherical,
Dante i s spherical, Beethove n i s spherical; th e su n i s simple r tha n th e
carnation, th e se a simpler than the brook, th e adagi o o f Mendelssohn is
spherical and simpler than the andant e of Mozart.')19 Yet much of what
he said was valuable. He preached boldness and variety of invention, th e
dissemination o f German music , the exploratio n o f new path s and, no t
least, th e reviva l o f Italy' s instrumenta l tradition . Whe n th e Quarte t
Society of Milan was formed in 186 4 Boito wa s one o f its members an d
chief criti c o f it s 'giornale' . Eve n th e professor s o f th e Mila n Con -
servatoire such as Mazzucato and Ronchetti-Monteviti did their best t o
keep u p with th e ne w trends . Muc h publicit y attende d th e première in
November 186 3 o f I profughißamminghi, word s b y th e 'scapigliato ' poe t
Emilio Praga , music by Boito's fellow-studen t Franc o Faccio. It is not a
specially novel type of opera; nor di d it have more tha n a modest success.
But a t a dinne r give n i n Faccio' s honour Boit o toaste d hi s frien d i n a
Sapphic Ode i n which h e is described as the man who i s perhaps born t o
raise up Italian art upon an altar which is now 'befoule d like the walls of a
brothel'.20
If Verdi had any sympathy with the ideals of the new movement tha t
would hav e been enoug h t o kill it. For against whom coul d Boito's gib e
have bee n directe d excep t himself ? T o Clarin a Maffe i wh o wante d a
19
See WMV, p . 455.
20,, . .
Ibid., p. 449 .
92 • VERD I
word o f encouragemen t fo r he r lates t proteg e h e wrot e i n guarded ,

somewhat ironica l vein . H e ha d hear d an d rea d grea t thing s abou t thi s
opera ami d a profusion o f words lik e 'Art , Aesthetics , Revelations, th e
Future' etc.—word s whic h mean t nothin g t o him—'grea t ignoramu s
that I am'. But he had no intention o f getting to know th e work fo r fear
of having to pas s judgment o n it . 'I f Faccio is really destined t o rais e u p
the ar t on a n altar foul wit h th e stin k of a brothel [Verd i neve r faile d t o
misquote th e phrase] , so much th e bette r fo r hi m an d fo r us all. I f he is
on th e wrong path, let us hope tha t h e soon finds the right one.' 21 H e
refused t o associate himself with th e Quartet Society. ('Yo u known tha t
I'm a n ass in music and I can't understand what the learned ones mean by
their tal k of "classical".') 22 Boito's jargon cause d him much amusemen t
('Spherical, focal point, carnation are all very fine but what you nee d to make
music is something ver y different—music). 23 Hi s resentment wa s fed by
Piave whos e applicatio n fo r th e newl y institute d professorshi p o f dra -
matic poetry at the Milan conservatory had recently been turned down in
favour of Emilio Praga. But for all his protestations of cultural ignorance ,
of never judging musi c from th e printe d page , he ordere d al l Ricordi's
latest publications o f old and new music . H e showe d especia l interest in
dementi's Sonata in F sharp minor (' I don't know whethe r i t belongs to
the Classica l o r th e Romantic school ; whethe r t o th e pas t o r t o th e
future, but it's very fine'). A pity that the same collection did not includ e
Scarlatti's 'Cat' Fugue ('with such an odd subjec t a German woul d hav e
made somethin g chaotic : an Italia n has made it a s clear as sunlight').24
Ever sinc e its foundation i n 1851 , Léo n Carvalho' s Théâtre Lyrique ,
Paris, ha d include d amon g it s varie d far e Italia n oper a translate d int o
French, a t first with th e recitative s replace d b y spoke n dialogue . Re -
opened i n 186 2 after a three-year closure , it now graduate d t o through-
composed opera ; and it was with newly written recitative s that Gounod' s
Faust o f 1859 , translate d int o Italian , launche d it s international career .
Among Carvalho' s successe s ha d bee n a Frenc h Traviata (1864) , re -
christened Violetta, wit h certai n modification s whic h Verd i mus t hav e
21
LCC, pp. 506-7.
22
AGV, II, p. 744-
23
Ibid., pp. 777-8.
24
Ibid., p. 779.
authorised. Hi s noble failure s ha d included th e secon d par t o f Berlioz' s

Les Troyens. Fo r th e sprin g seaso n o f 186 5 h e counte d o n a Frenc h
Macbeth wit h a n adde d balle t o f witches. Verdi wh o ha d cherishe d th e
idea of a revised Parisian version of his favourite opera as long ago as 1852
readily assented, provided that he was not expecte d to take charge of the
production. A s usual the revisio n too k longe r tha n anticipate d and re -
quired ne w verse s from Piave . Verd i himsel f wa s a s meticulous i n hi s
instructions ove r th e secon d versio n a s he ha d bee n ove r th e first . H e
plotted th e scenari o of the balle t almos t phrase by phrase; he countere d
(though in vain) Carvalho's proposal that Macduff should sing the second
verse o f Lad y Macbeth' s drinkin g song , an d sketche d a n ingeniou s
mechanism fo r th e 'she w o f kings' . Onl y o n on e aspec t o f the inter -
pretation di d he appea r to hav e changed. Fo r th e be l canto singers of th e
18405 he had insisted on th e greates t possible realism of delivery even t o
the extent of uglifying the voice. Havin g heard the curious 'death-rattle'
which Adelaid e Pvistor i brough t t o th e sleepwalkin g scen e i n Shake -
speare, h e no w warne d agains t al l natuaralistic touche s o f thi s kind —
whether a cough for Violetta in La traviata or a laugh for Pxiccardo in th e
first final e o f U n bailo in maschera. He ha d littl e t o sa y about th e Frenc h
translation beyond insistin g that Lady Macbeth's 'Follie! ' should be ren -
dered by 'Folie'.
The premièr e o n 7 June 186 5 wa s no t a notabl e success . Most o f
the critic s foun d i t a n unsatisfactor y mixture o f th e ol d an d th e new .
('I thought I had done somethin g passable' , Verdi wrote, 'but evidentl y
I wa s mistaken.') 25 H e wa s particularl y annoyed wit h th e criti c wh o
accused hi m o f not understandin g Shakespeare . ('I t ma y be tha t I hav e
not don e justice to Macbeth but tha t I don't know or understand or fee l
Shakespeare—no, by God, no . H e is one of my favourite poets; I've had
him i n m y hands since my earlies t youth an d I read hi m ove r an d ove r
again.')2 Though never popular in his lifetime, the new Macbeth would
find a plac e o f hig h honou r i n th e Verd i renaissanc e o f th e presen t
century.
Meanwhile Verd i continue d t o wor k a t his garden an d his estates. A
small chape l wa s built fo r househol d us e on Sundays . Additions t o hi s
25
PLVE, p. 189 .
26
Ibid., p. 187.
94 * VERD I
library included Darwin' s Origin o f Spedes an d th e Canzoniere of Heine.

From outside echoes reached him o f the succès d'estime of Faccio's Atnleto
on a libretto b y Boito , o f th e fulsom e prais e o f th e 'scapigliato ' criti c
Filippi an d the enthusiasti c support o f Giulio Ricordi , Tito's son, fro m
whom Giuseppin a thought i t prudent t o intercep t a defensive letter t o
her husband. Nearer home an old subject of discord had reared its head—
the Busseto theatre .
When building operations began in 185 9 Verdi considered that public
money wa s being wasted at a time of national crisis. By 186 5 the theatr e
was finished ; it wa s t o b e name d th e Teatr o Giusepp e Verd i an d th e
dedicatee wa s expected t o subscrib e handsomely t o it s upkeep an d ac -
tivities. Thi s wa s to o much . Unfortunatel y Giovann i Barezzi , alway s
ready in the past to put himself out for his famous brother-in-law, though
clearly much disliked by Giuseppina, became caught in the cross-fire and
a lon g friendshi p cam e t o a disagreeabl e close . Finall y i n Augus t a n
agreement wa s reache d whereb y Verd i accepte d th e dedicatio n an d
presented a chequ e fo r 10,00 0 lir e ( a considerable su m i n thos e days )
against the opening , whic h too k plac e three year s later. Although a box
was reserve d fo r hi s use , Verd i neve r se t foo t insid e it . Giuseppina' s
comment: 'T o the minor an d modest compose r Coppol a the citizens of
Catania are coining a gold medal worth 122 7 francs as a token of their joy
at hi s return hom e afte r fiftee n year s absence. Giusepp e Verdi wh o ha s
filled the worl d wit h th e glor y o f his music the citizen s of Busseto have
rewarded b y poisoning hi s life wit h ever y sor t o f vileness... '2? Fro m
then o n th e tree s grew eve r thicke r round th e wall s of S. Ágata.
If Verd i was , a s he s o ofte n protested , withou t honou r i n hi s ow n
country al l the mor e reaso n why h e shoul d accep t another commissio n
from abroad . 'I t seem s tha t th e mai n difficulty' , wrot e Giuseppin a t o
Leon Escudier, 'a s regards writing for the Opér a i s the libretto. I put m y
hope i n the imagination o f the poets...
'I know him. Once he's caught up the scene will change. He will leave
his trees , hi s building , hi s hydrauli c machines, hi s gun s etc . H e wil l
abandon himself to his poem an d I hope tha t the whole world wil l gai n
by it.'2 This after an apparently fruitless visit to S. Agata in which the
27
WMV, p. 259.
28.,.,
Ibid., p. 251 .
publisher ha d submitte d variou s ideas . Nor wa s she mistaken. A lette r

from Lulu' s successor , Blach, t o Ron-Ron , maste r o f th e Arrivaben e
household, announce d tha t 'm y secretary ' i s dispose d t o mak e a fe w
'hooks'29 (i.e . notes). The subjec t would b e Schiller' s Do n Carlos, pos -
sibly associated with a French Forza del destino if a suitable denouement t o
the latter could be found. With this in view the Verdis left i n Novembe r
for Paris , wher e the y ha d thei r firs t sigh t o f Baro n Haussman' s city .
('Really very fine' , wa s Verdi's comment , ' a pit y the su n doesn't shin e
more often.' ) The y hear d L'Africaine ('Certainl y no t Meyerbeer' s bes t
opera') an d th e overtur e t o Tannhäuser ('he' s mad!'). 3° The y visite d
Rossini—'Ex Compositeur de Musique et Pianiste du 4ième classe', as he
liked t o styl e himself . Ne w acquaintance s include d th e Polis h poe t
Mickiewicz, frien d o f Mazzini, who presente d Verdi with tw o volume s
of hi s poetry , an d th e sculpto r Dantan , whos e bus t representin g th e
composer with the claw s and mane of a lion dat e from thi s time. O f th e
two poet s wh o wer e t o prepar e th e librett o o f the ne w oper a Joseph
Méry, a n ol d Bonapartist whose Bataille de Toulouse ha d serve d as a basis
for L a battaglia d i Legnano, wa s alread y confine d t o hi s roo m wit h th e
illness of which he would die ; and it fell to Camille d u Lóele, son-in-law
of Perrin, directo r o f the Opéra, t o complet e th e wor k an d mak e th e
changes that Verdi required. Fo r o f all his operas based on Schille r Do n
Carlos is the on e i n which Verd i was determined t o squeez e as much as
possible fro m th e origina l drama , whil e bein g conten t (fo r th e tim e
being) t o retai n such extraneous elements as the Fontaineblea u act (de -
rived from a play on the same subject by Eugène Cormon), the ballet, the
voice fro m heave n an d th e equivoca l figur e o f th e Monk/Emperor .
From th e star t h e ha d insiste d on includin g tw o scene s which th e li -
brettists had omitted—for Philip and the Inquisitor ('whom I should like
to b e blin d an d very old') 31 an d fo r Phili p an d Posa , i n whic h th e
Marquis startles the Kin g with hi s liberal ideas.
Verdi remained in Paris until the middle o f March, by which time h e
had completed the first act. Then he returned to S. Ágata to complete the
29'rampini'—a standin g joke. One o f Verdi's farm labourer s had been overheard to expres s
his wonder that th e maste r could mak e s o much mone y by drawing little hooks o n straigh t
lines.
30
AVI, p. 61.
3I
GGDC, p. 30.
96 • VERD I
rest undisturbed. But i t was not t o be. I n April Italy signed a treaty with
Prussia; an d bot h prepare d t o g o t o wa r wit h Austria . ' I expec t an y
moment now' , Verdi wrote t o Escudier, 'to hear the roar of cannon and
I'm so near the field of battle that I wouldn't b e surprised to find a cannon
ball rollin g int o m y roo m on e fin e morning'. 33 I t was even rumoure d
that th e Princ e Umbert o intende d t o tak e u p hi s quarters at S . Ágata.
As Italian troops gathere d massivel y along the P o Verdi' s firs t thought s
were to pack his bags for Paris; his second were to remain in Italy as long
as the wa r lasted as a patriotic gesture even if this meant arriving in Paris
later tha n stipulated ; hi s thir d wer e t o as k fo r th e dissolutio n o f hi s
contract.
For the war had gone badly for Italy. The Prussians had won a decisive
victory at Königgratz; but fro m th e North Italian forts, whic h th e peace
of Villafranca had allowed them to keep, the Austrians routed the Italia n
forces at Custozza, while th e Italia n fleet was no les s soundly defeated at
the Battle of Lissa. Garibaldi's march into the Trentino, in which Boito,
Faccio and Giulio Ricordi took part, was a brave but futil e venture since
the wa r wa s ove r befor e a sho t wa s fired . B y th e term s o f th e treat y
Austria handed over the Véneto to France who in turn handed it to Italy.
This wa s not th e wa y i n whic h Venic e ha d hope d t o becom e Italian .
Verdi wa s in Genoa , arrangin g fo r th e leas e o f th e appartment i n th e
Palazzo Sauli which was to be his regular winter quarters, when the news
broke; and it needed all Piroli's an d Perrin's firmness to persuade him t o
honour hi s contrac t wit h th e Opéra . Finall y o n 2 2 July h e an d Giu -
seppina lef t reluctantl y for Franc e leaving Mariani to bus y himself with
the furnishings.
The Verdi s took a n appartment in th e Champ s Elysées , having first
insisted tha t i t b e properl y duste d beforehan d t o preven t an y throa t
infection. I n mid-Augus t the y lef t fo r Cauteret s i n th e Pyrenees . Th e
voice part s meanwhile ha d been sen t to th e singer s and the répétiteurs .
Immediately th e bas s engaged for the Monk/Empero r declare d tha t his
part wa s not a principal; th e managemen t replie d tha t i t wa s o f equal
importance wit h thos e o f Phili p an d th e Inquisitor . A s the singe r re -
mained unconvinced i t was decided tha t th e scor e should be examine d
by a compose r o f authority—Thoma s o r Reyer—t o se e i f Verdi ha d
32
AGV, III, pp. 79-80.
written thre e principal bass parts or not . Verd i refuse d absolutel y to le t

anyone se e a score which wa s not ye t complete ; an d in th e en d i t was
found easier to engage another singer. By the middle of September Verdi
was back in Paris where the rehearsals ran their long and laborious course
and th e 'tortoise s o f the Opéra' , i n Giuseppina' s phrase, 'take twenty -
four hour s t o decid e whether Mm e Sass e o r M . Faur e should raise one
finger o r the whole hand'. 33 Rivalry betwee n th e prima donnas was also
a problem; and Verdi preferred to miss a day's rehearsal rather than watch
the grimace s o f L a Sass e wheneve r Paulin e Gueymard-Lauter s wa s
singing. Bu t h e foun d tim e t o kee p u p a bus y correspondenc e wit h
Ricordi about the contrac t for the Italia n Don Carlos and with hi s bailiff
Marenghi regardin g th e administratio n o f the farm . ( ' . . . I gather from
your letter s that yo u ar e making "Milord " d o littl e wor k an d tha t yo u
haven't harnessed the hack [puledra]. I don't like this because the horses
won't sta y health y o r a t leas t they'l l becom e bi g an d heav y lik e Ros -
so's.')34 He ha d instructions for his father who ha d been left i n charge of
little Filomena . B y Decembe r i t becam e clea r tha t th e oper a wa s as -
suming vas t proportions; tw o substantia l duets ha d bee n droppe d an d
the ballet not even begun. A t the final rehearsal it was decided t o omi t
a twelve-minut e chora l introductio n t o th e firs t ac t so that th e perfor -
mance shoul d finis h befor e midnigh t an d th e patron s o f the Opér a b e
able to catch their last trains home. The performance on n Marc h 186 7
was at least a succès d'estime. Both Reye r an d Théophil e Gautie r praised
the opera highly, as marking a new stage in the composer's development .
Bizet on the other hand found it full of good intentions and nothing else.
('Verdi is no longer Italian. He is following Wagner. He no longer shows
his well-know n faults , bu t neithe r doe s h e sho w a singl e on e o f hi s
virtues.')35 Another write r compared Do n Carlos to St. George's Chapel ,
Windsor, ful l o f th e coats-of-arm s o f variou s knight s o f th e Garter :
Wagner, Gounod , Donizetti.. . Back at his new flat in Genoa Verdi read
the notices with irritation. 'In fact I' m a n almost perfect Wagnerian! But
if the critics had paid a bit more attention they would have seen that there
are the sam e ideas in th e tri o fro m Emani, the sleepwalkin g scene from
33
WMV, p. 267.
34
AGV, III, p. 107 .
35H. Imbert , Portraits et Etudes: Lettres à un ami (Paris, 1894) , p . 168 .
98 • VERDI
Macbeth and in so many other pieces... '3 In Paris Don Carlos barely
lasted out the year. But two highly successful performances were given in
the Italian version of Achule De Lauzières at Covent Garden under Costa
and later at Bologna under Mariani, both in Verdi's absence. But even in
Italy its length told against it; and it rarely escaped without th e cutting of
the ballet (which Verdi allowed) and the first act (which he was powerless
to prevent).
On 1 5 January, barely two month s before the première of Don Carlos,
Carlo Verdi died, age d 82. 'Verdi is deeply grieved', Giuseppin a wrote,
'and so am I despite the fac t tha t we had lived with hi m hardl y at all and
were at opposite poles in our way of thinking.'37 A far greater blow was
the death in July of Antonio Barezzi, though for some months it had been
foreseen. 'Yo u know that I owe hi m absolutely everything,' (to Clarina)
' . . . I've know n man y peopl e i n m y lif e bu t neve r a better ma n than
he.'3 His depression and bouts of ill-humour are all too evident from
Giuseppina's diaries.
Yesterday h e came [t o my room] and in his usual way, especiall y nowadays ,

he n o soone r sa t down tha n he go t up again . I said to him , 'Wher e are you
going?'
'Upstairs.'
... And a s he doesn' t usuall y go u p ther e I said, 'Wha t for? '
'To look for Plato'
' . . . But don't you remember, it' s in the cupboard i n the dining room?.. . '
I should neve r hav e said it! It was a serious matter, premeditate d o n m y par t
and almos t a n abus e o f power...
This evening ther e wa s a row abou t a n open window and because I tried
to cal m hi m down . He wen t int o a fury sayin g that he would dismiss all the
servants and that I take their par t when the y don' t do their dut y rathe r tha n
his whe n h e make s perfecd y justifie d complaints . But , goo d Heavens , h e
sees these lapses on th e part of the servant s through a magnifying glass when
he's i n a bad mood an d thes e poor devil s nee d someon e t o loo k afte r thei r
36
PLVE,pp. 524-5.
37
AGV, III , p. 115 .
i8
0
LCC , pp. 521-2.
interests... God gran t that h e cal m down because I suffer ver y much an d I
lose m y bearings. 39
Rumours o f Verdi the severe landlord and the domestic tyrant were no t
without foundation .
Earlier tha t year , however , Giuseppin a had sow n a seed tha t woul d
bear importan t fruit . Soo n afte r thei r retur n fro m Geno a sh e ha d vis -
ited one of her husband's oldest friends, Clarin a MafFei, wh o i n turn had
taken he r t o se e Alessandro Manzoni , no w i n hi s eighties. Al l this was
kept fro m Verd i unti l afte r th e event ; an d his surprise and deligh t bot h
women found deeply touching . H e sen t the poet a photograph o f him -
self accompanied by a humble dedicatio n to 'on e who di d true honou r
to thi s strife-torn countr y o f ours. You ar e a saint, Don Alessandro.' 4'0
Not til l July o f the followin g year did he mee t th e poe t personall y and
was charmed by the old man's simplicity. ('I would have knelt before him
if it were possibl e t o ador e mortal men.') 41
In th e autum n of 186 7 the Verdi s went with Mariani to Pari s for the
Great Exhibition and were present at the première of Gounod's Roméo et
Juliette ('i t has neither the variety nor th e originalit y o f Faust,'42 Marian i
wrote), the n returne d t o S . Ágata. After a brief visit to Bologn a durin g
the rehearsal s of the first Don Carlos in Italy , where, i t is said, Verdi was
moved t o tear s by the Pos a of Antonio Cotogni , he was back in Geno a
where h e heard o f the opera' s and of Mariani's triumph .
The earl y months of 1868 saw the moderate success of Do n Carlos at La
Scala unde r Mazzucat o an d th e tota l failur e o f Boito's Mefistofele con -
ducted by the composer. The Ministe r of Education, Emilio Broglio, felt
it was time to apply drastic measures to remedy the state of music in Italy.
He se t forth his views in an open letter to Rossini. Th e maintenanc e o f
the Conservatorie s wa s an unnecessar y burden o n th e state . What ha d
happened t o th e gloriou s Italia n tradition o f oper a sinc e Rossin i ha d
retired? I t ha d becom e a matte r o f musica l mastodon s an d Mephisto -
phelean pretensions . Fa r better th e formatio n o f a voluntary societ y o f
39
WMV, pp. 400-1.
4
°AGV, III , p. 142 .
41,, .,
Ibid., p. 215 .
42
AGV, III , p . 153 .
IOO • V E R D I
music lover s t o tak e car e o f th e musica l educatio n o f th e young— a

society o f whic h Rossin i himsel f wa s invited t o b e president . Rossin i
declared his acceptance and sent a copy of his latest 'péché de vieillesse',
the Chant des Titans, as an inaugural piece—surely in a spirit of mockery,
though not everyone saw it in that way. Verdi read Broglio's letter on the
same day that he received the Order of Commendatore of the Crown of
Italy. He immediatel y returned it on the grounds that it must have been
sent to the wrong address, 'not on my own account,' he told Arrivabene,
'but i n memor y o f thos e tw o (i.e . Bellin i an d Donizetti ) wh o hav e
filled the world with thei r melodies'. 43 Boito replied to Broglio wit h an
ironic 'Lette r in Four Paragraphs' in the course of which h e touched o n
the achievement s o f the Italia n romantics—Norma, I Puritani, La favorita
and i n 185 1 Rigoletto an d i n 185 3 U trovatore an d al l the glorious , spell -
binding eve r fertil e theatr e o f Verdi. 44 I t wa s a shor t bu t significan t
step toward s a rapprochemen t betwee n th e youn g iconoclas t an d th e
middle-aged idol .
In December 186 7 Piave succumbed to a stroke that left him paralysed
and speechles s till his death. Verdi at once offere d financia l assistanc e to
his wife an d daughter o n conditio n howeve r tha t they refuse d a similar
offer fro m Giovann i Barezzi . Fo r th e Albu m Piav e h e suggeste d ap -
proaching Auber , Thomas , Federic o Ricci , Mercadant e an d Wagne r
(needless t o sa y this las t suggestio n wa s no t followe d u p thoug h i t i s
fascinating to speculate on Wagner's reactio n if it had been acte d upon).
Verdi's own contribution wa s the delicate and witty Stomello. About this
time h e entere d Filomen a i n a boarding schoo l i n Turin . Bu t hi s main
achievement of 1868 was to have found a solution for the denouement o f
Laforza de l destino. Over the past six years Piave, Perrin, De Lauzières and
even the Duke of Rivas himself had been canvassed for ideas. Now i t was
the tur n o f Antoni o Ghislanzoni , ex-baritone , poet , pamphletee r an d
destined t o becom e on e o f the leadin g librettists o f the 1870 5 an d 8os.
A renegade 'scapigliato', he had already endeared himself to Verdi by his
satirical attack on the publicity attendin g Faccio' s Amleto; and he woul d
soon b e a frequent visito r t o S . Ágata o f which h e ha s left a charmin g
description i n his so-called Libro Serio. Yet from the tantalisingl y incom-
43
AVI, pp. 96-7.
44 P. Nardi , Vita di Arrigo Boito (Milan, 1942) , p. 319 .
píete lette r tha t survive s it i s clear that Verd i himself , no t Ghislanzoni ,

hit upon th e idea of a final terzetto during which Leonor a dies and Do n
Alvaro reconcile s himsel f t o th e necessit y o f livin g on . ' I hav e grea t
doubts about this' , he wrote to Giulio Ricordi, 'which will eithe r gro w
or diminis h whe n I'v e slep t o n it . Meanwhil e le t Ghislanzon i b e th e
judge an d if he doesn' t lik e it we'll look fo r something else.' 45 But th e
poet approved ; an d th e opera , revise d an d mostl y strengthened , wa s
scheduled fo r performanc e a t L a Scal a o n 2 7 Februar y 1869 , th e firs t
Verdi premièr e t o hav e been give n a t Italy' s leading oper a hous e sinc e
Giovanna a'Arco. More sadly it was the las t occasion on which Verdi and
Mariani worke d togethe r i n perfec t amity . Th e break-u p o f thei r
friendship i s puzzling sinc e th e initiativ e wa s al l o n Verdi' s side . Th e
conductor ha d not cease d to b e his devoted slav e in matters artistic and
material. Ye t al l o f a sudde n Verd i bega n seein g hidde n motive s i n
Mariani's ever y word an d action. Foible s which h e had onc e affection -
ately tolerate d no w bega n t o ge t o n hi s nerves . Undoubtedl y ther e
were contributor y factors . Maur o Corticelli , now installe d as 'fattore' a t
S. Ágata , clearly disliked th e conducto r an d di d muc h t o influenc e hi s
employers agains t him . Later , b y insistin g o n conductin g th e Italia n
première o f Lohengrin, th e firs t o f Wagner's opera s t o b e give n i n tha t
country, Mariani involved himsel f in the wa r of the publisher s and thus
had the Ricordis to contend with. More significantly , perhaps, there was
a woman i n the case . Her nam e was Teresa Stolz . Bom i n Kostelec nad
Leben, nea r Prague , i n 183 4 o f a famil y o f musicians , she traine d a s a
singer i n Pragu e an d bega n he r caree r i n 185 7 a t th e Italia n oper a a t
Tbilisi; fro m ther e she passed via some of the remote r theatre s of Europe
to Rio d e Janeiro and London and in 1864 established herself in the Italian
circuit. She scored a notable succes s in a revival of Giovanna d'Arco a t La
Scala the following year. But i t was not unti l the Italia n première of Do n
Carlos i n 186 7 tha t sh e entered Verdi' s orbit . Mariani , a t first unenthu-
siastic, waxed lyrical over her Elisabetta and still more ove r her Amelia in
Un bailo in maschera in Genoa early in 1868 . ('The range and beauty of her
voice, the artistry with which sh e inflects it, sentiment, mastery of line—
all perfect, sublime.')4 Later that year she and Mariani became engaged.
45
AGV, III, p. 234 .
46,. .,
Ibid., p . 174 .
IO2 • VERD I
Exactly when sh e began t o interes t Verdi i s not clear . It may be sig -

nificant that he was reluctant to invite Giuseppina to the rehearsals of the
revised Forza del destino in which Teresa Stolz was singing Leonora: hence
her desolating letter a fortnight before the première ( ' . .. when last Spring
my heart counselled me boldly to introduce mysel f to Clarina Maffei an d
to Manzon i s o as to com e hom e bearin g al l sorts o f things yo u woul d
like—when we took that trip together t o Milan and visited Manzoni and
sailed along the lake and the consequenc e of it was to bring you back to
the land of your earl y triumphs, little did I foresee th e strang e and cruel
outcome, tha t I should b e disowne d thus.. . May God forgiv e you th e
sharp an d humiliatin g woun d yo u hav e dealt me'). 47 I n hi s mid-fifties
Verdi doubtles s resented the encroachment s of middle ag e after a youth
which had been far from care-free. Giuseppina had aged before her time .
Teresa Stolz , plum p an d equable , ma y no t hav e bee n outstandingl y
beautiful o r clever , bu t sh e ha d tw o assets : vitalit y an d a n instinctive
feeling fo r th e interpretatio n o f Verdi's music , allie d t o a n impeccabl e
technique t o whic h other s bor e witnes s besides the infatuate d Mariani .
How natura l to regret that she should have been thrown awa y on anyone
as trivial as the conductor , wh o ha d the unfai r advantag e of being eigh t
years younger than himself! Only by some such reasoning can one explain
Verdi's extraordinary behaviour to a close friend of twelve years standing.
The firs t occasio n of discord originate d i n th e deat h o f Italy's senio r
composer, Rossini , i n November 1868 . Preparations for commemorat -
ing th e anniversar y were planne d for both Pesaro , wher e h e wa s born,
and Bologna wher e h e was brought up . The programm e fo r Pesaro was
put in the charge of Mariani, its centrepiece being Cherubim's Requie m
in D minor . Fo r Bologna Verd i conceive d fro m th e star t a much mor e
imposing plan—t o commissio n fro m th e senio r composer s o f the da y a
composite Requiem , t o whic h eac h woul d contribut e a piece ; th e
composers to be chosen and the pieces allocated by a committee o f which
Giulio Ricord i woul d ac t a s secretary. Verdi himsel f expresse d a pref-
erence fo r the 'Libér a me' . Th e pla n was approved an d th e composer s
duly selected, more, it would seem, for their learning and familiarity with
the sacre d styl e tha n fo r thei r distinction ; bu t Verd i professe d himsel f
satisfied. By the end of the summer the various pieces, including Verdi's,
47
WMV,pp. 404-5.
had been composed; onl y Mercadante and Petrella had declined, th e first
because o f age and blindness, the secon d bein g full y occupie d wit h th e
composition o f a n oper a o n Manzoni' s / promessi sposi fo r th e cit y o f
Lecco. The conducto r was to be Mariani, an obvious choice since he had
a contrac t with th e Teatr o Comunale , Bologna . H e himsel f expresse d
doubts abou t the adequac y of the theatr e choru s for a solemn religiou s
work; and when Verdi declared his intention o f coming to Pesaro to hear
the forces assembled for the Cherubini Requiem, 'yo u can imagine ho w
happy that would make me', he wrote; 'come , come and come!'4 Littl e
did he expect the withering letter that was already on its way to him. 'You
can slumber in peace as I've already decided that I can't come to Pesaro.'
Then a furious diatribe .
Do yo u mea n t o say that we hav e t o beg you t o be allowed the choru s tha t
you have at Pesaro? . .. I have never known whether the project o f a Mass in
honour o f Rossini ha s had th e goo d fortun e t o mee t wit h you r approval .
When it' s a matter no t o f personal interes t bu t o f art an d o f the lustr e an d
glory o f one's own countr y the n a good deed need s nobody' s approval... It
becomes a fact o f history no t of musical charlatanism . .. What does it matter
if it doesn' t satisf y suc h an d suc h a composer' s vanit y o r suc h an d suc h a n
•» i 4- 9
artist s arrogance?...
and more to the same effect. I n a deeply wounded reply, Mariani pointed
out that he had never suggested that the Commission shoul d beg him for
the Pesar o chorus , whic h wa s no t hi s anyway , bu t ha d merel y bee n
assembled fo r th e occasion . 'Knowin g as I do th e choru s o f the Teatr o
Comunale, I only asked you whether th e Commission intende d to make
use of it or put ou t a call to all the Italian music schools instead... Write
me just a line to tell me that I just expressed myself badly in my previous
letters.' But n o lin e came . Indeed, a letter of Verdi to Giuli o Ricord i i s
even more explicit : 'Marian i writes to me from Pesar o that he will have
a marvellous chorus. After havin g told m e o f its wonders, h e say s with a
certain air , "Wha t wil l th e Mila n Commissio n d o t o procur e it? " T o
anyone wh o know s hi s Latin thi s sentenc e shoul d be translated , "Yo u
will need to come to me to get anything good done... " It's as well that
48
Ibid. , pp. 353-4-
49
LCC, pp. 210-3.
IO4 • V E R D I
the Commissio n shoul d know tha t H e wil l neve r b e mor e tha n luke -
warm about this Mass of ours because he wasn't th e promote r o f it and
still more becaus e the Commissio n di d not assig n hi m a piece to com -
pose.'50 All totally untrue.
Whether or not Verdi had intended to provoke Mariani into resigning
as conductor-designate o f the Mas s was rendered of academic interest by
a scathin g letter fro m th e impresari o Scalaberni whic h appeare d in th e
Monitore d i Bologna. He ha d never undertaken, he said, to lend his forces
for th e performanc e of the Rossin i Mass ; he wa s not ric h an d he ha d a
family of six to feed from the proceeds of the operati c season; nor di d he
see why he would put himself out for an event from which the best of the
younger composers—an d h e instance d Boito, Faccio , DalTArgine, an d
Marchetti—had been excluded . Of course , the cit y council o f Bologna
could easil y have indemnified Scalaberni if their hear t had bee n i n th e
project; but i t was not. Under it s mayor, Gamillo Casarini, the cit y had
prided itsel f o n it s modernity i n matter s cultural. Feeler s were alread y
being pu t ou t toward s Wagner, th e right s t o whos e musi c ha d bee n
acquired b y Francesc o Lucca, Ricordi' s rival . I n 187 1 th e Teatr o Co -
munale would hous e th e first performance of a Wagner oper a i n Italy,
namely Lohengrin. By comparison the Rossin i Mas s must have seemed a
very antiquated affair, on e o f its contributors, Carlo Coccia, being older
than the deceased . Not darin g openly to oppose a scheme promoted b y
Italy's foremost living composer, th e counci l allowe d i t to ru n int o th e
sand. Giulio Ricordi urged Mariani to write officially t o the city council
to reverse the decision ; but thi s the conductor , indecisiv e as ever, coul d
not brin g himsel f t o do . No w a t las t Verd i ha d a plausible reason fo r
rounding o n hi s old friend. 'Th e Bologna affai r wa s an ugly business for
many people and also for my distinguished friend Mariani' , Verdi wrote
to Clarin a Maffei , 'wh o neve r move d a finge r i n a matte r which I so
strongly recommended t o him . I n my view th e Milan Commissio n has
no other duty than to return the pieces to their respective composers and
say no more abou t it.'51 This was indeed done , thoug h i t was not quite
the en d o f th e matter , fo r th e fai r copie s remained i n th e archive s o f
the Cas a Ricordi, and from time to tim e th e Commissio n considere d a
5
°MPMV, pp. 562-3.
5I
LPB, II, pp. 527-8 .
performance i n Milan if only a suitable occasion could be found . Verdi

was unenthusiasti c ('Can th e ne w Mas s stand up t o thos e o f Mozart ,
Cherubini etc.. . to th e Stabat, t o th e Petite Messe? Yes ? Giv e it . No ?
Then Pax vobiscum.') bu t had no wish to stand in the Commission's way.
In the event, th e Mass would remai n untouched until resurrected at the
Stuttgart Festiva l of 1988 .
Later, t o Giuli o Ricord i again , 'I'v e learne d m y lesso n ove r th e
Rossini-Mass an d I wil l neve r ge t mixe d u p i n musica l affair s wher e
Mariani i s involved.' 52 T o Arrivabene : 'H e ha s faile d t o d o wha t h e
ought t o hav e done bot h a s a friend an d a n artist.' 53 Bewildere d b y th e
thunderous silence from S . Ágata, Mariani turned first to Corticelli, then
to Carl o De l Signore , a mutua l frien d an d neighbou r a t Genoa . Re -
luctantly Verd i agreed t o a meeting i n De l Signore' s presence; and th e
correspondence wa s resumed, cool o n Verdi' s part, cringing and fearfu l
on Mariani's. In the summer of 1870 Mariani, tormented by symptoms of
the illness that would kill him three years later, wrote of a visit to Loreto
where 'wh o knows whether Madonn a will manage to cure me'. 54 Th e
reply, bruta l an d would-b e satirical , came no t fro m Verd i bu t fro m
Corticelli; incredibly , a draf t o f i t ca n b e foun d in Giuseppina' s hand.
Whether she was revenging herself for those months when th e intimacy
of Verdi and Mariani seemed to exclude herself; whether she blamed him
for bringin g Teres a Stol z int o thei r lives ; o r whethe r he r misplace d
confidence i n Corticell i allowe d hi m t o poiso n he r agains t him, Giu -
seppina had developed a dislike of Mariani of which he himself was quite
unaware. Indeed it would be a long time before he could bring himself to
believe that Verdi ha d finished wit h hi m altogether .
52
AGV, III, p. 311 .
53
AVI, pp. 114-15.
54
WMV, p. 364.
C H A P T E R E I G H T
The Dark Decade
N O SOONE R WA S TH E PREMIER E O F TH E REVISE D FORZA DE L

destino over than Verdi was beset with suggestions for new opera s
by Perrin , D u Lóele , Giuli o Ricordi an d others. H e wa s loth t o tr y his
luck i n Pari s again fo r reasons which he explaine d t o D u Lóele :
In your theatres there are too many savants. Everyone wants to judge by the
yardstick of his own insights , his own taste s and, what is worse, accordin g t o
a system, without takin g into accoun t the characte r and the individualit y of
the author . Everyone wants to giv e a n opinion, expres s a doubt an d i f the
author lives for a long time in that atmosphere of doubts, he can't help in the
long ru n bein g rathe r shake n in hi s conviction s an d h e wil l en d b y cor -
recting and adjusting and , to put i t better, spoiling hi s work. A t any rate he
will hav e o n hi s hand s no t a n oper a whic h i s all of a piec e bu t a mosaic,
however fine.. . Certainl y n o on e woul d den y Rossini' s genius ! An d ye t
despite tha t genius i n Guillaume Tell yo u ca n sens e that fatal atmospher e o f
the Opéra and sometimes, thoug h more rarely than in other composers, you
can fee l a little too muc h here, no t enoug h ther e an d that the cours e of the
music isn' t a s sure and fre e a s in // barbiere.
However, h e di d not rul e ou t th e possibilit y o f writing fo r th e Opér a

Comique of which Du Lóele was now manager, if he could find a subjec t
to his liking. Sardou's Patrie had some fine situations but th e characte r of
1
LCC, pp . 219-22.
106
The Dark Decade • 10 7
the prim a donn a wa s unsympathetic . Froufrou b y Meilha c an d Halév y

was grippin g fo r th e firs t thre e act s bu t fel l of f badly i n th e las t two .
Dumas' Acte et Néron was sent for, together wit h a French translation of
Wagner's pros e work s ('sinc e I wan t t o ge t t o kno w tha t sid e o f hi m
too') bu t was in the end rejected; on hearing which Giuli o Ricordi tried
to temp t Verd i with th e librett o o n th e subjec t o f Nero tha t Boito was
preparing fo r hi s ow n use ; but thoug h Boit o ha d n o objection , agai n
Verdi dre w back . Meantim e h e aske d Ricord i t o obtai n fro m Madri d
Gutierrez's Catalan vengeance and Zorilla' s El zapatero ed el rey.
Yet th e stimulu s to compose agai n came fro m a n unexpected source .
In November 186 9 the Khedive of Egypt planned to open a new theatre
in Cair o a s part o f the celebration s attendin g th e openin g o f th e Sue z
Canal. A keen admirer of Verdi, he invited him to compose an inaugural
hymn; an d Verdi , followin g hi s usua l rule , declined . Bu t havin g suc -
cessfully launched an operatic season with Rigoletto conducted by Muzio,
the Khediv e hope d fo r a ne w wor k fro m Verdi' s pe n o n a n Ancien t
Egyptian subjec t for th e followin g year . He wa s encouraged i n thi s by
August Mariette , a French Egyptologis t i n th e Vice-rega l service , wh o
saw in the project a long-desired tri p to Paris at his employer's expense in
order t o giv e exper t advic e on th e costumes . H e ha d a n ally in hi s old
friend Camill e Du Lóel e to whom he outlined the plot he had in mind .
During th e winte r o f 1869—7 0 D u Lóel e mad e a n attemp t t o engag e
Verdi's interest; but it was not until April that Verdi took the bait, having
read a synopsis to which was attached a letter to the effect tha t Gounod o r
Wagner migh t b e interested if he himself was not. Who , h e wanted t o
know, wa s the author ? Clearly someone wit h theatrica l experience. D u
Lóele refused t o sa y but hinte d tha t might b e a person of high ran k (i.e.
the Khediv e himself) , s o creating a false mystery which has lasted almost
to this day. For the plot was Mariette's and nobody else's. Verdi signed a
contract t o writ e th e ne w oper a for performance at Cairo earl y in 1871 ;
Giulio Ricordi signalled his joy i n an extravagantly hilarious cartoon; and
so Aida wa s born .
From th e star t D u Lóel e ha d offere d himsel f as a disinterested inter-
mediary, preparing a 'treatment' for which h e could expect no advantage
since the opera would be given in Italian. This was in turn broken dow n
2
PUVD, p. 86.
IOS • V E R D I
into recitative , scen a an d forma l numbe r b y Verd i himsel f wit h Giu -

seppina's help . Th e resultan t tex t was handed t o Ghislanzon i fo r versi-
fication. Th e correspondenc e tha t survive s betwee n compose r an d
librettist is mostly on Verdi's side but i t paints a remarkably vivid picture
of th e opera' s genesi s an d i n particula r th e blen d o f traditionalism an d
innovation which gives Aida it s special character . Thus of the terzettin o
in Act I :
It will be better to do without th e first lines so as not t o give Aida too muc h
to say , and I don't car e for Amneris' threats.
Of the hymn:
I would like Radames an d Amneris to have a real part in the scene, avoiding
those two asides which are always ineffective... Amneris could grab a sword,
a flag , o r som e othe r piec e o f devilr y an d addres s her verse s t o Radames ,
warm, loving , war-like .
Of the consecratio n scene:
The character s don't alway s say what they ought to say and the priests aren't
sufficiendy priestly . It seems to me too tha t the 'parol a scenica' is lacking, or
if it's ther e it's burie d beneat h th e rhym e o f the lin e an d therefore doesn' t
emerge cleanl y and clearl y as it should .
Of th e duet s in Act III :
I se e tha t yo u ar e afrai d o f tw o things : o f certain , I woul d say , theatrical

audacities an d o f no t writing cabalettasl I alway s believe i n writin g cabaletta s
when th e situation demand s it. Those o f the two duet s are not require d b y
the situation, and in particular that of the due t between fathe r an d daughter
seems t o m e ou t o f place. In he r stat e of terror an d moral prostratio n Aid a
cannot an d mus t not sin g a cabaletta.
He was particularly detailed in his metrical requirements—a far cry from

the days when he professed himsel f agreeable to whatever metre the poet
chose.3
3
For Verdi's letters to A. Ghislanzoni see LCC, pp. 638—75, chronology revised in P. Gossett,
'Verdi, Ghislanzoni and Aida: the Use s of Convention', Critical Inquiry i/ 2 (Decembe r 1974.),
pp. 291—334 . Fo r some of Ghislanzoni's replies see BVA.
Preparations fo r th e castin g began i n th e autumn , no t onl y fo r th e

première i n Cair o bu t fo r th e firs t performanc e i n Ital y thre e month s
later. Fo r Cair o Verd i wante d Muzi o a s conductor, an d shrugge d of f
Mariani's final, pathetic attempt to put himself at the composer's service.
('Once before you wrote t o m e tha t you woul d lik e t o g o with m e t o
Egypt; I told yo u I wasn't going . I f I had though t fi t yo u shoul d g o i n
my plac e I woul d hav e asked you. Th e fac t tha t I didn' t i s proof tha t
I didn't fin d i t convenient an d therefore I've give n th e job t o someon e
else.')4
But al l such plan s wer e fo r th e presen t t o b e frustrate d b y politica l
events. I n July 187 0 th e Frenc h declare d wa r o n Prussia , onl y t o b e
defeated wit h a swiftness whic h surprise d the whol e o f Europe. Verdi' s
attitude t o th e Frenc h ha d bee n ambivalent ; bu t th e presen t crisi s
found him a staunch Francophile. 'In the last resort', he wrote t o Clarina
Maffei, 'Franc e gave freedom and civilisation to the modern world . An d
if she falls, don' t le t u s delude ourselves , all our libertie s an d civilisation
will fal l wit h her . B y all means let our statesme n and men o f letters sing
praises to the knowledge, science , and, God forgive them, the art of these
conquerors, but i f they looked a little more closely , they would se e that
the blood o f the ancien t Goths flows in their veins... Men o f head but
no heart.' 5 An d t o Arrivaben e 'Ah , th e North ! It's a country, a people
that terrif y me. ' H e an d Giuseppina wrote letter s of commiseration t o
the D u Locles , no w thei r clos e friends . Fro m hi s commissionin g fe e
for Aida Verdi se t aside 2,000 franc s fo r th e benefi t o f the wounde d a t
Sedan. With the rest he authorised Du Lóel e to buy Italian governmen t
stock o n his behalf, the certificate s o f which h e was free to us e as surety
for hi s own managemen t o f the Opér a Comiqu e ( a thoroughly unwis e
decision a s it turne d out) . B y Novembe r th e Frenc h capita l was under
siege and with i t the scenery and costumes for Aida; and it soon becam e
clear tha t th e opera' s premièr e woul d hav e t o b e deferre d t o th e fol -
lowing winter . Verdi took advantag e of the extra time allowed t o make
one o r two modification s and additions which include d th e romanz a in
Act III , 'O patria mia'.
4
LCV, II , p. 34 -
5
LPB, II, pp. 528-9.
6
AVI, p . 121 .
HO•VERDI
In the meantime he was free to turn his attention to two major events
in Italy' s musi c life . I n th e winte r o f 187 0 Mercadant e died , leavin g
vacant th e directorshi p o f th e Conservator y o f Naples . Florim o a t
once wrot e t o Verdi inviting him on behalf of the teaching staff to take
up th e post . Fo r variou s reason s Verdi refused ; h e ha d a home i n th e
North whic h h e ha d n o intentio n o f leaving; h e neede d hi s indepen-
dence in order to compose ; wherea s to carry out hi s theories of musical
education woul d requir e constan t surveillanc e o n hi s part. H e wa s all
for basi c grounding , constan t exercis e i n fugu e an d counterpoin t ac -
companied by a wide stud y of literature. He conclude d with an epigram
that was to become al l too famou s for Verdi's own likin g 'Torniamo al-
l'antico e sar à u n progresso ' (Le t us return t o th e past ; it wil l b e a step
forward).7
He di d however reluctantl y consent t o for m part o f a committee o n
the refor m o f the conservatorie s which sa t during th e earl y months o f
1871 in Florence, capital of the new Italy since 186 4 and soon to give way
to Rome. As one who ha d little use for official seat s of learning his views
can hardly have carried much weight. Indeed he wrote vi a Piroli t o th e
then Ministe r o f Educatio n tha t h e wa s for leavin g th e conservatorie s
as they were o n th e somewha t illogical ground tha t they never taugh t a
composer what mattered and such of their alumni—Bellini or Rossini—
as achieved greatnes s did so in spite of the training they had received. H e
urged th e ministe r rathe r t o subsidis e the theatres—withou t result . I n
the nex t decad e th e theatre s would languish , whil e th e conservatorie s
prospered and the study of modern, ultramontan e musi c which Verd i so
much deplore d woul d flourish.
The performanc e o f Lohengrin i n Novembe r 187 1 struc k a decisiv e
blow for the modernists as well a s marking a new stag e in the wa r of th e
publishers. Fo r year s th e advantag e ha d lai n wit h Ricordi , wh o ha d
secured the rights of all the leadin g Italian composers o f the day . Lucca
had nothing more impressive to show than three operas by Verdi of which
only Attila made him any money. Bu t the growing popularity of foreign
opera combined wit h Tito Ricordi's indolence to turn the tide in Lucca's
favour. The acquisitio n of Wagner's rights was his last and greatest coup.
He die d shortl y afterwards ; bu t hi s business was carried o n b y th e un -
7
LCC, pp . 232—3 .
Rocca d i Busset o
Antonio Barezzi Verdi i n 184 3

Rigoletto: original se t design fo r Act I, scen e 2 by Giuseppe an d Pietro Bertoj a
II trovatore: original se t design fo r Act II, scen e i by Giuseppe and Pietr o Bertoj a
Temistocle Soler a Francesco Mari a Piav e
Verdi rehearsin g U n bail o i n mascher a Antonio Ghislanzon i

Teresa Stol z Teresa Stol z a s Aida
Verdi an d Boito a t Sant' Ágat a
Giulio Ricordi
Giuseppina Streppon i Verdi in old ag e
Verdi, wit h L a Scala i n th e backgroun d
The Dark Decade -ill
remitting energy of his widow—uneducated but shrewd and with a heart

as larg e a s her larg e fram e (sh e would b e a mothe r t o th e disreputabl e
Petrella no les s than to th e delicat e ailing Catalani). More tha n a match
for Tit o Ricordi, sh e found a n adversary worthy o f her stee l in hi s son
Giulio, t o who m mor e an d more o f the firm' s busines s was being en -
trusted. The trim, spare, little man with spade-shaped beard surmounting
a wing collar who figure s in so much of the late Verdian iconography was
already a dynamic forc e i n Italy' s musical life.
A write r o f graceful , measure d prose , a shar p morden t satirist , a fluent ,

elegant composer, any one who ha d dealings with him realise d at once that
they had to d o with a superior intellect... In his study there was a constant
procession o f composers , librettists , singers , conductor s agent s an d impre-
sarios. His manner was rather reserved with something in it of the aristocrat
o
and th e soldier .
Such is the descriptio n given by a contemporary of 'Sör Giüli ' as he was

known t o hi s Milanes e intimates . No t al l hi s prognose s wer e prove d
correct; hi s earl y backin g o f Massene t rathe r tha n Bize t wa s clearl y a
mistake. But posterit y has confirmed hi s estimate of Puccini who m h e
'discovered' an d t o who m h e hel d fas t a t a time when hi s compatriots
were convince d tha t Italy' s future la y with Mascagn i and hi s followers.
Despite his years he obtained a far greater measure of Verdi's confidence
than eithe r his father o r hi s grandfather before him.
An assiduou s reade r o f Ricordi' s Gazzetta Musicale ai Milano Verd i
went t o a performance of Lohengrin in a mood of mistrust, having been
further irritate d b y th e publicit y tha t ha d attende d th e premièr e ('Lo -
hengrenades',9 a s he woul d cal l it) . Characteristically , Ricordi' s agen t
made Verdi' s presenc e known i n th e theatre— a fac t whic h ca n hardly
have ha d a beneficial effec t o n th e performance . Verdi meanwhil e jot -
ted dow n hi s impression s o n a cop y o f th e libretto . Muc h h e liked ,
including suc h details as the combinatio n o f cor anglais and bass clarinet
that accompanie s Lohengrin's warning. Bu t hi s summing u p wa s luke-
warm: 'Fine music where it's clear and there are ideas. The actio n moves
slowly as do the words. Hence boredom . Fin e instrumental effects . To o
o
G. Depanis , I Concerti Popolari e d U Teatro Regio d i Torino (Turin , 1914) , I , p . 175 .
9
AGV, III, p. 518 .
112 • V E R D I
many sustained notes so that it becomes heavy.' 10 Yet in time he was to

warm toward s Lohengrin, fo r Verdi' s horizon s neve r cease d expandin g
with age .
Aida wa s now schedule d for December i n Cair o an d for February in
Milan. Castin g fo r th e firs t wa s in th e hand s of Draneht Bey (i n fact a
Greek Cyprio t wh o ha d change d hi s family nam e o f Pavlidis); fo r th e
second i n th e car e o f Giuli o Ricordi . Neve r wa s Verdi s o difficul t t o
please. As Muzio wa s no longe r availabl e Draneht attempte d t o engag e
Mariani togethe r wit h hi s fiance e o n highl y lucrativ e terms . Thi s ar -
rangement wa s blocked by Verdi who wa s determined t o secure Teresa
Stolz for the Milan revival but without Mariani . He agree d however t o
the engagemen t o f Antonietta Anastasi-Pozzoni, whom h e heard on his
visit to Florence; afte r which he reverted to the idea of Mariani for Cairo,
especially sinc e h e di d no t inten d t o g o ther e himself . Bu t Mariani ,
irresolute a s always an d b y no w terrifie d o f 'hi s Maestro' , prevaricated
and finall y declined . 'A h c'es t vraimen t tro p fort ! tro p fort ! tro p fort! '
Verdi fumed . Thei r las t meetin g wa s at Bologna statio n a t th e tim e o f
Lohengrin, whe n Marian i offere d t o carr y Verdi' s ba g an d wa s curtl y
refused.
In th e en d Verd i reluctantl y agree d t o Giovann i Bottesin i a s con -
ductor a t Cairo. Bu t h e raise d interminable objection s to th e propose d
mezzo-soprano fo r th e rol e o f Amneris , Eleonor a Grossi , onl y givin g
way when hi s intransigence threatened to cos t Draneht hi s job. Fo r her
counterpart a t Mila n h e wa s reluctantly persuaded t o hav e th e youn g
Austrian Maria Waldmann, whos e talent made up for her inexperience .
The Mila n conducto r would be Franco Faccio, Mariani's assistant at the
revivals o f L a forza de l destino, wh o ha d alread y decide d t o abando n
composition i n favou r o f what was clearly his true vocation .
On 2 3 September 187 1 Teresa Stolz paid her first visit to S . Ágata to
study her part under the composer's guidance. Assuming that Giuseppina
was awar e o f th e danger , i t seem s from he r firs t lette r t o th e departe d •
visitor tha t sh e ha d decide d t o tak e th e cours e recommende d b y th e
average women's magazine : '... what I want above all is to embrace you
again an d sta y as long a s possible in your company , because I love you ,
admire you an d a m attracted by your frank , sincer e and elevate d char-
i o ¥Ibid.,
, . , p. 511 .
acter in no way tainted by the air of the coulisses... ' Ho w successful her
tactics were ove r th e nex t fe w years can only b e guessed . In he r letters
to Giuseppina , Teresa Stol z i s al l sisterl y affection. T o Verd i sh e wa s
kittenish ('Couldn't you spare a moment o f your precious sleep to com e
and sa y hell o t o u s i n th e theatre.. . Maestro yo u ar e naughtyl very
naughty'.)12 Whateve r th e truth , he r husband's attentions to th e prima
donna cause d Giuseppina much distres s for some tim e t o come . I t may
be significan t too tha t it was after he r visi t to S . Ágata that Teresa Stolz
broke of f her engagemen t t o Mariani.
The succes s of Aida i n Cairo was all that could have been wished and
earned Verdi the title of Commendatore o f the Ottoman Order. None
the les s fo r Mila n Verd i mad e a n importan t alteratio n i n th e cabalett a
that conclude s th e firs t scen e o f Ac t II . H e als o wrote a n overtur e t o
replace th e origina l prelude , a s he ha d don e wit h th e revise d Forza del
destino but, having heard it rehearsed, decided that it sounded pretentious
and tasteless . But h e neve r destroye d th e score ; s o performances have
been possible, beginning with Toscanini's in America in 1940 . Not since
Macbeth in 184 7 had Verdi taken so much trouble over every aspect of the
opera's presentation—th e performance , th e staging , th e scener y an d
costumes, eve n th e layou t of the orchestra ; an d al l his instructions had
been faithfull y carrie d out b y Giuli o Ricordi. Th e first night wa s pre -
dictably a brilliant occasion. Seat s were shared , boxes crammed . A t th e
end o f the secon d act Verdi was presented with a gem-studded sceptre
and a parchment scroll.
But h e wa s not entirel y happy . Though th e public ha d been enthu -
siastic th e critic s were captious . In th e contentiou s climat e o f the ne w
Italy where modernis m and the musi c of the future , howeve r littl e un -
derstood, ha d becom e a centra l issu e th e conventiona l aspect s o f Aida
were not entirel y welcome. Indee d Filippi considered that its mixture of
old an d ne w di d no t fus e a s well a s in Do n Carlos (i t should perhaps be
remembered that Verdi had snubbed his offer t o go to Cair o an d repor t
in rehearsals). He adde d that to deny that Verdi had been influence d by
Gounod, Meyerbee r an d Wagne r wa s lik e denyin g ligh t t o th e sun .
'Stupid criticism s and even stupide r praise; not on e nobl e idea ; n o on e
11
WMV, p. 406.
I2
AGV, III, p. 576.
114 * VERDI
who wante d t o point ou t what I was aiming at.' 13 A young man called
Prospero Bertan i wh o live d a t Reggio Emilia went t o on e o f the late r
performances and was highly dissatisfied with what he saw and heard. As
he was a 'figlio d i famiglia' wit h no independent income, th e outing had
made considerable inroads on his purse, which in all justice the composer
ought t o mak e good . H e accordingl y wrot e t o Verd i askin g him t o
refund th e price of his ticket, the return fare t o Milan and the cost of his
evening meal . Verdi wrote t o Ricord i authorising him t o pay the nec -
essary sum , exceptin g th e pric e o f th e mea l sinc e Bertan i coul d hav e
eaten before he set out. Ricordi did so and published the whole stor y in
the Gazzetta Musicale d i Milano. Bertani at once found himself the object
not onl y o f ridicule but o f opprobrium. H e wrot e agai n to Verdi com -
plaining that he had been threatened with the fate of Colonel Anviti; and
would Verdi please exonerate him. But the joke had gone far enough and
Verdi thi s tim e ignore d him . I t wa s no t th e onl y instanc e o f fatuou s
presumption. A minor composer , Vincenzo Sassaroli, challenged him to
a trial of skill; they would both compose an opera within a fixed numbe r
of days; both works would then be performed and compared. Verdi and
Ricordi chose to ignore him—a sure acknowledgment, Sassaroli thought,
of his rival's inferiority.
The influ x of new, mostly German ideas, due partly to the moral effec t
of th e Prussia n victory an d th e presenc e i n Ital y o f distinguishe d for -
eigners such as Liszt and Biilow, the continuin g artistic campaign of th e
'scapigliati' an d the wa r o f the publisher s combined t o creat e an atmo-
sphere of faction from which Verdi himself had not reached that position
of unassailabl e eminence t o b e immune . Younge r composer s such as
Catalani mad e i t clea r that they regarde d th e Bea r o f Busseto as some-
thing of a sacred monster. I t wa s a time whe n soun d reputations were
attacked and false ones created. Lohengrin, applauded at Bologna in 1871 ,
was hissed off the stage in Milan in 1873. That same year / God' by Stefano
Gobatti wa s haile d a t Bologna , no w a Lucc a stronghold , a s a nobl e
specimen o f the musi c of the future . Posterit y howeve r uphel d Verdi's
view tha t 'Gobatt i i s writing a languag e o f whic h h e simpl y ha s n o
knowledge'14 and that / God' was 'a musical abortion'. At a time when at
13
Ibid., p. 553 .
I4
AVI, pp. 166-76.
every premiere the agents of Ricordi and Lucca could be seen, as Depanis
puts it, 'lookin g dagger s at eac h other ' and controvers y rage d in the
press, persona l scanda l wa s alway s a usefu l weapon . I n Marc h 187 2
Mariani wrote to a friend fro m Genoa , 'A s for my fellow tenant I can tell
you nothing . H e i s here, bu t I have never see n him, no r d o I seek hi m
o u t . . . All I will sa y is that i f the gossi p on e hear s about hi m an d an -
other person , wh o ha s also behaved very badly towards me , wer e true ,
they woul d bot h deserv e contempt.' 15 I f suc h gossi p reache d Giu -
seppina's ears , she none th e les s continue d t o writ e cordiall y t o Teres a
Stolz and invite he r t o S . Ágata. From Novembe r t o Marc h th e Verdis
and Teres a Stol z were togethe r a t Naples for revival s of Don Carlos an d
Aida. T o D e Sanctis' s ple a tha t h e shoul d hel p t o moun t hi s lates t
works a t th e Sa n Carl o h e ha d alway s replie d tha t Naple s di d no t
have th e element s necessar y fo r th e performanc e o f wha t h e calle d
'opere d'intenzioni ' (opera s of ideas); tha t th e theatr e wa s still living in
the world o f cavatinas and cabalettas. He had refused point blank even to
allow hi s Laforza de l destino t o b e performe d there . Bu t now , havin g
ensured th e participatio n o f Teres a Stol z an d Mari a Waldmann , h e
yielded. A t the sam e time he came to De Sanctis' s assistance with a loan
of 25,000 lire free of interest, of which he was only to see 5,000 returned
to him ; fo r like man y businessme n De Sancti s had falle n victi m t o th e
recession o f the iSyo s and woul d remai n a poor man fo r the res t of his
life.
For th e performanc e o f Do n Carlos Verd i too k th e opportunit y o f
making two notable changes, one to the duet between Phili p and Posa in
Act II , th e othe r i n tha t betwee n Elisabet h and Carlo s i n Ac t V , fro m
which h e removed tw o movements. Th e change s were incorporate d i n
all subsequent editions of the vocal score until the revised edition of 1884,
so proving a rich source of confusion to scholars. But the principal fruit of
that winter in Naples was something wholly unexpected. On the evening
of i Apri l friend s o f th e compose r wer e bidde n t o th e Hote l dell e
Crocelle. There , i n th e foyer , the y foun d fou r chair s an d fou r music -
stands of an eighteenth-century desig n with candle attached. Four players
entered and without a word of explanation began to play—Verdi's String
Quartet i n E minor. To begi n wit h Verd i seems to have regarded it as a
I5
WMV, pp. 384-5.
Il6 • V E R D I
private diversion , lik e Wagner' s Siegfried Idyll; later , lik e Wagner , h e

agreed t o it s publication.
On 2 2 May, in his eighty-eighth year , his mind already clouded by the
tragic death of his son, Alessandro Manzoni died as the resul t of a fall o n
the step s of the Churc h o f San Fedele. Les s than a fortnight later Verdi
announced t o Giuli o Ricord i hi s intention o f composin g a Requiem
Mass i n hi s honour t o b e performe d o n th e anniversar y of hi s death .
Clearly thi s decisio n wa s not a s sudden a s it migh t appear . Shortly be -
fore th e Italia n première o f Aida, Alberto Mazzucat o had examined th e
Rossini Mass o n behal f of the organisin g committee wit h a view t o its
possible resurrection . Astonished and deepl y moved b y Verdi's contri -
bution, he wrote to the composer complimenting hi m on having written
'the fines t th e greates t an d th e mos t vastl y poeti c piec e o f musi c tha t
could be imagined.' * 'You r remarks', Verdi replied, 'would almost have
planted in me the desire to set the Mass in its entirety at some later date;
especially since with a little more developmen t (o f the material) I would
find tha t I' d alread y written th e Requie m an d th e Die s Ira e t o whic h
there's a back reference in th e Libera.. . But don' t worry. It' s a temp-
tation tha t will pas s like s o many others . There ar e so many Requiem
Masses; there' s n o poin t i n addin g on e more.' 17 An indication, surely,
that th e ide a o f writin g a large-scal e liturgica l compositio n ha d bee n
germinating i n hi s mind fo r som e tim e an d neede d onl y a solemn oc -
casion to bring it to fruition.
That it sprang from some deeply religious impulse is unlikely, even if it
has the spiritual quality of one who ha s reflected profoundly on first and
last things . Th e fac e tha t Verdi showe d t o hi s intimates was that o f an
agnostic. I n the year preceding Manzoni's death his Venetian friend th e
doctor and 'alienist' Cesare Vigna sent Giuseppina a copy of a treatise in
which h e had, as he thought, successfull y reconcile d religiou s fait h wit h
scientific thought . I n her repl y she could no t resis t remarking that in all
such matter s he r husban d presented th e stranges t phenomeno n i n th e
world. 'H e isn't a doctor, he's an artist; everyone agrees in granting him
the divine gift of genius: he's the soul of honesty, he understands and feels
every loft y an d delicat e sentiment , ye t wit h al l tha t thi s brigand allow s
16
LCC, pp. 242—3 .
17
Ibid., pp. 243-4.
himself t o be , I won't sa y an atheist , but certainl y no t muc h o f a be -

TK
liever—and all with a calm obstinacy that makes one want to hit him.'
Later that year to Clarina MafFei: 'ther e are some highly virtuous natures
that need to believe in God; there are others no less perfect who are quite
happy t o believ e i n nothin g a t all , whil e rigorousl y observin g ever y
precept of strict morality. Manzoni and Verdi... These two me n are for
me a real subjec t fo r meditation.' 19 Fo r Verdi , then , a s for Brahm s o r
Vaughan Williams, agnosticis m was no ba r to th e compositio n o f a re -
ligious work .
On 2 5 June Verd i lef t wit h hi s wife for Pari s to begi n wor k o n th e
Requiem. Meanwhil e anothe r deat h seem s t o hav e lef t hi m quit e un -
moved; tha t of Mariani, alon e i n hi s attic flat in th e Palazz o Sauli, afte r
weeks of excruciating pain. Only once, tw o years later, in a letter to th e
impresario Antonio Gall o d o w e fin d a n oblique reference: 'Charlatan!
How ofte n hav e I used that word to a poor fellow who i s no longer wit h
us but wa s worth al l the res t put together?' 20 Mariani is not mentione d
by name , bu t wh o els e could h e hav e meant? In Septembe r th e Verdis
were back at S. Ágata and arrangements for the performance of the Mass
were goin g ahead . The tea m o f four soloist s included th e b y no w tra -
ditionally associate d pair, Teres a Stol z an d Mari a Waldmann ; an d a t
Verdi's insistenc e the venu e was to be th e Churc h o f S. Marco, Milan ,
Verdi himsel f conducting. Th e wor k wa s completed b y 1 0 April 1874 ;
rehearsals bega n a t th e beginnin g o f May. Predictabl y ther e wa s some
opposition. Certai n member s o f th e Mila n Cit y Counci l objecte d t o
defraying th e very considerable costs of the undertakin g on the ground s
that, howeve r prestigious , th e occasio n woul d b e o f no benefi t to th e
local poor ; an d i t neede d al l Boito's eloquenc e a s a fellow-member t o
persuade the m t o chang e their minds . O n th e ev e of the performance
Hans von Bülow published in the Allgemeine Zeitung an attack on Verdi's
'latest opera , thoug h i n ecclesiastica l robes', a t whic h h e admitte d t o
having sneaked a 'furtiv e glance', 21 n o more ; bu t i t had take n away all
desire o n hi s par t t o atten d th e performance . Predictabl y thi s se t th e
I8
WMV, p. 280 .
19
Ibid., p. 282.
2
°AGV, III, pp . 764-5.
21Ibid., p. 690.
Il8 • VERD I
Italian pres s in a n uproar ; bu t th e mos t crushin g rejoinder cam e fro m

Brahms: 'Bülow has made a fool of himself for all time. Only a genius can
write somethin g lik e that.' 22
Certainly tha t wa s th e prevailin g opinio n a t th e tim e o f it s perfor -
mance; afte r whic h th e Verdi s set ou t fo r Pari s followed b y thei r tea m
of soloist s fo r seve n performance s at th e Opér a Comique : 'apparentl y
genuine success' , Verd i reporte d bot h t o hi s publishe r an d Clarin a
MafFei; an d indeed th e series could have been prolonged wer e i t not fo r
the refusal of the tenor and bass, Capponi and Maini, to exceed the terms
of thei r contracts . Escudier' s brother-in-law , Mauric e Strakosch , ha d
explored the possibility of a London performance that year but found that
the Hande l Festiva l had made it impossible to secure a good choir . No t
convinced, Verd i himsel f paid a four-day visit to Londo n a t the en d o f
June ('nobody must know of this,' he told Ricordi, 'no one, no one, no one,
no one' 23). H e wa s unimpresse d b y a Hande l Festiva l concer t a t th e
Crystal Palac e ('.. . these three o r fou r thousan d performers are just an
immense humbug.. . ');24 yet, a s before, h e liked th e capita l ('... very
curious, thi s city.. . none th e les s ver y exciting...') . Hi s immediat e
concern was to arrange for the Mass to be given the following year not at
the acousticall y unsatisfactory Crysta l Palace nor yet at one o f the oper a
theatres, which would hav e involved hi m with th e impresarios Gye and
Mapleson and their 'old crocks' 25 of singers, but i n that latest wonder o f
public engineering , th e Royal Albert Hall . Havin g arrange d thi s he re -
turned t o Pari s and the n t o S . Ágata, once mor e t o enjo y th e peac e of
country life whil e fro m tim e t o time issuing complaints or orders to th e
House o f Ricordi regardin g pas t an d futur e performance s o f th e Re -
quiem an d Aida. T o Giuseppin a fel l th e tas k o f organisin g thei r mov e
from th e Palazz o Saul i i n Geno a t o th e Palazz o Doria, whic h wa s t o
remain thei r winte r hom e fro m now on. In Novembe r Verd i had the
satisfaction o f being nominated Senator , an honour whic h n o mor e re -
quired his attendance in the Italian Parliament than does a peerage in the
British Hous e o f Lords.
22J.V. Widmann , Johannes Brahms i n Erinnerungen (Berlin , 1898) , p. 132 .

23
AGV, III , p. 700.
24Ibid., p. 703.
25
Ibid., p. 733.
During th e preparation s o f an extende d Europea n tou r o f the Re -

quiem t o tak e plac e i n th e sprin g o f 187 5 Verd i decide d t o mak e a n
important chang e i n th e score ; h e woul d tur n th e chora l fugu e o f th e
Liber scriptus into a solo for Maria Waldmann. O n reflectio n he decide d
not t o include it in the Paris performances at the Opéra Comique, partl y
because, as he told the singer , she would no t hav e had sufficient tim e t o
study it but chiefly since 'the public's first impressions are always terrible,
and eve n shoul d thi s piec e mak e it s effect , peopl e woul d say , "I t wa s
better as it was before" '.2 So it was in London where he arrived in mid-
May 1875 , afte r havin g been awarde d th e Cros s o f the Légio n d'Hon -
neur, tha t th e ne w settin g wa s firs t heard . Critica l receptio n o f th e
Requiem, conducte d by the composer in the Albert Hall on 1 5 May, was
on th e whole favourable ; bu t th e performance was poorly attende d and
the box-office receipts correspondingly low. Clearl y Verdi had reckoned
without th e Puritanism of the Victorians, who liked their liturgical music
solemn and sedate. Mawkishness they could tolerate; theatricality never.
So Verdi left Londo n i n a black mood befor e the performance s had ru n
their course , handin g ove r th e bato n t o Joseph Barnby . I n Vienna , by
contrast, success was complete and 'into the torrid zone', 27 as Giuseppina
put it. Having conducted a performance in the Hoftheater, Verdi for the
first time sinc e / masnadieri mounte d th e operati c podiu m fo r his Aida.
Later tha t yea r i n a seaso n whic h include d th e Viennes e premièr e o f
Carmen, th e revise d Tannhäuser an d th e firs t nigh t o f Goldmark' s Th e
Queen o f Sheba, th e Requie m wa s revive d i n th e composer' s absence .
Among th e audienc e wa s Richard Wagner ; bu t onl y Cosim a provide s
the evidence of his reaction to it—a work of which 'it would certainly be
_Q
best t o sa y nothing'. I n th e eye s of the Wagner s Verdi ranke d belo w
Donizetti.
A performance in Berlin was to have followed; but Tit o Ricordi had
taken frigh t a t the financial disaster of the Londo n ventur e an d had ac -
cordingly cancelle d it. On hi s return to Italy Verdi duly vented his wrath
on the unfortunate publisher, all the more forcibl y for having discovered
some irregularitie s in pas t accounts . Tito Ricord i retreate d int o illnes s
26,,..
Ibid., p . 740.
27
Ibid., p. 753 .
—O
Cosima Wagner, Diaries, trans. G . Skelton , 2 vols (London , 1978-80) , I , p. 873.

120 • V E R D I
and the mountains, leaving his son to settle matters as best he could; and
it was due bot h t o hi s ability and tact that a settlement wa s reached and
that Verdi's fears expresse d to Piroli that 'our relations can never be th e
same again' 29 were proved groundless. As usual Giuseppina had prove d
an invaluable go-between. Tirelessly active on he r husband's behalf she
was also directing th e restoration of their first Busseto home, the Palazzo
Dordoni, which she had bought from Verdi with her own money, so that
it could serve as a memorial to him. It is all the sadder, therefore, that her
peace o f mind shoul d hav e been continuall y troubled b y public gossip
of a particularly unpleasant kind.
The previou s year Pietro Scalaberni , now manager of the Pergola and
Pagliano theatre s i n Florence , applie d fo r permissio n t o perfor m th e
Requiem. Rememberin g hi s behaviour ove r th e Rossin i Mas s in Bo -
logna, Verdi refused. No w i n 187 5 one Ducci persuaded the impresario
to lease him th e Teatro Pagliano for 'four concerts'; and it was only afte r
Scalaberni had signed the agreement that he learnt that the four concerts
were fou r performance s of the Requiem . Althoug h th e 'poisonou s in -
sect' (Teresa Stolz's description) pretended not to mind, he seems to have
taken his revenge by inspiring a series of scurrilous attacks on th e prim a
donna i n successiv e issues o f th e Rivista Independente. Totall y withou t
natural gifts, th e writer declared, she had bluffed he r way into the Italian
operatic world . He r caree r ha d bee n save d fro m shipwrec k b y th e
conductor Mariani who fel l in love with her. Under his guidance she had
distinguished herself mightily i n Do n Carlos, previously thought t o have
been on e o f Verdi's weake r operas; but instea d of being grateful t o he r
mentor sh e transferre d her affection s t o Verdi ; henc e a rif t betwee n
composer and conductor, who thereafter pined and died. Then the writer
raked up an incident which ha d occurred durin g rehearsals for the Re -
quiem i n 1874 . Verd i ha d gon e t o visi t the 'rotun d an d appetizing so-
prano' i n he r hotel . Afte r hi s return h e discovere d th e los s of a walle t
containing 50,00 0 lire. Hi s first reaction was to blame the servants ; but
the missin g wallet wa s found on Teres a Stolz ' sofa , havin g slippe d ou t
during—well, th e intelligen t reade r woul d b e abl e t o hazar d his ow n
guess. Othe r revelation s wer e promise d bu t non e wer e forthcoming .
Teresa Stolz was sufficiently upse t to write to Giuseppina suggesting that
29
LCV, III, pp. 115-16.
The Dark Decade • 121
from no w o n sh e might b e d e trop a t S. Ágata. Giuseppina replie d cor -

dially assuring her tha t she would neve r be d e trop 'a s long as you an d w e
remain the honourable and loyal people that we are'. But the proviso was
not a mer e for m o f words . Giuseppin a wa s indee d worried ; an d th e
following year in Paris her fear s see m to have precipitated some sort of a
crisis. In the draf t o f a letter to her husband she complains that since 1872
there have been 'febrile periods of assiduity and attention' in his relations
with La Stolz. 'If there's nothing i n it... be calmer in your attentions...
Remember that I, your wife while despising past rumours am living at this
very moment à trois and that I have the right to ask if not fo r your caresses
at least for your consideration.'30 How an d in what manner the crisis was
surmounted with Teresa Stol z remaining a friend of the family—thi s lik e
so many of the more intimate details of Verdi's life has remained sedulously
shrouded fro m posterity . Clearly , however, i t wa s not just a passing in-
fatuation o n Verdi' s part ; and th e consciousnes s that sh e was having t o
share he r husban d certainly too k it s toll o f Giuseppina' s spirits over th e
years that followed, as is evident from her diarie s and her correspondence .
Indeed, 1876 , the year which sa w the realisatio n of Wagner's wildes t
dreams in th e openin g o f the Bayreut h Festspielhaus , was an especially
black one for Verdi. In March he travelled once again to Paris to rehearse
the firs t productio n of Aida a t the Theatr e de s Italiens now manage d by
Escudier with Muzi o a s conductor. No w fo r the first time a rift opened
between Verd i and his French publisher. The immediat e caus e was the
poor spectacle. ('What I said yesterday in a moment o f rage I now repea t
in utterl y cold blood: / shall no t come to the theatre unless I can be materially
certain that th e scenic indecencies o f the fourth ac t are put right.'') 31 The n came
the matte r o f the translation . Escudier, as his contract with Pvicord i al -
lowed hi m t o do , ha d commissione d a Frenc h versio n fro m Nuitte r
which Verd i found metrically correct bu t thoroughl y ba d as regards the
relation between music and action. He himself meanwhile was preparing
with Nuitter' s hel p a new on e whic h migh t no t b e very beautiful sty -
listically bu t woul d a t leas t brin g ou t th e musica l and dramati c sense .
A somewhat acrimoniou s correspondenc e followed between Verd i and
his two publishers which ende d with a new agreement being struck with
3
°WMV, pp. 427-32.
3I
BVA, p. 397.
122 • VERD I
Escudier in the presence of two witnesses, according Verdi full translation

rights an d a mor e favourabl e shar e o f Escudier's hir e fees . Fortunatel y
Aida a t the Théâtr e de s Italiens was a success, so too anothe r Requie m
at th e sam e venue; so , still more gratifyingly , wa s another performanc e
of the quarte t before a large invited audienc e at the Hotel de Bade; and
Verdi at last made up his mind to have it published. One matte r however
had remaine d unsettle d when Verd i lef t Pari s in earl y June. Befor e his
arrival ther e h e ha d informed Du Lóel e by letter tha t h e wished t o re -
cover the 48,000 lire which he had deposited with him in 1870 , togethe r
with the accumulated interest. Du Lóele had promised faithfully t o make
restitution, then had pleaded ill health to excuse the delay. The trut h was
that under his management the Opéra Comiqu e had fared poorly and the
fiasco of Carmen the previous year had ensured bankruptcy. Verdi arrived
in Pari s t o fin d th e theatr e closed , D u Lóel e himsel f o n th e hig h sea s
recovering fro m a breakdown, an d onl y a tearful Mari e Du Lóel e about
to separate from her husband on the ground s of being a burden t o him .
But he did not despair of getting his money back. He applied first of all to
Emile Perrin , D u Locle' s father-in-law , no w i n charg e at the Comédi e
Française; but i t was not a debt for which Perrin was prepared to assume
responsibility. Verdi' s next mov e wa s to write t o a wealthy aunt of Du
Locle's, th e Comtess e Mollien , fro m who m th e poe t migh t on e da y
expect t o inherit . Mari e D u Lóele , however , ha d Verdi' s letter s inter -
cepted on the grounds that the payment of so large a sum would deprive
her childre n o f th e mean s o f subsistence . Eventually Verd i too k lega l
proceedings agains t Du Lóele . The cas e was announced fo r August; but
there is no recor d o f its having come to court. Presumabl y some kind of
settlement was reached beforehand.
No on e ha d bee n mor e zealou s in Verdi' s caus e than Escudier ; bu t
soon he too fell once more into disgrace. News reached Verdi of slipshod
revivals o f Aida a t the Théâtr e de s Italiens, not t o mention th e failur e i n
October of the first performance in France ofLaforza de l destino; worst of
all Escudier was unable to pay Verdi according to the terms of their ne w
agreement. 'Amon g you r man y an d complicate d affairs' , Verd i wrot e
with ominou s sarcasm , 'you wil l certainl y have forgotten on e whic h is
tiny, indeed a mere bagatelle . . .> 3 2 Like Du Lóel e before him Escudier
32
AGV, IV, p. 29.
could onl y promise ; fo r the followin g yea r the Theatr e des Italiens also
went bankrupt ; an d a stingin g lette r fro m Verd i pu t a n en d t o thei r
friendship, thoug h no t t o thei r busines s dealings; fo r h e remaine d th e
publisher for the Frenc h Aida o f 1880 .
Finally it was the turn of De Sanctis to default on the interest-free loan
that Verd i had mad e him ; an d fro m the n o n onl y Giuseppin a was pre -
pared to maintai n th e contac t that the Verdis ' position a s godparents t o
his son demanded. Meanwhile death , as well as debt, was starting to take
its toll o f Verdi's friends. That of Piave i n Marc h ha d been a happy re -
lease from eigh t years of a vegetable existence. More unexpecte d was the
death o f the sculptor , Vincenzo Luccardi , the oldes t o f Verdi's Roman
friends. 'H e was so nimble, s o active and cheerfu l whe n I saw him las t
year', Verd i wrote t o Piroli . 'Wha t i s life? Al l those efforts , desires , as-
pirations, the n suddenly.. . death.'33 H e wa s also saddened by th e po -
litical scene in Italy, which sa w the fal l o f the government s of the Pvigh t
and wit h i t th e exclusio n o f friend s suc h a s Piroli fro m Parliament . I n
foreign affair s i t wa s t o se e a progressiv e movin g awa y fro m Franc e
towards Germany which would culminat e in the Triple Alliance of 1882.
The on e gleam of light tha t remained to console th e compose r from an
otherwise sombre year was the graduation with honour from her colleg e
of his adopted daughte r Fifao and her engagement to Dr Alberto Carrara
of Busseto—'just th e kind of husband we coul d hav e wished fo r her',34
Verdi told his friends. ' I could never have wanted her to marry above her
station.' The followin g year they were married. Fifao would be a mother
before sh e was twenty .
In January 187 7 Verdi receive d a n invitation fro m Ferdinan d Hiller,
Director o f the Lowe r Rhin e Festival , to conduc t hi s Requiem a t th e
Festival of Cologne in May. A friend of Rossini and Mendelssohn, Hille r
had at one time been viewed wit h mistrust by Verdi who suspecte d him
of contempt fo r the contemporar y Italian tradition. I n the even t he was
to find him remarkably sympathetic. He to o deplore d th e Germanisin g
tendency o f th e younge r Italian s a s well a s the mor e bizarr e flight s o f
fancy o f hi s ow n countrymen . True , th e Verdi s wer e no t stron g o n
German; an d Verd i himsel f complaine d o f th e appearanc e o f Germa n
33
LCV, III , pp . 121-2.
34
Ibid., p. 120.
124 * V E R D I
grammars o n th e tabl e a t mealtimes week s before thei r departure . Th e

occasion itsel f was outstandingly successful . Th e larg e but ver y efficien t
amateur chorus presented him with an ivory baton with a golden handle ;
the ladie s of the cit y gave hi m a crown o f silver an d gold , an d th e or -
ganisers o f the festiva l a huge albu m containin g view s o f the Rhin e b y
one o f their leading painters. George Henschel , wh o san g the bas s solo ,
had very pleasant recollections o f the compose r who m he remembere d
as 'ver y tacitur n for an Italian.' 35 The loca l quarte t performe d his one
composition i n tha t medium ; an d h e hear d a quantit y o f chora l an d
chamber music which impresse d him greatly. His friendship with Hille r
which laste d unti l Miller' s deat h i n 188 5 wa s t o prov e th e revitalisin g
spark in a creative career which seeme d t o have run its course. Topics of
discussion included the political events of both countries , such questions
as who wer e the best singing teachers, the unexpected emergenc e o f two
English composers, Frederick Cowen and Arthur Goring Thomas ('How
nice i t would b e if that natio n tha t neve r has been musica l should no w
join hand s wit h u s . . . '3 , Verd i wrote. ) Hille r sen t t o Verd i hi s own
Rebecca a t the Well whic h Verd i foun d admirable . The surpris e occurre d
when Hille r told hi m o f his intention o f setting a de profundis i n Dante' s
translation. 'The beauty of it is', Verdi replied, 'that I too had the idea last
winter o f settin g tha t very psalm , bu t happil y I change d m y min d an d
decided t o set the Paternoster for five voices in Dante's ow n translation:' 37
the first indication that Verdi was beginning, however modestly , to com -
pose again.
None of this was apparent to hi s friends. Th e Verd i o f the lat e 1870 5
remained the sam e incorrigible grumbler . Aske d by Faccio for his advice
on compiling a programme fo r the orchestra of La Scala to perform at the
Paris Exhibition o f 1878, he refused t o offe r suggestions since he though t
that th e entir e ventur e wa s ill-conceived; though h e was agreeably sur -
prised by subsequent reports from the Frenc h press. Unable t o compre-
hend th e recession that pervaded the European economy a t the time, he
was distresse d b y it s effects—th e povert y o f th e peasants , th e sign s o f
unrest tha t the governmen t wa s attempting t o quel l by a show offeree ;
35
G. Henschel , Musings and Memories o f a Musirían (London , 1918) , p . 166 .
36
LCV, II, p. 342 .
37
Ibid., pp. 330-1 .
The Dark Decade • 12$
the closin g o f the theatre s for lack o f a subsidy; the invasio n of foreign
works suc h as Goldmark's Queen o f Sheba ('We'r e nearly there; anothe r
step and we shall all be completely Germanized');3 the bizarrerie of
Boito's Mefistofele which was being praised to the skies in the Gazzetta
Musicale d i Milano. (' I had alway s read and understood tha t the Prologu e
in Heaven wa s a thing of spontaneity, of genius... yet hearing how th e
harmonies o f that piece ar e almost all based on dissonance s I seemed t o
be... not i n heaven , certainly!!') 39 A s for th e variou s Orchestra l an d
Quartet Societie s tha t seeme d t o b e springin g u p everywhere , 'Some -
times I hav e a thoroughl y paltr y ide a an d I whispe r t o myself , "Bu t
suppose we i n Ital y were t o for m a vocal quarte t t o perfor m Palestrina
and his contemporaries, Marcell o etc. , wouldn' t tha t be Grea t Art?" >4°
He continue d t o trave l abroad . O n hi s retur n fro m Cologn e h e ha d
passed through Holland , whic h he found totally depressing apart from its
museums. Early in 1878 he and Giuseppina paid a two-day visi t to Mont e
Carlo and were half fascinated, half appalled by its casino. Twice that year
they went to Paris, the second time to view the International Exhibition .
In December h e was elected honorar y member o f Modena's Accademi a
di Scienze , Letter e e Arti . Non e o f thi s seeme d t o lighte n hi s mood .
When at the tur n o f the year Faccio reported t o him a highly successfu l
performance o f Do n Carlos which h e ha d conducte d a t La Scala a deep
bitterness shows in his reply. He pointed out that you cannot measure the
success o f a production merel y b y th e applaus e on th e firs t nigh t espe -
cially when, a s seems to have been the case here, the wrong piece s were
applauded.
But al l this doesn' t matter . Wha t matter s i s that attentio n shoul d b e pai d
to th e presen t conditio n o f our theatres . They ar e sick unto deat h an d they
must b e kep t aliv e a t al l costs . An d yo u an d Giuli o wh o ar e omnipoten t
must tak e care not t o fal l int o a trap with failures . Fin d opera s good o r ba d
(for th e moment , I mean) just s o long a s they dra w a n audience . Yo u wil l
say that tha t is inartistic, that it befouls the altar ; no matter , you ca n clean it
afterwards.
iR
AVI, pp . 226-33.
39
Ibid.
40
Ibid.
120 • V E R D I
Meanwhile keepin g alive is what matters. I f the theatres close they won't
open again. And i f Do« Carlos doesn't make money, put i t aside and ask for
Le Roi de Lehore, an opera of many virtues , a n oper a o f the presen t withou t
human interest , mos t suitabl e t o thi s ag e o f verismo i n whic h ther e i s n o
verity, a n almos t surefir e oper a especiall y i f you hav e th e compose r wh o
is a gentl e creature , an d no t to o difficul t an d wil l gai n th e sympath y o f
the choru s an d orchestr a an d s o o f th e public . The n h e i s a foreigner!.. .
Hospitality!... the usua l artisti c banquet! 41
But alread y the tid e of depression was on th e turn.
4I
DFV, pp. 182-5.
C H A P T E R N I N E
Indian Summer
T HE SPRIN G O F 187 9 SA W TH E DEVASTATIO N B Y FLOOD O F MANY

Italian provinces . Activ e a s alway s i n charitabl e causes , Verd i
agreed to direc t a performance in Milan o f his Requiem for the benefi t
of the victims. Teresa Stolz and Maria Waldmann cam e out of retirement
to giv e thei r services . Th e proceed s wer e gratifyingl y large ; an d th e
composer himsel f was feted b y th e Milanes e quit e beyond hi s expecta -
tions. Th e followin g evenin g h e an d his wife dine d privatel y wit h th e
Ricordis an d Faccio. 'Quite by chance', the publisher recalled, 'I steered
the conversation on to Shakespeare and Boito. At the mention o f Othello
I saw Verdi look at me with suspicion but with interest. He had certainly
understood an d ha d certainl y reacted...' 1 Nex t da y Facci o brough t
Boito t o se e Verdi with a libretto o f Otello already sketched. Verdi was
impressed bu t woul d no t commi t himself . 'Now writ e th e poetry' , h e
said; 'i t wil l alway s do fo r m e o r fo r you o r fo r someon e else. ' Indee d
there wer e man y difficultie s t o b e surmounte d befor e th e 'chocolat e
project', a s it came to be called , could b e realised. To begi n wit h Verd i
took offenc e at an extrac t fro m the sculpto r Dupré' s memoir s whic h
had appeare d i n Ricordi' s hous e magazin e quotin g Rossini' s remar k
that Verd i woul d b e incapabl e o f writing a comi c opera . H e instantl y
wrote t o th e publishe r declarin g tha t h e ha d a t las t foun d th e perfec t
subject fo r a comedy , bu t that , naturally , i f h e manage d t o se t it , h e
1
G. Adami , Giulio Ricordi, amico di musidsti (Milan , 1933) , pp . 92—3 .
127
128 • V E R D I
would offe r i t t o anothe r firm . Ricord i replie d diplomaticall y tha t h e

had not bee n responsible for that issue of the Gazzetta Musicale d i Milano
but tha t i f he wer e h e woul d certainl y hav e adde d a footnot e t o th e
effect tha t Verdi had alread y shown himsel f a master of comedy i n parts
of U n bailo i n maschera an d Laforza de l destino; an d th e compose r wa s
mollified. Bu t when at the end of August Ricordi offered t o bring Boito
to S . Ágata t o sho w hi m th e complete d libretto , Verd i dre w back . H e
could no t offe r a n opinion goo d o r bad in Boito's presence without i n
some way committing himself. The best course, he maintained, would be
for Boit o t o sen d him th e librett o b y post so that he coul d perus e it at
his leisure and then mak e up hi s mind whethe r o r no t t o set it. Fo r th e
next tw o month s Boito worke d a t the libretto ami d bouts of toothache
and facial neuralgi a spurred on by the relentles s Ricordi. By Novembe r
it was complete an d in Verdi's hands . 'He must hav e liked it' , Giusep -
pina wrote , 'fo r afte r readin g i t h e bough t it ; bu t whethe r o r no t h e
would se t it...ther e wa s n o knowing'. 2 Sh e wa s especiall y anxiou s
that no one should bring the slightest pressure to bear. ('Let the river find
its ow n wa y t o sea' , sh e wrot e t o Giuli o Ricordi ; 'it' s i n th e ope n
spaces tha t certai n me n ar e destine d t o mee t an d understan d on e an -
other.')3
Meanwhile i n Septembe r Verdi had received a visit from Vaucorbeil,
the new directo r o f the Pari s Opéra, hopin g t o succee d where hi s pre -
decessor, Halanzier , ha d faile d i n persuadin g th e compose r t o direc t
a production of Aida i n the city' s only theatr e which coul d do justice to
its spectacle. Nor wa s he disappointed. The first performance took place
on 2 2 March 1880 , Verdi having extended the ballet music to its present
definitive length; Gabrielle Krauss and a certain Victor Maurel were 'stu -
pendous' (Verdi's words) in the roles of Aida and Amonasro respectively .
The composer' s triumph was acknowledged b y his nomination a s Grand
Officer o f the Foreig n Legion . Tw o month s earlie r Vienn a ha d mad e
him an honorary member o f the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde; while o n
his return t o Italy in April the King of Italy conferred on him the tide of
Cavalière o f the Grea t Cross . Tha t sam e month his settings of the Pate r
Noster an d Av e Mari a i n a translation attribute d t o Dant e wer e give n
2
WMV, p. 476.
3
Ibid.
Indian Summer • 12 9
their première at a benefit concert at La Scala. He ha d certainly no reason

to thin k himsel f forgotten.
That summe r Boito returne d fro m directin g the English première of
his Meßstofele a t Coven t Garde n and togethe r wit h Verd i se t about re -
vising details of the libretto. Their first concern was with the finale of Act
III where Verdi had wanted a traditional concertato followed by a coup de
theatre with whic h t o brin g down th e curtain . Not findin g any help in
Shakespeare, h e suggested , rather naively, that th e ensembl e o f horro r
occasioned by Othello's striking of his wife shoul d be interrupted by the
news of a Turkish attack ; Othello would 'shak e himself like a lion' an d
lead his troops to victory while Desdemona an d the women woul d pray
for hi s saf e return . H e wa s no t altogethe r convince d o f thi s solutio n
himself and wrote to Boito asking his advice. Boito first supplied the kind
of tex t h e ha d bee n aske d for befor e proceeding wit h infinit e tac t t o
point out the flaws resulting from thi s break with Shakespeare's dramatic
scheme. I t woul d b e lik e lettin g i n fres h ai r t o a room i n whic h tw o
people wer e slowl y suffocatin g t o death . Th e fata l atmospher e woul d
have to be recreated from the start; but, he added, 'in opera eight ban can
restore a sentiment to life; a rhythm can re-establish a character.'4' If Verdi
liked th e verse s h e ha d sent , tha t mean t tha t th e musica l settin g was
already presen t i n hi s mind , an d tha t hi s ow n criticism s woul d b e si -
lenced. But Verd i was persuaded of his error an d no mor e wa s heard of
the Turkis h invasion.
However al l this was the merest groundwork. Before setting to wor k
on th e compositio n o f Otello Verdi evidently felt th e need for a trial run
with somethin g muc h les s ambitious—namel y th e revisio n an d recla -
mation of Simon Boccanegm, which ha d never satisfied th e hig h hope s he
had ha d fo r it s success. Boit o wa s unenthusiastic. He ha d no t rea d th e
play, bu t onl y Piave' s libretto, whic h h e foun d lame, like a table wit h
uneven legs . Bu t Verd i wa s firm ; th e character s were admittedl y no t
altogether 'draw n to the life'; 5 bu t ther e was still something to be made
out of men such as Boccanegra and Jacopo Fiesco. He wanted an entirely
new scene in the Council Chamber at which the Doge would read aloud
a lette r fro m Petrarc h callin g fo r unity amongst th e Italia n cities; Boito
4
MCVB, pp. 1-2.
5 Ibid., pp. 12—13 .
130 • V E R D I
amplified i t wit h th e splendi d addres s to th e peopl e o f Genoa ('Plebe !

Patrizi! Popólo') to which Verdi would respon d with som e of the finest
music he ha d written t o date . The revisions , not al l of which involve d
Boito, were finished by February 1881; and the opera was first given in its
new form on 24 March with Victor Maurel in the title role, Edouard De
Reszke a s Fiesco (despite Verdi's fears tha t his voice might b e too bland
for th e implacabl e patrician) and Francesco Tamagno as Gabriele. Much
acclaimed o n it s opening night , Simon Boccanegra prove d scarcel y more
popular in its revised than in its original form ; onl y in recent years has it
acquired the statu s o f a connoisseur's piece .
Work wa s then resume d on Otello, but the y had stil l not progresse d
beyond th e final e o f Ac t III , th e copin g ston e o f th e opera' s musica l
architecture. However, tha t Verdi had never ceased thinking abou t the
subject i s attested by hi s exchang e o f letters with th e Neapolita n artis t
Domenico Morelli , whose notion o f representing lago with th e fac e o f
an honest man greatly appealed to Verdi (lago was at that stage to be th e
title o f the opera) . There wer e furthe r meeting s between librettis t an d
composer during the autumn but no documents to tell us what was said.
Then cam e anothe r interruption . Lat e i n 188 1 Léo n Escudie r died i n
poverty, hi s firm bankrupt. Though ther e ha d been n o reconciliatio n
between the m h e ha d remained Verdi's publisher; and Verdi was char-
acteristically generous to hi s family fo r ol d times ' sake. Also there wer e
his copyright interests to be looked after ; therefor e in May he set out fo r
Paris to enter into negotiations with the firm of Choudens. While he was
there, s o Muzi o tell s us, h e worke d ou t a third versio n o f L a forza de l
destino t o a French tex t b y Nuitte r an d D u Lóele , presumably the on e
prepared i n 186 5 wit h a performance at th e Opér a i n view . Th e ne w
Force d u destin, firs t give n i n Antwer p th e followin g year , was a muc h
more modes t affair : a utilit y versio n designe d fo r th e lesse r French -
speaking theatres, with th e numbe r o f scene-changes reduced, th e situ -
ations simplified and the role of Fra Melitone eliminated. Although it was
revived a s recently as 1931 in Brussels, no trac e of it remains except fo r
rare copie s of the voca l score published by Choudens .
It ha d been Verdi's intention fo r some years to reduc e Don Carlos t o
more manageable proportions. Thi s howeve r coul d be don e onl y wit h
the help o f Du Lóele , who woul d otherwis e hav e been i n a position t o
prevent it s performanc e in France , an d th e breac h betwee n hi m an d
Verdi ha d not ye t been repaired . Nuitte r no w volunteere d t o approac h

him o n Verdi' s behalf; an d s o began a laborious three-way exchang e o f
correspondence, from Rome or Capri, where Du Lóel e had now retired ,
through Pari s t o Busset o o r Geno a an d bac k agai n b y th e sam e route .
Inevitably th e revisio n took fa r longer tha n tha t o f Simon Boccanegm an d
was not completed until March of the following year. Even then Verdi was
in n o grea t hurry to retur n t o th e 'chocolat e project'; h e wrote irritably
to Boit o regardin g th e offe r o f the Frenc h criti c Blaze de Bury to mak e
a Frenc h translation o f the ne w oper a o n th e ground s that 'U n jour o u
l'autre lago existera. ' Thi s h e maintaine d wa s a surprisin g assumption;
not eve n he himself knew whether i t would eve r exist. Meanwhile Verd i
continued his by now habitual yearly round; Montecatini Spa at the height
of th e summer , S . Ágat a fo r lat e summe r an d autumn , Geno a fo r th e
winter months. Early in th e yea r Wagner ha d die d i n Venice . 'Sad , sad,
sad', Verdi wrote to Giulio Ricordi, ' . .. A great personality has vanished!
A name that has left a most powerful mark in the History of Art.'7 But h e
continued t o fulminat e agains t the perniciou s influence o f all German art
on native Italians. Meanwhile the New Yea r passed without any evidence
of composition o n Verdi' s part, though Ricord i sen t hi s usual reminde r
in th e for m of a Christmas cake surmounted b y a chocolate figurine.
In January 1884 Faccio conducted the new Do n Carlos at La Scala in an
appropriately revised Italian translation by Angelo Zanardini . T o hi s old
friend Arrivabene, who aske d him whether h e had not had qualms about
sacrificing the Fontainebleau act, Verdi retorted that there would always
be people who, no w tha t it had been cut, would want it restored even if
they had disliked it previously; for himself he considered that the four-act
version was an improvement upo n the old : it had more concision, mor e
o
'sinew'. Non e th e les s th e Do n Carlos i n fiv e act s withou t ballet , first
performed i n Moden a i n 188 6 coul d hardl y hav e com e int o bein g
without his sanction. With th e Fontaineblea u act reinstated and most of
the 188 4 revisions retained, this is the for m i n whic h th e oper a is ofte n
given today. An unequivocally happy outcome of the revision was Verdi's
reconciliation wit h D u Lóele . Thoug h the y woul d neve r mee t again ,
6
Ibid., p. 65.
7
LCC,p. 323.
8
O
AVI, pp . 305-6 .
132 • V E R D I
they now corresponde d amicably ; and Du Lóel e would collaborat e wit h

Boito on th e Frenc h translatio n of Otello.
At last in mid-March th e composition of Otello began, only to run into
an obstacle of a different and more serious kind. Boito had gone to Naples
for a revival ofMeßstofele at the San Carlo theatre. At a dinner given in his
honour h e mentioned i n the course of his speech the new Shakespearean
libretto a s a project o n whic h h e ha d embarke d reluctantly , but whic h
now he would have been only too glad to be able to set to music himself.
This wa s reporte d i n th e loca l pres s a s implying tha t Boit o regrette d
having sold it to Verdi. It never occurred to Boito that Verdi would have
read th e report ; no r di d h e himsel f attach th e slightes t significanc e to
it. H e sai d nothin g abou t i t therefor e when h e visite d S . Ágata shortly
afterwards. Bu t Verd i ha d indee d rea d i t an d coul d no t understan d
Boito's failur e t o provid e a n explanation. Accordingl y he wrote not t o
Boito himself but to Faccio as Boito's oldest friend, offerin g t o return the
libretto withou t paymen t 'withou t a shadow o f resentment o r rancou r
of any kind'. 9 Boit o wa s not t o receiv e th e messag e until thre e week s
later whe n h e an d Facci o me t i n Turin , wher e Facci o was rehearsing
his cantat a fo r the Internationa l Exhibition. H e a t once wrot e t o Verd i
a lon g lette r o f apolog y an d explanation . 'Yo u alon e ca n se t Otello t o
music', he insisted. 'If I have been abl e to divin e the inherent , powerful
musicality of the Shakespearea n tragedy, which a t first I did not fee l an d
if I hav e bee n abl e t o demonstrat e i t i n fac t wit h m y libretto , tha t is
because I put myself at the view point o f Verdian art... 'I0 In any case
he could no t hav e considered setting any subject other than Nerone wit h
which he had been engrossed for the last eight years and which he might
or might no t finish. Verdi replied civill y enough tha t he might o r migh t
not finis h Otello; but fo r the momen t h e fel t unabl e to continue . Boit o
reacted by sending a new and definitive version of lago's Credo, writte n
'for m y ow n comfor t an d persona l satisfaction , becaus e I fel t th e nee d
to do so. You ca n interpret thi s as you like—childishness, sentimentality
or superstition—it doesn't matter. All I ask is that you d o not reply , even
to sa y "thank you".' 11 Bu t repl y Verd i did , not wit h a 'thank you ' (as
9
WMV, p. 489.
IO
MCVB, pp. 69-73.
11... j,
Ibid., pp . 74—0 .
Boito did not wish it) but a 'well-done'. 'Most beautiful this Credo; very
powerful an d wholly Shakespearean. ' But he suggested that Otello be lef t
in peace for a while 'fo r he to o i s on edg e as we are—yo u perhaps more
than I'.12 So the spring and summer passed away in inactivity apart from
a visit to the Turin Exhibition . I n May there occurred a small portent—
the première at the Teatro dal Verme, Milan, o f a one-act opera, L e Villi
(Le willis a s i t wa s the n called ) b y a twenty-six-year-ol d composer ,
Giacomo Puccini . I t had bee n submitte d fo r a competition fo r one-ac t
operas organised by the publisher Edoardo Sonzogno , but th e prize was
awarded elsewhere. Boito wa s among those who ha d heard Puccini play
it o n th e pian o an d wer e sufficientl y impresse d t o promot e a perfor -
mance. ' I hav e hear d th e compose r Puccin i highl y spoke n of , Verd i
wrote t o Amvabene . 'H e follow s the moder n trends , which i s natural,
but h e keeps to melody which i s neither ancient nor modern. Howeve r
the symphonic vein appears to predominate in him. No harm in that, but
one need s t o trea d carefull y here . Oper a i s opera an d symphon y sym -
phony an d I don't think it's a good thin g t o put a symphonic piece into
an opera merely to put the orchestra through its paces.'13 Such is the only
reference i n Verdi' s entir e correspondenc e t o hi s destine d 'successor' .
What h e thought o f Puccini's music once he had heard it we may never
know.
In Septembe r Boito staye d three day s a t S. Ágata with hi s friend th e
poet and playwright Giusepp e Giacosa ; the n on 9 December came th e
news from Genoa : 'It seems impossible, and yet it's true!! I am busy. I' m
writing!!'14 Afte r a hiatus of eigh t month s Otello was at las t goin g for -
ward, to be interrupted only by the customary summer visits to the spas.
By October Verd i could announce that Act IV was complete except for
the scoring, but as usual the end was still a good way off. Not unti l March
1886 did the Act I love duet reach its final shape; while May brought th e
inspiration for Otello's famous entranc e 'Esultate! ' Ther e remaine d th e
problem o f casting . I n Marc h Verd i lef t fo r Pari s to engag e Maure l as
lago, i n accordanc e wit h a n understandin g tha t ha d existe d betwee n
them since Maurel's triumph as the Doge in the revised Simon Boccanegra.
12Ibid., p. 76.
13
AVI, pp . 311-15.
I4
MCVB, pp. 78-9.
134 ' V E R D I
Tamagno wa s clearl y indicated for Otello ; Desdemon a wa s les s easil y

decided upon . Giuli o Ricord i wa s all for Gemm a Bellincioni , a noted
Violetta of the tim e and the first to portray the consumptiv e heroine i n
a crinoline . Verd i retorte d tha t eve n a nobod y coul d succee d i n L a
traviata, whereas Desdemona mus t have th e capacit y to represen t ideal
womanhood (h e had already received reports from Boito on Bellincioni's
vocal shortcomings) . H e finall y agree d wit h som e misgivin g t o th e
choice o f Romilda Pantaleone . True , sh e was better suite d t o 'nervy '
parts but Faccio, who would conduct, was in love with her and doubtless
she woul d respon d t o coaching . Th e fina l touche s t o th e scor e wer e
administered i n mid-Decembe r 1886 , afte r which , 'Poo r Otellol' Verd i
wrote. 'He won't come back here anymore.' 15 'The moor will come no
more t o knoc k o n th e doo r o f the Palazz o Doria', Boit o replied , 'bu t
you will go to meet the Moor a t La Scala. Otello exists. The grea t dream
has come true.' 1
The premièr e o n 5 February 1887 was an international occasion, at -
tended by correspondents from al l over the world. Joseph Bennett of the
Daily Telegraph tell s how th e firs t nigh t was constantly being postponed
because o f some detail with whic h Verd i was not satisfie d (o f all com -
posers that he had known, none, he maintained, was so exigent regarding
the performanc e of his own works) . Fresh honours wer e showere d o n
him—the Grea t Cros s o f th e Orde r o f S S Maurizio an d Lazzaro , the
Freedom of the Cit y of Milan—and a sum of money sufficient t o enable
him to proceed with certain charitable projects: the building of a hospital
at Villanova , begun i n 1882 , whic h woul d spar e the sic k of his neigh -
bourhood a long journey to Piacenza, and the purchase of a site in Milan
for a musicians' rest home, o f which Gamill o Boito , Arrigo' s brother ,
would b e the architect.
In Septembe r 188 8 Tit o Ricord i died ; th e wido w Lucca , afte r pro -
longed negotiation , sold out t o Giuli o Ricordi, s o ending a war whic h
had laste d mor e tha n hal f a century . Ricord i no w foun d himsel f th e
proprietor o f Wagner's Italia n rights. That sam e year saw the firs t per -
formance o f Tristan un d Isolde i n Italia n a t Bologna conducte d b y Giu -
seppe Martucci. Die Meistersinger woul d com e t o L a Scala the followin g
15
Ibid., p . 1 1 8 .
16-, . ,
Ibid., p. 119 .
year. Th e musica l climate i n Ital y was changing ever mor e i n th e di -

rection which Verd i had always deplored. But i f his friends wer e dying
around him—Andre a Maffe i i n 1885 , Clarin a an d Arrivaben e i n 188 6
to b e followe d b y Muzi o an d Pirol i i n 1890—h e himsel f wa s bein g
rejuvenated b y the influenc e of Boito and Giulio Ricordi . He wa s also
becoming infected with Boito's love of conundrums. S o when in August
1888 a certain professor Crecentin i published in th e Gazzetta Musicale di
Milano a n 'enigmati c scale ' invitin g reader s to tr y thei r han d a t a har -
monisation, Verdi decided to enter the lists—with a full-scale polyphonic
composition t o the text o f the Ave Maria ('... when we'r e old we be-
come boy s again'). 17 'A n Ave Maria!' h e added , 'I t wil l b e m y fourth !
Perhaps I shall be beatifie d by the Hol y Father. ' Boito retorte d tha t he
would need to write a good many more Ave Marias to be excused lago's
Credo. To whic h Verdi, 'It' s you! You're th e mai n culpri t who needs
to be pardoned for that Credo. Now yo u can do no less than set to music
a Catholic Cred o i n fou r part s à la Palestrina—that is after finishin g him
whom I dare not name... ' S o the first of the Four Sacred Pieces came
into being, thoug h Verd i never intended it t o b e given alon g with th e
other three. He regarded it as a 'sciarada', a 'rebus' and with difficulty was
persuaded to allow it to be performed privately by the students of Parma
Conservatoire. Tha t i t exist s i n tw o version s (on e i n manuscrip t i n
Parma, the other published by Ricordi) was due to the fact that Verdi had
temporarily mislai d hi s original solution .
He wa s unable to prevent a revival of Oberto at La Scala fifty years afte r
its première (ho w coul d a modern audienc e put u p wit h it s two lon g
acts? he wondered) and he declined to attend it himself. Meanwhile a far
more important idea was starting to burgeon in his brain, as we first hear
from a letter t o Boit o fro m Montecatin i i n July. 'Excellent ! Excellent!
Before reading your sketch I wanted to re-read the Merry Wives, the tw o
parts of Henry IV and Henry V , and I can only repeat excellent, fo r on e
could not d o it better tha n you have done.'19 He had slight reservations
about the last act; no matter; a dream was once more taking on flesh and
blood. Bu t th e next day qualms arose.
17
Ibid., p. 138 .
18,, . ,
Ibid., pp. 139-40 .
19Ibid., p. 142 .
136 • VERD I
In outlining Falstaff did you never consider the extreme number of my

years? I know yo u wil l repl y exaggeratin g th e stat e of my health , whic h i s
good, excellent , robust.. . So be i t but i n spit e o f that you mus t agree tha t
I coul d b e accuse d o f bein g ver y ras h i n takin g o n thi s work ! Suppos e
I couldn' t stan d the strai n and was unable to finish it ? You woul d the n have
wasted you r tim e ... Have you a sound argumen t t o oppos e t o mine ? ... if
you ca n fin d on e fo r m e an d I som e wa y o f throwin g of f te n year s o r so ,
then... what fu n to b e abl e t o sa y to th e public : Her e we ar e again!! Roll
,20
up!
And of course Boito was not shor t of arguments. He was never aware of
Verdi's age when workin g with him ; and comedy would not exhaust the
composer a s a tragedy might, sinc e (an d he quote d fro m Ug o Foscolo' s
translation o f Laurenc e Sterne' s A Sentimental Journey) ' a smil e add s a
thread t o life's tapestry'. 21 'We'l l write thi s Falstaff then , Verdi replied .
'... I too' , h e added , 'wis h t o preserv e th e deepes t secrecy.. . But
wait... Peppina knew it , I believe before we did! Be sure, however, sh e
will keep the secret: when women hav e this quality they have it in greater
measure than we.'22 Boito the n enlarge d upon his ideas for the dramatic
treatment. Ther e wer e to be no love duets. The love between Nannett a
and Fenton 'mus t appear suddenly at very frequent interval s ... I should
like, as one sprinkles sugar on a cake, to sprinkle the whole comedy wit h
that merr y love , withou t concentratin g i t a t an y on e point.' 23 Verd i
meanwhile, doubtles s with th e final scene of Do n Giovanni in mind, was
sketching fugues. ('Ye s sir; a fugue... and a comic fugue which would fit in
with Falstaff.) Bu t thi s was mer e preliminar y skirmishing , a flexin g o f
musical muscles . Boito complete d th e firs t tw o act s i n Novembe r an d
brought the m t o S. Ágata. The thir d wa s ready by March 1890 .
Meanwhile th e Carniva l seaso n a t L a Scal a ha d opene d o n 2 6 De -
cember wit h th e firs t Italia n performanc e o f Di e Meistersinger. Earlie r
Puccini had accompanied the conductor Faccio to Bayreuth to decide on
the necessary cuts—much to the indignation o f the Wagnerian Catalani
whom the absorption of Lucca by Pvicordi had left ou t in the cold. ('Not
20,,.,
Ibid., p. 143 .
21 T 1 . ,
Ibid., pp. 145-7.
22 T, . .
Ibid., p. 147 .
23
Ibid., pp. 152-3 .
all of us have the goo d fortune to be abl e to trave l there at a publisher's

expense, lik e Puccini , arme d with a pair of scissor s an d entruste d wit h
cutting th e scor e s o tha t i t fit s th e goo d Milanes e lik e a suit.. . ')24
The conductor' s healt h wa s clearl y breaking dow n an d hi s behaviou r
becoming increasingl y erratic . Havin g conducte d th e firs t ac t o f Di e
Meistersinger h e imagined tha t the oper a was over and had to be brough t
back to the theatre to complete the performance. Suspecting over-work ,
Verdi an d Boito ha d trie d t o persuad e him t o undertak e th e director -
ship o f the Conservator y o f Parma lef t vacan t by the deat h of Bottesini.
But b y the tim e he yielded, i t was too late . His brain was now seriously
affected. 'On e of the causes' , wrote Boit o ominously , 'i s a disease of the
blood whic h i s cured wit h injection s of mercury.' 25 I n March h e wen t
to Krafft-Ebbing' s clini c i n Gra z whic h specialise d in maladie s o f th e
brain; bu t KrafFt-Ebbin g refuse d t o accep t the case . Facci o returne d t o
Italy t o di e a year later at a n asylum in Monza . Boit o agree d to fil l th e
post at Parma in orde r t o dra w the salar y necessary for Faccio's support.
Such hour s a s he coul d spar e h e spen t a t th e invalid' s bedside ; bu t h e
continued wit h Fa/stó/ f and urged Verd i to d o th e same . ('This world is
full o f sorrows; our friend's condition grow s steadily worse... Let us try
to kee p ou r health , dea r Maestro, an d forget life i n working.') 2
It is not easy to chart the progress ofFalstaff, partly because Verdi gave
different account s o f i t t o differen t people . T o Boit o h e claime d t o
have written th e entir e first act without alterin g a line o f the poetr y by
17 March 189 0 and to have sketched the thir d act and part of the second
by October . T o th e journalist Eugeni o Checch i tw o month s late r h e
declared that he had written hardly a note of the music; to Ricordi in the
New Yea r he sai d that he had sketched about hal f the oper a and woul d
probably no t finis h i t withi n th e followin g year . Ther e wa s a burst o f
activity i n June 1891 . 'Bi g Bell y i s goin g crazy' , h e wrot e t o Boito ,
'There ar e day s when h e doesn' t mov e bu t sleep s and i s in a bad hu -
mour. A t othe r time s h e shouts , runs , jumps an d cause s a devi l o f a
rumpus... '2y 'Three cheers!' Boito replied, 'Let him go, let him run; if
24
Letter to G . Depanis, 20.8.1889 , Catalani: Lettere, ed. C . Gatt i (Milan , 1946) , pp. 100-1 .
25
MCVB, pp. IÓI-2.
26 „ . ,
Ibid., pp. 175—0 .
27
Ibid., pp. 190 .
138 • V E R D I
he breaks all the windows in your house it doesn't matter; you can always
replace them.'2 In September Verdi broke off the third act to begin
scoring the firs t 'becaus e I' m afrai d o f forgetting some passage s and in -
strumental combinations.' 29 The first act was in score by April 189 2 and
the whole oper a complete by September. Only then was he prepared to
discuss the staging. Determined no t t o be hurried, and possibly fearful o f
not bein g able to finish the work t o his own satisfaction , h e had been at
pains to insist that he was writing Falstaff merely as a pastime.
Nor ha d h e allowe d i t t o restric t hi s other activities . At som e poin t
during those years he managed to complete a setting of lines from the last
Canto of Dante's Paradiso, the Laudi alia Vergine Maria, which form s th e
third o f the Quattro pezzi sacri. H e continue d t o tak e an interest i n th e
latest musica l event s an d developments . Tha t h e attende d Di e Meister-
singer at La Scala in 189 0 can hardly be doubted ; th e evidenc e lies in th e
end o f the first act of Falstaff. Thi s was the yea r ofCavalleria rusticana an d
the explosio n o f verismo. Verd i receive d Mascagn i cordially , thoug h a s
usual refused t o discuss his music. However Giuli o Ricordi reported tha t
after playin g through th e scor e of the oper a th e ol d man ha d remarked
'evidently the tradition of Italian melody is not yet exhausted'—a remark
which reache d the newspaper s as 'No w tha t I hav e hear d Cavalleria
rusticana I ca n di e happy.' 30 Verd i wa s muc h les s impresse d by L'amico
Fritz. (' I started reading it but soo n got tired of all those dissonances, false
relations, interrupted cadences and so on, an d all those changes of tempo
at almost every bar.')31 In general he seems to have found th e harmoni c
pallette o f the 'giovan e scuola ' far too ric h i n relatio n t o th e drama . I n
Bruneau's L a rêve h e longe d fo r th e vent-hol e o f a consonance—lik e
Falstaff in th e buck-basket. 32
Towards Catalan i he wa s more tolerant : 'A t leas t he know s ho w t o
write eve n if he has an exaggerated idea of the orchestra's importance.'33
Thus t o Giuli o Ricord i after th e succes s of La Wally a t La Scala early in
1892, so giving the lie to those three letters to Perosio hostil e to Catalani
28T U - J
Ibid., p. 191 .
29
Ibid., p. 196 .
3
°CIIV, pp. 303-4 -
3I
AGV, IV, pp. 426-7.
32
MCVB, pp. 191-2.
33
AGV, IV , p. 428.
which Fran k Walke r demonstrate d conclusivel y t o b e forgerie s ye t

which continue t o appear in modern Italia n biographies. Afte r tw o years
of tota l neglec t Ricord i ha d suddenl y take n a n interes t i n Loreley, th e
revised versio n o f Elda, an d ha d see n hi s fait h i n i t justified . I t wa s
conducted wit h brillian t succes s by Toscanin i i n Geno a i n 1892 ; an d
Catalani took the opportunity o f paying a call on Verdi who 'receive d me
with the utmost cordiality... He mentioned you r article in the Gazzetta
Musicale, sayin g that "Nothing is truer tha n what Depanis writes : tha t in
art Wagner's nam e is synonymous with artisti c tyranny." '34
In April Verdi was in Milan to conduc t the prayer from Mosè i n Egitto
at L a Scal a a t centenar y celebration s o f Rossini' s birth . O n hi s retur n
to Geno a h e foun d Bulow's celebrate d lette r o f recantation. Th e ma n
who ha d publicl y sneere d a t th e Requie m withou t even takin g th e
trouble t o liste n t o i t no w declare d himsel f a n enthusias t for al l things
Verdian.
I have begun by studying your latest works: Aida, Otello and the Requiem of
which a recent rather poor performanc e move d me t o tears ; I have studie d
them no t onl y accordin g to th e lette r which kills, but als o th e spiri t which
gives life. An d so, illustrious Maestro, I now admir e you an d love you. Will
you forgiv e me , wil l yo u avai l yoursel f o f th e sovereign' s privileg e o f
granting a pardon? However that may be ... I feel the necessity of confessing
my sin if only to se t an example to ou r lesser , erring brothers; and faithfu l t o
the Prussian mono Suum cuique I cry with all my heart Long live Verdi, the
35
Wagner o f our dea r allies!
Verdi replied with a touch of irony that there was no shadow of sin in
Billow—indeed tha t h e migh t hav e bee n righ t th e firs t time . Never -
theless h e wa s gratefu l fo r suc h a tribute, whic h showe d tha t the reall y
great artists could judge without prejudic e as regards school or country .
He the n returne d t o his favourite theme: tha t composers shoul d be tru e
to thei r nationality. 'How lucky you ar e still the sons of Bach! And we?
We to o a s sons of Palestrin a wil l on e da y have a school whic h wil l b e
great—and ou r own ? At present it is a mongrel affair.. . '3
34 Letter to G . Depanis , 17.2.1892 , Letters, p. 129 .

3S
LCC, pp. 375-6-
36
Ibid., p. 375 -
140 • V E R D I
The en d o f the yea r was taken up wit h anxiou s preparation for th e

première o f the new opera. Maurel was clearly destined for the title role
though hi s exorbitan t claim s nearly cause d Verdi t o cance l th e oper a
altogether. (Nothin g les s tha n a visi t fro m Mm e Maure l wa s deeme d
sufficient t o aver t this calamity.) An excellen t Mistres s Quickly i n Giu -
seppina Pasqu a led Verdi to expan d th e rol e fo r her benefit . It is inter-
esting t o not e tha t mos t o f the origina l cas t wer e t o mak e thei r name s
chiefly a s exponent s o f verismo. Antoni o Pin i Cors i (Ford ) create d
Schaunard in La Bohème. The Nannett a and Fenton, Adelina Stehle and
Edoardo Garbi n wer e t o b e a favourit e Rodolfo an d Mimi . Maure l
himself was fres h fro m hi s triumph a s Tonio in Pagliacci. Verdi attached
especial importance t o the casting of Alice. 'She must have a touch of the
devil in her... It is she who stir s the polenta'; 37 eventually he settled for
Emma Zill i whos e shatterin g tremol o (a s recorded b y Stanfor d an d
others) was less apparent to one in his eightieth year. The premièr e too k
place o n 9 Februar y 1893 . Verd i conducte d th e first performance then
handed over the baton to Edoardo Mascheroni, The King and Queen o f
Italy, unable to be present, sent telegrams; the prime minister , Francesco
Crispi, sent a signed portrait of himself. Later that night Verdi's hotel was
besieged b y well-wishers . 'Th e publi c ha s been kin d t o Falstaff, Verd i
remarked, 'as it was towards Oie//o.'3 He had no illusions that either
would prov e popular in th e manne r o f II trovatore.
A stil l greate r triump h awaite d hi m i n Rom e thre e month s later ,
where a t the Teatr o Costanz i Falstaff was given wit h notabl e modifica -
tions i n wha t is , essentially , its definitiv e form . O n hi s arriva l a t th e
railway station the crowd o f well-wishers was so importunate that he was
obliged t o take refuge in a tool-shed (a plaque commemorating th e even t
is to be found in the Rome Museum). It was from the royal box, in th e
presence o f Kin g Umbert o an d Quee n Margherita , tha t Verdi , no w a
freeman of the Cit y o f Rome, acknowledge d th e tumultuou s applause.
The summi t o f his public career had finally been attained .
37
AGV, IV, pp. 442-3.
«Q
Ibid., p . 476 .
C H A P T E R T E N
The Last Years
S O FRESH , S O APPARENTL Y EFFORTLES S HA D BEE N TH E MIRACL E O F

Falstaff tha t Boit o ha d littl e doub t tha t i t coul d b e repeated . Hi s
biographer, Nardi , relate s an anecdote t o th e effec t tha t one da y in th e
company o f some friend s Boit o approache d Verdi an d said, 'Now dear
Maestro, w e mus t se t t o wor k o n King Lear, onl y t o se e a loo k o f
desperate alar m o n Giuseppina' s face . Late r sh e dre w hi m aside : 'Fo r
Heaven's sake , Boito! Verdi is too old , to o tired.' 1 That wa s the en d of
that.
Not, however , o f thei r collaboration . Ther e wer e th e Frenc h pre -
mières o f Otello an d Falstaff t o loo k forwar d to , bot h planne d fo r th e
following year . Meantime a n incident occurre d whic h migh t wel l hav e
ended Boito' s day s prematurely. Whe n Ricord i too k ove r th e fir m o f
Lucca in 188 8 h e wa s conscious of having to fac e a far more dangerou s
rival i n Edoard o Sonzogno . Lik e Lucca , Sonzogn o ha d specialise d i n
foreign works , hi s greatest asset to dat e being Carmen, which h e rightl y
regarded a s a pointe r t o a n operati c styl e destine d t o reflec t th e con -
temporary literar y fashio n fo r Zola-esqu e naturalism . Afte r Cavalleria
rusticana ha d wo n th e awar d institute d b y Sonzogn o himsel f a hos t o f
'veristic' composer s flocke d t o hi s banner—Leoncavallo , Giordano ,
Cilea—who togethe r wit h Mascagn i woul d almos t monopolis e th e
scene throughou t th e 18905 . Indee d Sonzogn o succeede d i n capturin g
1
P. Nardi , Vita di Arrigo Boito (Milan, 1942), p. 594 .
141
142 • V E R D I
Ricordi's stronghold , L a Scala , an d holdin g i t fo r tw o years , durin g

which no t a single Ricordi oper a wa s produced there . I n 189 3 h e ha d
bought th e right s o f Frederick Cowen' s Signa. Havin g stipulate d thre e
performances, Sonzogn o decide d t o cance l th e secon d two ; whe n
Cowen held him to the terms of their contract, he doubled th e prices of
admission for the secon d performances and adduced the meagr e takings
as hi s reason fo r cancellin g the third . Informe d o f thi s Boito wrot e t o
Cowen expressin g th e hop e tha t h e woul d no t judg e Italian s by th e
standards o f Sonzogno . Thi s lette r Cowe n ha d publishe d i n th e Daily
Telegraph; Sonzogn o retorte d b y callin g Boit o a cowar d i n print . Th e
duel wa s not ye t obsolet e i n Europe ; accordingl y Boit o sen t a pair o f
seconds to call on the offending editor . Sonzogno too k u p the challenge;
and a tim e an d plac e was fixed . Al l thi s was recounte d b y Giacos a t o
Verdi, wh o sen t an urgent telegra m to Boit o beggin g hi m no t t o kee p
the appointment. Eventually through th e good office s o f friends o f both
parties the due l was averted.
It ha d bee n proposed tha t Otello and Falstaff shoul d ru n concurrentl y
during the spring, one at the Opéra, the other at the Opéra Comique; bu t
Verdi objected and succeeded in getting Otello postponed to the autumn.
Rehearsals for Falstajfbegun in April. Paul Solanges, Boito's collaborator
on th e Frenc h translation, reported that musically all was going well bu t
that th e academi c tradition s o f th e Opér a Comiqu e wer e stiflin g th e
comedy; th e onl y remed y fo r thi s woul d b e Verdi' s presence . Re -
luctantly Verdi agreed to go. (' I just wonder what am I supposed to do in
Paris; exhibi t mysel f like th e "our s Martin " ... And i s that worthy o f a
man o f 8o?') 2 But h e had to admit that the performance of 1 8 April was
a grea t success . I t ha d include d th e las t additio n o f an y importanc e
to the score— a snatch of dialogue preceding Nannetta's sol o in Act III.
Boito dul y translate d the word s int o Italia n an d the y appea r i n ever y
subsequent edition i n the opera .
During th e compositio n o f Otello Verdi had refuse d t o countenanc e
the idea of a ballet for the Frenc h version. Now h e was disposed to fall in
with th e age-ol d tradition s of the Opéra ; bu t wher e woul d h e place it?
Who woul d i t be dance d by? Originally, i t seems, Boito ha d suggested
that it should occu r during the islanders' homage t o Desdemon a i n Act
2
AGV, IV, p. 540.
The Last Years • 14 3
II. Finall y Verd i opte d fo r th e arriva l o f th e Venetia n ambassador , i n

whose honou r th e dance s would naturall y be given . B y 189 0 th e cos -
mopolitan idio m o f Le s vêpres siciliennes woul d n o longe r do ; genuin e
local colour was required. Accordingly from the spa at Montecatini Verdi
wrote t o Ricord i fo r specimen s o f Greek , Turkis h an d Venetia n fol k
music to serve as models. As usual, however, h e never made use of them
but invented his own fol k music. ('I've found a Greek song written 5,00 0
years B.c.—i f th e worl d didn' t ye t exist , s o muc h th e wors e fo r th e
world... '.)3 H e di d however mak e use of a 'cry of the Muezzin' taken
from Félicie n David' s L e Désert, presumabl y convince d o f it s ethni c
authenticity. H e als o rewrot e i n shorte r for m th e concertat o whic h
follows, partl y t o kee p u p th e dramati c situation an d partl y t o thro w
lago's lines into stronge r relief.
In Septembe r Verd i travelle d t o Pari s for th e las t time , wher e o n hi s
eighty-first birthda y he witnesse d the Frenc h première o f Otello. Durin g
one of the intervals the French President came to his box to tell him that he
had bee n awarde d th e Gran d Cross o f the Légio n d'Honneur . Te n day s
later he returned to Genoa having attended a memorial service for Gounod
and been the guest of honour a t a State Banquet in the Elysée Palace. His
last composition o f that year was a short setting of Pietà Signor, th e word s
adapted b y Boit o fro m th e D e profanáis publishe d i n th e magazin e Fata
Morgana fo r the benefi t of victims from th e recen t Sicilia n earthquakes.
The earl y months of 189 5 saw the compose r in Milan discussin g with
Gamillo Boito th e plans for the musicians' rest home. It was to be a two -
story buildin g designe d t o accommodat e a hundre d musicians—sixt y
men and forty women—who had reached the age of sixty-five and found
themselves in a state of poverty. Gamill o Boito's ideas that they should be
housed in dormitories was rejected by Verdi in favour of double rooms so
that couple s coul d hel p eac h othe r durin g th e night . Anythin g tha t
smacked of institutionalism was scouted; therefore no uniforms . But b y
an uncharacteristi c stroke o f vanit y Verd i suggeste d tha t th e me n b e
encouraged to dress like himself—large, wide-brimme d ha t and flowin g
necktie. Constructio n bega n th e followin g yea r o n wha t Verd i woul d
later describe as the favourit e o f all his works, musical or otherwise. 4
3 Ibid., pp . 551-2 .
4
TGV,p. 213.
144 ' V E R D I
But he continued to take an interest in the progress of Falstaff around

the world . I f mildl y pique d a t th e refusa l o f th e Berliner s t o encor e
'Quando ero paggio', a s had become th e traditio n i n Italy , h e ca n only
have bee n gratifie d t o receiv e a score o f a first opera b y a n unknow n
young Germa n by way of homage ' . .. unable to find words to describe
the extraordinar y beauty of Falstaff or to expres s my gratitude for this re-
birth o f th e intellect , I be g You r Honou r t o receiv e thi s score.' 5 Hi s
humble suggestio n that they might mee t wa s not followe d up by Verdi
who, however , replied civilly enough to the composer and went so far as
to writ e t o Ricord i askin g whether on e Richar d Straus s o f Munich ,
composer o f Guntram, was the sam e as the Walt z King . Hi s opinio n o f
Guntram we ma y never know; but fo r Richard Straus s Falstaff remaine d
an undying masterpiece, his own favourit e Italia n opera.
Verdi's operatic career was now over ; but h e coul d never keep fro m
composing. Ever y man has his destiny, he once wrote t o the conducto r
Mascheroni. 'As for me, with my tongue hanging out like a mad dog, I' m
fated t o wor k til l my las t gasp. ' Thi s tim e th e projec t unde r consider -
ation was a setting of the T e Deum 'a thanksgiving not o n my part but o n
the part of the public who i s now se t free afte r so many years from havin g
to hea r ne w opera s o f mine'. 7 Bu t thoug h h e pore d ove r fragment s
of plainchant he seem s to hav e done littl e wor k o n i t tha t year. I n th e
autumn h e wa s concerning himsel f with th e affair s o f the Parm a Con -
servatory, no w runnin g smoothl y unde r th e excellen t directorshi p o f
Gallignani, lik e Verdi , a ferven t admire r o f Palestrina , bu t constantl y
threatened with bureaucratic interference. In December Giuli o Ricordi,
ousted fro m L a Scala, mounte d a first-clas s revival of Falstaff at th e Da l
Verme under Leopoldo Mugnone . Among th e audience was the young
Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari recentl y returne d fro m hi s studies in Germany .
The performanc e inspire d hi m t o writ e a se t o f variation s fo r pian o
on th e Minue t fro m Ac t III , whic h wit h Boito' s encouragemen t h e
sent to Verdi . Indeed , to find the inspiration behin d ninet y per cen t o f
Wolf-Ferrari's outpu t on e nee d loo k n o farthe r tha n Verdi' s comi c
masterpiece.
5
AGV, IV, p. 567.
6
LCC, pp. 717-18.
7
AGV, IV, p. 572-3.
But no t even th e succes s of Falstqff coul d compensat e Ricord i for th e

total exclusio n o f hi s opera s fro m L a Scala . H e eve n begge d Verd i t o
write t o the prime minister , Crispí , on hi s behalf. But thi s Verdi refuse d
to do . No t onl y woul d i t hav e n o effect ; h e himsel f wa s totally ou t o f
sympathy with Crispi' s conduc t o f Italy's affairs . A Mazzinian libera l a t
heart, h e disapprove d o f Crispi' s colonia l adventure s i n Eritrea . ('Un -
fortunately we too are playing the tyrant in Africa; we are wrong and we
o ^ ^
shall pa y fo r it.' ) Th e crushin g defea t a t Adu a seeme d t o hi m a just
recompense. H e hope d somethin g o f the sor t woul d befal l th e Englis h
in India .
In Februar y 189 6 h e decide d t o consul t Boit o a s to th e for m an d
character of his new T e Deum. They agree d i t should no t tr y t o ap e an
archaic style ; bu t wher e wa s th e mode l fo r a modern T e Deum? Boit o
mentioned a certai n Abb é Perosi ; bu t i t wa s Verdi whos e subsequen t
researches le d hi m t o th e archive s o f S . Antoni o a t Padua , wher e h e
found liste d a T e Deu m b y th e eighteenth-centur y compose r Padr e
Vallotti. Hi s letter t o th e directo r o f music and archivist, Giovann i Te -
baldini, asking for his assistance includes an interesting observation :
I know several of the ol d Te Deum s and I've heard a few modern ones and
I've neve r been convince d by th e wa y this canticle has been interpreted —
quite apar t fro m th e valu e o f th e music . I t i s usuall y sun g during grand ,
solemn and noisy ceremonies for a victory or a coronation etc. The openin g
lends itsel f t o tha t sinc e Heave n an d Eart h ar e rejoicing , Sanctu s Sanctu s
Deus Sabaoth. But toward s the middl e the ton e an d colour change: 'Te ad
liberandum... ' Thi s is Christ is born o f the Virgin and opens to humanity
the 'Régn a coelorum' . Humanit y believes in th e Judex Venturus , invokes
Him i n th e Salvu m fa c and end s with a prayer, 'Dignar e Domine di e isto' ,
which i s moving, melancholy and sa d even to th e poin t of terror. 9
In th e even t th e Vallotti settin g proved to o difficul t t o trace ; Tebaldini

offered other s by Victoria an d Purcell; but onc e mor e Verd i decide d t o
proceed withou t a model. His setting was completed tha t summer, t o be
followed by the Stabat Mater. All four sacred pieces were consigned t o th e
publisher i n June 1897 .
8
CUV, p. 341.
9
AGV, IV , pp. 588-9.
140 • V E R D I
In January came a warning. On e da y Giuseppina found him lying i n

bed seemingl y paralyse d an d unabl e t o speak . Whil e sh e an d Mari a
Carrara wer e anxiousl y debating whether o r no t t o cal l a doctor, Verd i
managed t o indicate that he wanted pen an d paper. In a shaky scrawl he
wrote 'Coffee' whic h was straightaway brought to him; within a few days
he had completely recovered . The deat h which occurre d late r that year
was not hi s but Giuseppina's . For some time she had been cripple d with
arthritis; and her appearanc e at Montecatini that year had made a strong
contrast with that of her husband—he alert and erect, she unable to walk
without help. In November a severe bronchitis set in; a few days later she
was dead . Th e famil y lawye r Amilcare Martinell i recalle d seein g Verdi
standing at the piano, his head bowed, his cheeks flushed, the picture of
silent grief . Th e funera l servic e was held i n Busset o Cathedra l an d th e
body wa s then transporte d t o a cemetery i n Milan . Verd i spen t lonely
weeks at S. Ágata. 'Great sorrow', he wrote to a friend, 'doe s not deman d
great expression; it asks for silence, isolation, I would even say the torture
of reflection.' 10
However, he had a welcome Christmas visitor in Boito. The poe t had
already persuade d Verdi t o allo w thre e o f th e Quattro pezzi sacri t o b e
performed i n Paris in Holy Week 1898 ; and the New Yea r found Verdi
in Milan supervising their publication. He fully intended to travel to Paris
for th e event, but the doctors advised him against it. Accordingly he sent
Boito i n hi s place, writing hi m copiou s letter s wit h th e mos t detaile d
instructions as to th e musica l interpretation. A telegra m fro m Boit o as -
sured him of the concert's complete success. 'To show you my gratitude',
he replied, 'I could offe r you some trifle o r other, but what would be the
point? I t would be embarrassin g for me an d useles s t o you . Permi t m e
therefore when you are back from Pari s to clasp your hand here. And for
this handclasp you wil l say not a word, not even "than k you".' 11
Only a month later the same three pieces were due to be performed at
the Internationa l Exhibitio n a t Turi n unde r th e bato n o f Toscanini ,
whose caree r had been linke d with Verdi almost from the start . In 188 7
he had played the second solo cello in the opening of the Otello love duet;
and it was with Aida, deputising at short notice, tha t he achieved his first
IO
MVLT, p. 470.
"MCVB, pp. 264-5.
triumph a s a conductor a t th e Teatr o Colón , Ri o d e Janeiro, th e yea r

before. While studyin g the score of the T e Deum he began to feel strongly
that a t a certain poin t a slowing dow n o f the temp o wa s required; bu t
how coul d h e b e justified i n applyin g i t i f Verd i himself , know n fo r
insistence o n a stric t adherenc e t o th e marking s o f th e score , ha d no t
given hi s sanction? Eventually h e asked the Festiva l director t o writ e t o
Verdi on his behalf requesting permission to come and discuss the matter.
The repl y wa s encouraging ; 'Maestr o Toscanin i an d Maestr o Ventur i
(the chorus master) may come when they wish. I am always at home afte r
mid-day.'12 When the y arrive d Toscanini had hoped tha t Verdi woul d
play th e T e Deum at the piano ; but th e ol d man insiste d tha t Toscanin i
play it himself. 'Well done', he said when Toscanin i hi d finished, havin g
dared to make the rallentando , 'a bad musician would hav e exaggerated
it; but i f one i s a good musician , one feel s i t and plays it just as you hav e
done withou t th e necessit y o f havin g i t writte n down.' 13 I t i s a goo d
story and a salutary reminder that all agogic instructions are only relative.
Here, surely, we have the explanation of the instruction which heads the
first printe d editio n o f th e T e Deum: 'Th e whol e piec e mus t b e per -
formed at a single tempo, as indicated by the metronome. Nevertheles s at
certain point s th e demand s of expressio n an d colourin g ma y requir e a
broadening o r tightening o f th e pace , alway s returning , however , t o th e
original tempo.'
Native resilienc e seems to hav e restored Verd i t o somethin g lik e his
old self . 'H e play s th e piano , eat s a s h e pleases , walks , argue s wit h
youthful vivacity . He i s as merry a s a lark.'14 Thus Boito o f the eighty -
five-year-old composer . Bu t hi s creative days were over . When in 190 0
King Umbert o wa s assassinate d b y a n anarchist , he wishe d t o se t th e
poem writte n b y Quee n Margherit a i n he r husband' s memory. A few
sketches for it exist but nothin g more .
He spen t more and more tim e in Milan at the Albergo Milano withi n
easy reac h o f his friends—Boito, Giuli o Ricordi , Teres a Stolz . A pho -
tograph preserve d in the Mila n Conservator y an d clearly taken withou t
his knowledge show s an erect figure presbyopically perusing a newspaper
12H. Sachs , Toscanini (London , 1978) , p. 5 8 ff.

13
Ibid.
I4
WMV, p. 508.
148 • V E R D I
as he walks along the street in front of La Scala. That the administration of

his estates at S. Ágata had deteriorate d need no t surprise . The evidenc e
was discovered recentl y among th e municipa l archives of Parma by th e
journalist Maurizio Chierici, author of the semi-fictional novel U n delitto
a Casa Verdi, buil t roun d a n inciden t whic h actuall y occurred: th e ac -
cidental shooting o f a maidservant by Fifao' s son, Angelo. A lawyer sent
from Rom e to investigate the unres t among the peasantry in 189 8 heard
tales of Verdi, th e hars h landlord, whose 'fattori ' gav e flour and meal to
his tenant s that mad e eve n th e pig s vomit. Bu t i t i s unthinkable tha t if
Verdi was aware of this he would no t hav e put a stop to it—witnes s his
letter o f ten years earlier regarding th e hospita l at Villanova:
I think it right to warn you that I have had bad reports about the hospital...
and I hope an d pra y they ar e no t true . Her e i s what the y ar e saying :
1. That th e foo d i s meagre.
2. The win e eve n mor e s o (thoug h th e cella r is well stocked) .
3. That th e mil k cost s more tha n it is worth an d tha t it is not whol e
milk.
4. That th e oi l is of the commones t kind , wit h a bad effec t o n bot h
food an d lighting .
5. That the y wanted to buy half-spoiled rice and coarse, dark, native
spaghetti.
6. That funeral expense s are charged even to persons of absolutely no
means.
7. Many mor e thing s which fo r th e sak e of brevity I omit .
I am far away and can say nothing t o this ... but i n any case these reports
distress m e extremel y an d mak e m e wonde r i f I ca n achiev e th e purpos e
for which I devoted par t o f m y fortun e i n endowin g thi s charitabl e foun -
dation. T 5
Certainly Verdi was authoritarian, sometimes unreasonably so, as Giu-

seppina's diary makes clear; but th e patriarc h of S. Ágata and the bene-
factor o f his region woul d no t knowingl y stin t his dependants. O n th e
other han d it was probably not difficul t t o cheat an eighty-five-year-ol d
landlord wh o spen t a large part of the yea r away from home .
I5
LCC, p. 350.
Various people cam e t o visi t him i n Mila n durin g thos e las t years—
journalists, writers , musicians . Al l foun d hi m keenl y intereste d i n th e
musical lif e aroun d hi m thoug h h e coul d rarel y b e prevaile d upo n t o
pronounce o n a particular work. H e approve d o f th e fac t tha t opera s
were much shorter than they used to be and that there was no longer any
need t o thin k u p som e choru s o r othe r t o fil l ou t th e scen e (indee d
liberation fro m 'grandeur ' had been one o f the positive achievements of
the 'veristi') .
When Toscanin i visite d hi m o n 2 0 January 190 1 h e wa s eage r fo r
news o f Mascagni's Le maschere, of which hi s guest had give n th e Mila n
première—one, incidentally , o f seve n whic h ha d bee n planne d t o b e
given simultaneousl y i n differen t citie s throughou t th e peninsula . Di d
Tartaglia sing with a stutter he wanted to know. 'Yes', Toscanini replied .
'In fact' , Verd i replied , 'stutterer s rarel y stutte r whe n the y sing. ' Th e
piece tha t ha d bee n mos t successfu l ha d bee n th e pavane . ' A pavane?
What i s that?' Verdi asked, then added hurriedly, 'Ye s of course, I know,
I know.'1 But Toscanini noticed with sadness that the old man was
somewhat confused . The nex t day , while dressing , h e ha d a stroke. Six
days later, at 3 A.M. o n 2 7 January, he died .
'He died magnificently', Boit o wrot e t o Bellaigue,
like a fighter , redoubtabl e an d mute.. . With hi s head bent , hi s eyebrow s

set, h e seemed t o measur e with half-shu t eye s an unknown an d formidabl e
adversary... Thus h e pu t u p a heroic resistance . The breathin g o f his great
chest sustaine d him fo r fou r day s an d thre e nights ; o n th e fourt h nigh t th e
sound o f hi s breathin g stil l fille d th e room ; bu t wha t a struggle , poo r
maestro! How magnificentl y he fought up to the last moment! I n the cours e
of m y lif e I hav e los t person s who m I idolized , whe n grie f wa s stronge r
than resignation. Bu t I have never experienced suc h a feeling of hate against
death, suc h loathing fo r it s mysterious, blind , stupid , triumphan t infamou s
power!17
Giuseppina's coffi n wa s remove d fro m th e cemeter y i n Mila n an d

placed beside that o f her husban d in a memorial groun d i n th e Cas a di
Riposo. He r wil l ha d conclude d wit h thes e words : 'Now , addio , m y
I6_ ,
Sachs, p . 76 .
I7
WMV, p. 509.
I5O • V E R D I
Verdi. As we were united in life, ma y God rejoi n ou r spirit s in Heaven.'

Whether in their last years together she had converted Verdi to the fait h
in which she was to die we may never know. Boito left the matter open.
He gave the example of Christian faith by the moving beauty of his religious
works, by the observance of rites (you must recall his fine head bowed i n the
chapel o f S . Ágata) , b y hi s homag e t o Manzoni , b y th e orderin g o f hi s
funeral, foun d in hi s will; on e priest, one candle, one cross. He kne w tha t faith is
the sustenance of the heart. To th e workers in the fields, t o the unhappy, t o
the afflicted aroun d him, he offered himsel f as example, withou t ostentation ,
humbly, severel y t o b e usefu l t o thei r consciences .
And her e on e mus t halt th e enquiry ; to procee d furthe r woul d tak e m e
far int o th e windings o f psychological research where hi s great genius would
have nothing t o lose but wher e I myself would b e afrai d o f missing my way.
In the ideal, mora l an d social sense he was a great Christian. But one must be
very carefu l no t t o presen t hi m a s a Catholi c i n th e politica l an d strictl y
theological sens e of the word : nothin g coul d b e furthe r tha n th e truth .
At a signal from Toscanini the 28,00 0 people who line d the street s at
his funeral brok e softly into the choru s 'Va, pensiero'. But the man wh o
had give n th e ne w Ital y he r artisti c voic e remaine d t o th e en d a very
private person.
18
Ibid., p. 506.
C H A P T E R E L E V E N
Verdi as Man and Artist
G REAT ARTIST S RAREL Y LIV E U P T O THEI R BES T WORK . THE MOR E

they pu t int o thei r art , th e mor e the y ar e likel y t o b e foun d
wanting in the prosaic dealings of everyday life. The ruthles s egotism o f a
Wagner or a Bellini ca n be seen as a necessary protection o f their genius.
While Beethoven th e compose r ros e t o eve r greate r heights , th e man,
beset by growing deafness, becam e eve r more difficult an d disagreeable .
Mozart wa s feckless an d ofte n undignified. Schuber t wa s an impractical
Bohemian, Bruckne r patheticall y naïve , Mahle r a neurotic, an d so on .
With Verdi, however, th e man and the artist in many ways developed
side b y side . Th e compose r o f Oberto wa s not especiall y prepossessing .
The smal l mouth mentione d i n th e passpor t o f 183 2 and confirme d b y
the earlies t portraits gives him a peevish, faintly distrustfu l air . But fro m
the start there was something i n his character that won hi m many friend s
and admirer s whom he di d not cas t of f with th e years: a certain loyalty ,
integrity an d livelines s i n th e pursui t o f hi s ideals . Ye t togethe r wit h
the warmt h tha t transpire s from Muzio' s letter s t o thei r joint benefac -
tor, Barezzi , there i s also evident a strong objectio n t o bein g take n fo r
granted. Whe n Barezzi suggests that Verdi coul d well affor d t o advanc e
his pupi l a small su m o f money , i t i s clear from Muzio' s repl y tha t hi s
teacher considere d thi s a n unwarrantabl e assumption . Ye t th e mone y
would be forthcomin g non e th e less; for it was Verdi's habi t to trea t his
friends generously .
151
152 • VERD I
Throughout hi s earl y years i n Mila n h e wa s seldo m a t eas e i n th e

society which hi s celebrity require d hi m t o frequent . His awkwardness
and intransigenc e over Macbeth i n 184 7 has already been touche d upon .
A softer sid e of his nature is recorded from the same period by the sculp -
tor Giovann i Dupré , wh o wa s cordially received and entertained in th e
composer's lodgings . I n genera l Verdi liked th e compan y o f his fellows
in th e othe r arts , whether o f poetry, paintin g o r sculpture . Bu t just as
the musician had earned the nickname 'th e composer wit h th e helmet',
so the ma n was known a s 'the bear of Busseto'. As he became a man o f
property and underwent th e civilisin g influence of Giuseppina, so Verdi
acquired assuranc e an d authority . I n th e photograph s o f the 1850 5 an d
6os it i s now th e straigh t blunt nos e tha t dominate s togethe r wit h th e
steady gaze. He coul d still be formidable, and even brusque, as the bari-
tone Charles Santley was to find out when he visited the composer during
the rehearsal s for Do n Carlos i n 1867 . Antoni o Ghislanzoni , however ,
who remembere d Verd i i n 184 6 a s a tacitur n youn g ma n glowerin g
amidst a happ y thron g o f artist s an d musicians , was astonishe d a t th e
change h e foun d whe n first invited t o S . Ágata in 1868 . ' I hav e known
artists', h e wrote , 'wh o i n thei r yout h wer e carefre e an d overflowin g
with merrimen t an d affability bu t later , unde r thei r gloss y coatin g o f
honours an d fam e becam e reserve d an d almos t unapproachable . On e
would sa y tha t Verdi , a s h e pursue d hi s triumphan t career , a t ever y
stage shed a part of that hard, prickl y carapace that enclosed hi m i n th e
years o f hi s youth.' 1 Giusepp e Depanis , so n o f th e manage r o f th e
Turin oper a house , who kne w Verd i i n his last years never faile d t o b e
struck b y the ol d man's affabilit y an d a 'courtesy al l the mor e exquisit e
for bein g unaffecte d an d spontaneous'. 2 N o mea n tribute, this , from an
ardent Wagnerian and friend o f Catalani, who i n his youth had ascribed
Verdi's fam e t o nothing more tha n astute publicity. I n a word i t would
seem tha t collaboratio n wit h Boit o ha d rejuvenate d the ma n a s well as
his music.
Independence, th e desir e to be beholden t o nobody , wa s among th e
mainsprings of Verdi's life. Henc e hi s carefulness with money . Fro m th e
start h e drov e hard , thoug h no t unreasonabl e bargains with publisher s
I
CIIV,pp. 7 2-3.
2
Ibid., p. 295.
Verdi a s Ma n an d Artist • 15 3
and management s an d was always ready to 'cavi l o n th e nint h par t o f a

hair'. H e neve r forgo t a debt ; an d thoug h h e coul d b e generou s t o a
defaulting debtor , i t wa s ofte n th e en d o f a friendship . Fo r Verd i wa s
curiously Victorian i n his attitude to bankruptcy. Those who coul d no t
manage their financial affair s a s well as he managed his had no righ t t o his
respect. He kne w nothin g o f the Marxia n trad e cycle .
However, h e was in no sense a miser. All the proceeds from the com -
position an d hir e o f hi s opera s (an d h e wa s probably th e highes t pai d
opera compose r i n Europe ) were—literally—ploughe d bac k int o th e
land. I n hi s works o f public beneficence—the Cas a di Riposo in Mila n
and th e Hospita l a t Villanova—h e wa s th e typica l Lombard-styl e pat -
riarch, supervisin g ever y detai l fro m th e huma n a s well a s the practica l
angle. No r di d hi s charitable deed s en d there . Hi s generosity extende d
not onl y t o th e poo r o f his immediate neighbourhood , whic h include d
some o f his distant relatives, but als o to member s o f his own professio n
who ha d falle n o n har d times . Hi s and Giuseppina' s gifts t o institution s
and individual s wer e mostl y mad e throug h thir d parties . N o on e was
more assiduou s in doing goo d by stealth.
'You pose as an advanced man', Shaw's Roebuck Ramsden exclaim s
with a snort. 'Le t m e tel l yo u tha t I was an advance d ma n befor e yo u
were born! ' T o whic h John Tanner , drily , ' I kne w i t wa s a long tim e
ago.' Verdi, also a Liberal in his youth and often claimed by the left as one
of themselves, would b e seen in his maturity to stand rather towards th e
right o f th e politica l spectrum . I n th e Risorgiment o year s h e ha d fol -
lowed the republica n ideal s of Mazzini and consorted wit h patriot s such
as Luciano Manara and others who frequente d th e salon of Clara Maffei .
Later he became an enthusiastic follower of Cavour. But with th e radical
governments tha t predominated i n Ital y after 187 6 he ha d no sympathy,
partly becaus e o f their tendenc y t o sid e with German y agains t France,
partly becaus e o f thei r colonia l polic y i n Africa . B y th e 18po s Englan d
was already urgin g Ital y to tak e u p th e whit e man' s burde n i n Eritrea .
The resul t wa s the devastatin g defea t a t Adu a i n 1896 . Thi s Verd i re -
garded as a salutary lesson; however muc h h e ha d modified the politica l
views o f his early days, he retaine d th e Mazzinia n belief tha t n o natio n
had a right to rule another. H e hoped tha t the English would likewise be
expelled fro m Indi a as the Austrian s had been fro m Italy. It is sad that his
last-known referenc e t o Shakespeare' s countrymen , t o who m h e ha d
154 ' V E R D I
generally shown himself benevolent, shoul d be a s 'sons of bitches'. An d

the Sout h Africa n Wa r ha d not ye t broken out !
In music, literature, the visual arts, as in politics, he always kept abreast
of events. I n matter s visual hi s taste was that o f his age, n o more . Th e
French journalist Etienn e Rouillet-Destrange s waxed ironica l ove r th e
furnishings o f Verdi's apartmen t i n Genoa , i n particula r a tapestr y de -
picting a pheasant—'the prid e an d joy o f a countr y parson'. 3 Man y o f
the sceni c ideas—undoubtedl y Verdi' s own—indicate d i n th e produc -
tion book o f Aida would rais e a smile if realised today. The garde n of the
Villa Verd i i s a typica l piec e o f Victoria n fantas y wit h it s grotto , lak e
and rowing boat . Hi s reading was wide, especially in the classics, and his
taste very personal . He preferre d imaginativ e variet y to forma l perfec-
tion; hence Ariosto to Tasso, and Shakespeare to everyone, including the
Greek dramatists . He dislike d 'naturalism ' o r 'verismo' which h e regar -
ded a s mere photograph y a s opposed t o painting . Hi s favourit e Italian
novel remaine d Manzoni' s I promessi sposi.
His musica l views wer e t o som e exten t coloure d b y hi s concern t o
protect hi s country's nationa l heritage. But the y were les s rigid than h e
made them appear. Like most of his coevals he undervalued Monteverd i
and th e earl y masters of Venetian baroque. Fo r hi m grea t musi c ceased
for a whil e wit h Palestrin a (who m h e revere d a s the fathe r o f Italian
music) an d bega n agai n wit h (surprisingly ) Benedett o Marcell o an d
Corelli. Otherwis e th e content s o f hi s private librar y ar e astonishingl y
varied. All the leading German composer s are represented from Bach to
Brahms; from Franc e Gounod, Bizet , Saint-Saens; Smetan a and Dvora k
are also there . H e migh t protes t tha t voca l no t instrumenta l musi c was
what suite d the Italia n genius; but o n th e shel f above his bed ar e all the
quartets of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven alongsid e the works of Shake-
speare, Schiller , Dant e an d Byron . H e als o possesse d Bach's Partitas ,
chorale prelude s an d th e Well-Tempere d Klavie r an d th e symphoni c
poems o f Liszt . Chora l masterpiece s includ e th e B mino r Mass , Bee -
thoven's Missa Solemnis, several of Handel's oratorios and the Requiems
of Mozart, Cherubin i an d Brahms. Hi s comment s o n individua l com -
posers are worth noting . O n Berlioz , whos e 'Trait é d'instrumentation '
he possesse d as well a s the score s o f L a Damnation d e Faust, Benvenuto
3 Ibid., pp. 205-6.

Cellini and the Carneva l Romain overture : ' a brilliant powe r o f inven-
tion, thoug h lackin g that calmnes s and poise tha t produces th e greates t
works o f art'. Howeve r h e ha d a real feeling fo r th e orchestr a an d an -
ticipated Wagner i n som e o f his most origina l effects . 'Th e Wagnerians
won't hav e i t so , but it' s th e truth.' 4 O f Gounod : ' a grea t musician , a
great talent who write s chamber and instrumental music of high quality
and i n a manner quite his own. Bu t h e i s not a n artist of dramatic fibre.
Even Faust, thoug h successful , ha s become diminishe d i n hi s hands...
He i s good a t the intimate piece but hi s dramatic situations are weak and
his characterisatio n poor.'5 O f Gluck' s Orfeo ed Euridice, see n i n 1890 :
' . . . the secon d ac t is really fine. Hearing i t I couldn't hel p bein g con -
firmed in my view that the Germans should stay German and the Italians
Italian. Eve n i n thos e day s i n whic h on e onl y wrot e melod y o r rathe r
melodic phrases in opera , th e Germa n wa s far more successfu l wit h th e
instrumental part, despite the meagr e orchestra of the time . I n this same
second ac t th e choruse s an d dance s o f th e Furie s ar e mos t powerful .
But th e musi c which Orfe o sing s accompanying himsel f o n th e lyr e is
not goo d enough. H e couldn' t manag e to find a calm, broad, deeply fel t
melody tha t was needed... ' A s a musician he considered Gluc k infe-
rior t o Handel . O f Rossin i an d Bellini, i n a letter t o Camill e Bellaigue ,
author o f 'Le s musiciens' : ' . . . I confes s I can' t hel p believin g tha t for
wealth o f rea l musica l ideas , comi c verv e an d trut h o f declamatio n //
barbiere di Siviglia is the bes t comic opera ever written. Lik e you I admire
Guillaume Tell but how many sublimities do you find in many of his other
operas? It's true that Belhni is poor in harmony and orchestration!... but
rich i n feelin g an d i n a melancholy entirel y hi s own. Eve n i n hi s less -
known operas , in Straniera and Pirata there are long, long melodies such
as no on e wrot e befor e him . An d how muc h trut h an d power o f dec -
lamation ther e i s especially in th e due t betwee n Pollion e an d Norma !
And ho w muc h loftines s o f thought i n th e first phrase of the Introdu -
zione of Norma, followed afte r a few bars by another phrase.. . which is
badly scored but whic h n o on e ha s surpassed for heavenly beauty.' 7 All
4
AVI, p. 295.
5
Ibid., pp. 221-2.
6
MCVB, pp. 172-3 .
7
LCC, pp. 415-16.
150 • V E R D I
these quotations have something to tell us about Verdi the composer; and
several of the phrase s that he single s out fin d a n echo i n hi s operas.
After a certain age the min d tend s to become close d to ne w impres -
sions, but no t Verdi's . True, there is no evidenc e that he ever came full y
to term s with th e music of the 'veristi' ; but hi s appreciation of Wagne r
undoubtedly developed over the years. His earliest reactions to Lohengrin,
which h e sa w in Bologna i n 1871 , wer e no t especiall y enthusiastic. He
liked certai n orchestral effect s bu t foun d th e oper a as a whole slo w an d
boring. By 188 6 he ha d come roun d t o it. ' I have a great admiration fo r
Wagner', he told a French journalist... 'Whatever one may say, there is
melody i n Wagner ; bu t yo u hav e t o kno w wher e t o fin d it . Bu t i n
general I have to admit that I prefer his earlier works to his later style and
Q
I wouldn' t pu t an y o f the m abov e Lohengrin.' Thirtee n year s later h e

pronounced th e secon d ac t o f Tristan un d Isolde 'on e o f th e sublimes t
creations of the human spirit'. 9 No furthe r evidenc e is needed of Verdi's
ever-widening creativ e horizons.
Over hi s private life Verd i was carefu l t o dra w a veil fro m th e start ,
more from a natural 'pudeur' than from having anything to hide. Those
who wante d informatio n h e woul d ofte n deliberatel y mislead , just as
he misled the criti c Filipp o Filipp i when h e told hi m that 'in my house
there i s hardly a note o f music'. 10 I n th e sam e wa y he like d t o pos e t o
his Mila n countesse s as a cynica l money-grubber wh o woul d retir e as
soon a s he ha d mad e his pile. Late r he woul d pose a s a farmer wh o ha d
forgotten al l he kne w abou t musi c an d just wante d t o plan t cabbages.
Would-be biographer s wer e show n th e door . Onl y th e wil y Giuli o
Ricordi succeeded in 187 9 in obtaining a n account o f Verdi's earl y tri -
umphs an d failure s i n Mila n an d on e whic h consciousl y o r no t wa s
already encruste d wit h legend . Bu t i t i s unlikel y tha t ther e wer e an y
skeletons t o b e found , apar t fro m thos e bout s o f nervou s irascibilit y
recorded b y Giuseppin a in he r diaries . Fro m certai n reference s in th e
letters we might gathe r that he was not abov e the occasional flirtation, if
not more than that, when in Piave's company, even after he had begun to
live with Giuseppina ; but the disordered sexual life of a Donizetti, Pacin i
8
CIIV,p. 165 .
9 Ibid., p. 317 .
IO
LCC, pp. 616-17.
or Petrella was certainly not for him. We shall probably never know why
he di d no t marr y Giuseppin a unti l 1859 , no r wh y he—an d hi s wife —
should hav e turne d s o violentl y agains t Mariani , no r ye t th e precis e
nature o f hi s relation s wit h Teres a Stolz , no r what , i f any , wer e hi s
religious beliefs . I n a word th e secret s of hi s ow n lif e wer e guarde d as
closely a s those o f his musical workshop .
For th e fundamenta l consistency of Verdi's outpu t acros s a style that
develops fro m crud e simplicit y t o th e utmos t refinemen t an d sophisti -
cation i s one o f the mos t baffling phenomen a i n music. Time and again
serious musi c lover s reare d o n th e Germa n classic s an d prepare d t o
recognise onl y Otello an d Falstaff a s worthy o f th e Europea n traditio n
have foun d themselve s carrie d furthe r an d furthe r bac k i n th e canon ,
discovering greatness where they had expected onl y triviality. Where lies
the explanation ? Partl y i n th e fac t tha t alon e amon g hi s Italia n con -
temporaries Verd i invariabl y treated eac h oper a a s an entirel y separat e
artistic proposition, eac h with it s own term s of reference and its special
musical 'tinta' or 'colorito', to use his own term . I t is not eas y to define,
though Verdi' s earliest commentator, Abram o Basevi, understood i t well
enough: a predominance o f certain melodic contours, rhythmic patterns,
harmonic progressions , phrase-length s an d s o on, s o blended a s to giv e
the oper a concerne d a recognisable physiognomy. 11 Th e abundanc e of
minor tonality, dar k and strange scoring and melodic interval s of a minor
second an d thir d al l make u p th e 'tinta ' o f Macbeth, just a s the leapin g
sixths (so h t o mi ) an d vigorous upwar d scale s precipitate that of Emani,
and th e pentatonics , th e paralle l sixth s an d th e barcarol e rhythm s tha t
of Simon Boccanegra. U trovatore coul d b e sai d t o hav e a doubl e tinta ,
derived from Azucena and Leonora respectively. One reason why Verdi's
revisions even a t twenty-five-years ' distanc e fro m th e origina l succee d
as well a s they d o i s that in ever y case he take s care to preserv e the ori -
ginal colouring .
All thi s implie s a very precis e calculatio n o f mean s t o end s an d a
complete absenc e ofthat facil e hedonism that marks the operas of Verdi's
older contemporaries such as Pacini and Mercadante. His music is always
dramatically functional . 'I don' t lik e pointless things',12 wa s a favourite
11
BSV, pp . 114-16 .
I2
LCC,pp. 243-4.
IfS • V E R D I
saying of his; also 'I do not write my notes at random but try to give them
a definit e character.' 13 I n othe r word s h e aime d t o realis e the dramati c
essence o f a given subjec t a s far a s his currentl y availabl e means would
allow; and if the means developed wit h the years, the end never changed.
It use d ofte n t o b e sai d tha t unti l hi s meeting wit h Boito Verdi , partl y
from a defective education, to o readil y accepted ba d librett i whic h in -
hibited his genius. The trut h is that with fe w exceptions, an d those very
early, h e dre w u p th e scheme s o f th e librett i himsel f wit h a vie w t o
getting th e subjec t on hi s own term s and those o f contemporary Italia n
opera, whos e convention s are for som e reason considere d s o much les s
respectable tha n thos e o f eighteenth-centur y oper a seria . No r di d h e
even begin sketching the music until the entire libretto was laid out to his
satisfaction in broad outline. So it was that at the time ofErnani Verd i was
able t o encompas s the hig h herois m o f Hugo's dram a bu t no t it s mo -
ments of irony and humour; seve n years later, in Rigoletto, he was able to
encompass both . 'I n de r Beschränkun g zeig t sic h ers t de r Meister' ,
Goethe remarked ; and it is that keen sense of its own limitations , its total
consistency withi n precis e boundarie s tha t make s th e earlie r wor k a s
satisfying o n a modes t leve l a s the late r o n a fa r more exalte d one . I n
neither doe s Verdi lapse into that unconscious absurdity that makes most
of Hugo's play s unperformable today . When Donizetti's Lucrezi a Borgia
(another Hug o subject ) pointedly remind s Do n Alfons o that h e i s her
fourth husband it is difficult t o suppress a snigger at this vignette of Borgia
home life . But we do not smile at Ernani's fatal bargain over the horn any
more than at the absent-mindedness o f Azucena. Verdi has an astonishing
faculty o f making u s take the mos t extravagan t situations seriously.
New subjects , ne w forms—thi s wa s Verdi's constan t cry. If the more
adventurous subject s (Rigoletto, L a traviata, Macbeth, Simon Boccanegra)
were th e mos t obviou s source s of self-renewal, i t i s the work s o f con -
solidation (/ / trovatore, U n bailo in maschera, Aida) tha t show mos t clearly
the steadil y developin g resources . I n hi s earl y opera s Verd i score d fo r
emphasis, doublin g th e voice part s here an d there wit h th e brighte r in -
struments and supporting them wit h elaborat e fidget y accompaniments .
Woodwind, strings and brass are combined i n set patterns; the colourin g
is hard and heraldic wit h n o hal f tones. Bu t graduall y th e combination s
T, . , pp . 109—11 .
13 Ibid.,
become mor e varie d an d imaginative ; th e colour s softe n int o mor e

delicate shades. Rhetoric turns into poetry; the sharp shocks which drive
the earlie r operas forward become smoot h transitions , aided by an ever-
widening melodi c an d harmoni c vocabulary . Al l these processe s kee p
pace wit h on e another , s o preserving the integrit y o f eac h opera . Bu t
Verdi never scruples to draw on earlie r procedures where the y serve his
purpose. At the sam e time, thoug h his language become s increasingly
acceptable t o academi c ears , hi s late r style remains fa r fro m orthodox .
Harmonic ellipses , a personal use o f seventh inversion s an d o f the 6/ 4
chord an d a discree t inclinatio n fo r non-functiona l harmon y i n th e
manner of Richard Strauss , all contribute t o a n entirely personal idiom .
Some of the progressions to be found in Otello are much harder to 'parse'
than anythin g i n Wagner .
Just a s the ma n ros e fro m a humble provincia l environmen t t o be -
come on e o f the mos t revere d patriarch s of the ne w Italy , so the artist
born int o a decayin g an d devitalise d operati c traditio n succeede d i n
creating a musical world o f infinite dept h an d variety. Both ar e a source
of continual wonder.
P A R T T W O
The Music
C H A P T E R T W E L V E
The Background
B EFORE CONSIDERIN G VERDl' s OW N CONTRIBUTIO N I T MA Y B E

useful t o tak e a brief look a t the operati c world int o which h e was
born an d th e kin d o f oper a t o whic h h e wa s heir. I t wa s not th e cos-
mopolitan Italia n opera o f the eighteent h century ; fo r by Verdi' s tim e
Italy's musical hegemony was in the past. She had long been a stranger to
the Germa n symphoni c traditio n which wa s to nouris h Germa n opera .
The Napoleoni c War s had disrupted communications between peoples ;
and Napoleo n himself , i f only fo r tactica l reasons , had fostere d nation -
alism i n hi s subjec t state s an d nowher e mor e successfull y tha n i n th e
Peninsula. Italian patriots looked o n him as their friend an d deliverer just
as the y viewe d Nelso n a s their enemy . Th e collaps e of the empir e wa s
followed by an explosion of opera in which the sense of national identity
awakened in th e previou s decade was powerfully affirmed. I n 182 3 that
staunch Italophil e Stendhal wrote: 'Napoleo n i s dead; but a new con -
queror ha s already shown himsel f to th e world ; an d fro m Mosco w t o
Naples, fro m Londo n t o Vienna , fro m Pari s t o Calcutta , hi s nam e i s
constantly on every tongue. The fam e of this hero knows no bounds save
those o f civilisation itself; an d h e i s not ye t thirty-two!' 1
The ne w conquero r wa s Gioachino Rossini, architec t and foremost
exponent o f a style o f opera which , wit h modifications , would surviv e
into th e mid-century . H e wa s Napoleon' s successo r onl y b y analogy ,
1
Stendhal, Life o f Rossini, trans. R. Co e (London , 1956) , p . i .
163
104 • V E R D I
being himsel f th e mos t unpolitica l o f men; indee d h e ha d n o scruple s

about settin g loyalist verse s at th e tim e o f th e Congres s o f Veron a i n
1821—a fac t whic h woul d b e remembere d agains t hi m twenty-seve n
yean later . Nor woul d Rossinia n oper a hav e flourishe d a s sturdily a s it
did had it not been wholly acceptable to the powers of the Holy Alliance.
Ornate, artificial , essentiall y hedonistic, it wa s well calculate d to diver t
attention fro m th e prowes s o f Italia n soldiers t o tha t o f Italia n singers.
For thi s wa s the ag e o f vocal virtuosity , when th e Frenc h husban d of
an Italian prima donna coul d declare that to fill a theatre he needed onl y
'ma femme et quatre ou cinq poupées'. The castrat o had nearly vanished
from th e scene , bu t th e voca l value s he represente d continue d t o pre -
vail. All voice type s from bas s to sopran o aspired to tota l flexibility and
show. Virtuoso tenors floated up to c" and d" in head voice. Whether th e
juvenile lea d was a tenor o r a contralto e n travesti made little différenc e
since both share d the sam e cool agility.
Rossinian oper a was a highly successfu l concorda t between singer and
composer. It s structural features—the ari a in two movements , on e slo w
and expressive , th e othe r fas t an d brilliant ; th e multi-movemen t duet s
that allow the singers to vie with each other, no w with the same material,
now with different; th e choral interventions that set the soloist on a ped-
estal, th e nois y orchestra l conclusions designe d t o whi p u p applause —
all these represent a concession to th e sta r performers of a golden ag e of
song. Ye t a t the sam e tim e Rossin i wa s able to contai n singers ' licenc e
with a wealth o f vocal floridity which accorde d perfectly with hi s ow n
flamboyant personality. The articulatio n of the drama in situations rather
than a steady developing actio n suited his essentially classical instinct for
balance and contrast. His skill in large-scale construction an d part-writing
is given scope in the grand 'concertato' which invariabl y ends the first of
the opera's two acts. This too will be in two contrasted , essentially static,
movements wit h intervening transition s during which th e action move s
forward. Th e concertat o i s the opera' s centr e o f gravity, usually occur-
ring a t some fata l discover y o r revelation which wil l determine th e des -
tiny of the hero o r heroine .
On th e negativ e side is the lac k of expressive harmony which a florid
style necessarily entails, and for which Rossin i wa s much blame d by his
German contemporarie s (Wagne r compare d hi s clusters of fioritur a t o
artificial flowers) . Bu t Rossini' s strength s li e in othe r directions : i n his
The Background • 16 5
readiness with the apt, if totally unexpected, modulation, i n a sureness of

rhythmic gras p and i n hi s aristocratic sense of style. Nor, excep t a t th e
moments where the sheer joy i n pattern-making led him to 'instrumen-
talise' th e voices , i s his vocal writing lackin g in expression . Within it s
essentially classica l idiom th e musi c i s by turn s noble , tende r an d rhe -
torically powerful. But on e consequenc e o f his restricted harmonic vo -
cabulary i s tha t th e expressio n i s somewhat generic , s o tha t th e sam e
music may serve for quit e differen t situations— a fac t whic h di d no t g o
unnoticed b y the hostile Berlioz, who wrote of the composer's 'melodic
cynicism' and 'disregard of the dramati c proprieties'.2 Weber also railed
against the Italian habit of clothing tragic sentiments in sweet harmonies.
None th e les s Rossin i ha d bequeathe d t o hi s successor s a n operati c
ground-plan whic h the y had only t o fill out i n a personal variant of his
own manne r to be sure of success; and this they were onl y too read y to
do. A s Pacin i pu t it , 'Everyon e followe d th e sam e school , th e sam e
fashions an d a s a result were al l followers o f th e Grea t Luminary. But,
good heavens, what was one to do if there was no other way of making a
living? I f I was a follower o f the grea t man o f Pesaro, s o was everyon e
else.'3
Verdi was born i n the year of Rossini's first international triumphs —
Tancredi and L'italiana in Algeri—and his early youth was passed under th e
Rossinian ascendancy . But by the tim e h e arrive d in Milan i n 183 2 th e
climate ha d changed . Th e tid e o f Romanticis m ha d washe d agains t
Rossinian opera , leaving its structure intact but alterin g its facade. Chie f
agent her e wa s Bellin i whos e U pirata o f 182 7 ha d proclaime d a new ,
more emotiona l style , marke d b y a sparin g us e o f floridity , a longe r
melodic articulation , a mor e expressiv e use o f harmony , includin g a n
abundance o f discord s an d appoggiatura s o n stron g beats—the whol e
suffused wit h tha t indefinabl e melanchol y characteristi c of Romanti c
lyricism. Bellini die d in 1835 ; but hi s influence was wide an d lasting—at
its best in Chopin, at its worst i n 'The Maiden's Prayer' .
The vogu e fo r Bellini als o brought wit h i t a fundamental change o f
vocal style , most eviden t i n th e cas e o f th e tenor . N o longe r wa s h e
required t o show the light flexibility demanded by Rossini, but rathe r a
2
H. Berlioz , Mémoires (Paris , 1870) , p. 102 .
3 G. Pacini , L e mie memorie artistiche, 2nd ed . (Florence , 1873) , p. 54 .
166 • V E R D I
sustained intensity of expression suitable to a romantic lover. The pionee r

was Rubini for whom Bellin i wrote mos t of his tenor roles and whom he
personally instructe d i n thei r interpretation . Lik e hi s successor, Mario ,
Rubini retained his head-notes, bu t most tenors of the time followed the
example o f Gilbert Dupre z who , brough t u p in the hig h Franco-Italia n
tradition, proceeded afte r 183 0 to cultivate the Voi x assombrée', singin g
everything up to high C with ful l chest resonance. He it was who created
that archetypal romantic tenor role, Edgard o in Donizetti's Lucia di Lam-
memoor, whose sol o musi c neve r exceed s B flat. At th e sam e time flo -
ridity vanishe d fro m th e lowe r mal e voices , remainin g onl y t o th e
soprano, who m i t surrounde d wit h a n aur a o f angeli c purit y o f th e
unattainable. T o conservative s lik e th e Belgia n encyclopaedis t Féti s all
this spelt th e deat h o f good singing . I f Verdi wa s blamed fo r destroyin g
the singer' s ar t wit h hi s emotional demands , so to a lesser degree wer e
Bellini an d Donizetti .
Meanwhile the forms of Italian opera had changed hardly at all, despite
the increasin g incidence o f romantic subjects . B y now th e commones t
plot was that of star-crossed lover s and a tragic ending. Th e centra l con -
certato woul d occu r a t the poin t wher e her o an d villain confron t on e
another i n th e presenc e o f th e heroin e an d a hos t o f bystanders . Th e
emotional situatio n woul d b e gathere d u p int o a clima x o f sa d sweet
song, to be followed by a burst of noisy energy with which to bring dow n
the curtain.
The mos t resourcefu l practitione r o f romantic oper a wa s Donizetti .
Less origina l tha n Bellini, h e ha d a far keener feelin g fo r dramati c pace.
No on e wa s more skilfu l a t combining an d varying the variou s operati c
forms to achieve swiftness of action without compromisin g th e structural
balance. Gifte d wit h a remarkable power o f self-renewal, he maintained
a gradual ascent over the course of some seventy operas, the last of which
sometimes anticipate the dramatic conquests of Verdi. Only his tendency
to remain within th e bounds of bland Rossinian harmon y combines with
a certai n over-facility t o arous e expectations whic h ar e no t alway s ful-
filled. The mos t learne d amon g hi s contemporarie s wa s Saveri o Mer -
cadante, who wa s much admire d b y Liszt. Not th e most spontaneou s of
composers, h e nevertheless achieved both distinctio n and dramatic force
with a group o f operas written roun d abou t 1840 , before relapsing int o
mannerism an d self-repetition . Lesse r lights o f th e perio d wer e Pacini ,
The Background • 16 7
whose Saffo remaine d in the repertor y for som e fifty years , and the
brothers Luigi and Federico Ricci, remembered today for their fairy-tale
comedy Crispina e la comare. Ultramontan e influenc e impinged , mainl y
through the Frenc h operas of Rossini whic h began to find their way to
Italy i n the 1830 5 and were t o resul t in a n increased participation of th e
chorus. Bu t i n th e mai n Italia n oper a o f th e perio d remaine d almost
provincially Italian.
What, then , wa s th e secre t o f it s phenomenal internationa l succes s
which made French and German composers grind their teeth in envy and
Berlioz want to blo w u p th e Theatr e de s Italiens and al l its aficionados?
Partly Italia n singers , still the bes t i n Europ e i n pure voca l accomplish -
ment; partly the Northerners' traditiona l Sehnsucht for the land where the
lemon tree s bloom. But mor e than that Italia n opera possessed a purely
musical fluency which Frenc h and German were much slower to attain.
The reaso n lies in the wealt h of ancillary element s of which th e Italian s
had dispose d for tw o centuries . Firs t wa s a uniquely flexibl e syste m of
verse metre s whic h ha d obtaine d sinc e th e tim e o f Monteverd i an d
Busenello an d woul d las t throughou t mos t o f th e nineteent h century ;
next a tradition of conversational recitative in 'vers i sciolti' whic h stoo d
composers i n goo d stea d whe n through-compose d oper a becam e th e
rule. I t wa s a long tim e befor e Germa n composer s foun d such suitable
connecting tissu e fo r thei r forma l numbers . Despit e th e nobl e experi -
ment ofEuryanthe, th e best of Weber's musi c is to be found i n his operas
with spoken dialogue. Schubert's Fienabras is far superior to his through-
composed Alfonso una Estrella. Lortzing , Marschne r an d Nicola i re -
mained a t hom e wit h th e Singspiel format . Finall y Italy never lacke d a
recognised styl e of dramatic poetry. True, by the nineteenth centur y the
pure, chiselle d languag e of Metastasio had give n wa y t o a more high -
flown jargon. Yet the profession of operatic poet was well regarded; and
there wa s no deart h o f skille d fabricator s o f 'musicable ' verse—Felic e
Romani, Jacopo Ferretti , Gaetano Rossi, Domenic o Gilardon i all knew
how t o extrapolat e fro m drama s old an d ne w just thos e situation s that
would len d themselve s most readil y to operati c treatment ; how t o tri m
the cast s so as to arrive at no more than four ful l principals ; and above all
how t o render ever y plot harmless in the eye s of the censor . Suc h is the
advantage of a centuries-old tradition . In the nineteenth centur y France,
Germany an d Russia had 'operas' ; Italy had an 'opera'.
C H A P T E R T H I R T E E N
From Obert o t o Ernani
F ? ' OR HIS FIRST OPERA VERDI CHARACTERISTICALLY CHOSE A SUBJECT

out o f the commo n run . Th e provenanc e of Oberto, Conté d i San
Bonifacio ha s never been established ; nor ca n we b e sur e how muc h o f
it wa s carrie d over fro m Rocester. Th e her o i s an outrage d fathe r wh o
returns to the land of which h e has been dispossessed to find his daugh-
ter, Leonora , seduce d an d abandone d b y th e usurper , Riccardo . To -
gether they present themselves to Cuniza , the bride-to-be; then having
enlisted he r sympathy they confront Riccardo i n the presence of his fol-
lowers (th e usual concertato-finale). Th e weddin g is broken off ; but this
does not prevent Oberto from challenging Riccardo to a duel and being
killed b y him . Riccardo , remorseful , goe s int o exil e bequeathin g hi s
possessions to Leonora, who concludes the opera with the prima donna's
traditional 'rondo-finale ' o f grief and delirium .
At th e centr e o f th e action , therefore , a prototype o f Rigoletto : a
brooding father , tor n betwee n tendernes s for hi s daughter an d a n im -
placable desire to be avenged on her seducer; a character who expresses
himself most vividly i n recitative and arioso. Yet throughou t th e oper a
Verdi's individual voice is heard only by fits and starts. Bellini's influence
is evident in the andant e of the overtur e with it s two cantabil i trumpets
(the melod y i s heard agai n as a brida l chorus) ; i n a somewha t langui d
duet between Cuniz a an d Riccardo; i n two mal e choruses of Act II; in
the andante of the rondo-finale 'Sciagurata! a questo lido', reminiscent of
Amina's 'Ah non credea mirarti' but with a powerful dramatic thrust; and
168
From Obert o t o Ernan i • 16 9
in a duet-movement fo r the two wome n 'A l cangiar di sorte infida', cu t

from th e first performance an d therefor e the voca l score, i n which th e
two voice s mov e i n third s ove r a typicall y Bellinia n accompanimen t
of cello arpeggios , sustaining violas and pizzicato violins.
The hand of Mercadante can be sensed in the grand gestures of the Act
I concertato and in the terzetto in the form of a false cano n for Leonora,
Cuniza and Oberto. Cuniz a has a highly Rossinian cabalett a at the start
of Act II; and even Mozart's Commendator e seem s to stand behind tw o
of Oberto's more melodramati c appearances. In every case Verdi is sim-
pler an d blunter tha n his models. Th e resul t can be naif to th e point o f
embarrassment, as in parts of the Leonora/Oberto duet and Oberto's on e
aria; but i t can also be dignified and touching, as in Riccardo's somewhat
Donizettian romanz a i n Ac t I I ('Ciel , ch e feci!' ) wit h it s unusual tonal
scheme. Verd i prefer s t o en d a n idea abruptl y rathe r the n exten d i t by
means of'sweet nothings' . Henc e th e unusually concise and condensed
nature both o f Riccardo's cavatina in Act I and Leonora's rondo-finale .
The mos t prophetic moment , however , occur s just before the duel ,
where, a t MereUi's suggestion, Verdi had inserte d a quartet fo r the fou r
principals. Here for the first time we encounter that huge rhythmic span,
based o n a simple pattern of slow accompanying triplets, tha t wealth o f
ideas within a small compass that marks so many ensembles of the youn g
Verdi. Indee d th e followin g phras e turns u p agai n almos t unaltere d i n
U corsaro o f 1848 .
The secon d act succeeds better than the first, not because the music is
superior, but rathe r because the dram a is better paced ; as so ofte n wit h
Verdi, th e oper a gather s momentu m a s it proceeds . A contemporar y
reviewer note d a t th e first performance tha t th e applaus e for Act I was
meagre, tha t fo r Act I I enthusiastic . This i s equally tru e o f modern re -
vivals. Th e firs t ac t drags; the secon d hold s th e attentio n fro m star t t o
finish; nobody leave s the theatr e with a sense of anti-climax .
Still less characteristi c as a whole i s U n giorno d i regno. I n non e o f hi s
compositions publishe d t o dat e ha d Verd i show n an y propensit y fo r
comedy. Oper a buff a wa s still a genre apar t demanding four stereotype d
ingredients—the witty sprightl y soprano or mezzo, th e romanti c tenor ,
much sentimentalise d sinc e 1830 , th e chatterin g bass o buff o an d th e
basso cantant e wh o sing s lyrically, i f ironically, wit h th e uppe r par t o f
his voice but wh o ca n turn himsel f into a basso buffo fo r purposes of a
ÏJO • VERD I
comic duet. If II barbiere di Siviglia remains the classi c of the pre-Romantic

age, Donizetti' s L'elisir d'amore i s that of the Romantic , it s humour in -
fused b y a not to o seriou s pathos. Th e librett o whic h Verd i chose , no t
willingly bu t a s the least uncongenial o f those available, dated fro m 1818 ;
despite a sentimental tenor , i t i s much neare r t o th e Rossin i tha n th e
Donizetti model . A youn g Frenc h office r i s require d t o impersonat e
Stanislas Lescinsky, King of Poland, so that the rea l monarch ca n return
home incognito , thu s giving his enemies the slip . As honoured gues t of
the Baro n Kelbar in Brittany the fals e Stanisla s makes use of his position
to effect th e wedding of his host's daughter with the man she loves in the
teeth o f parenta l oppositio n an d a t th e sam e tim e i s reconciled t o hi s
former sweethear t wh o i s on th e poin t o f marrying someone else . Th e
plot requires as well as the standard four roles an extra female principal for
the daughte r an d a n extr a bass o buff o fo r he r unwelcom e suitor . Bu t
clearly everything depends o n the delineatio n o f the Chevalie r Belfiore ;
he must combine th e resource and cunning o f a Figaro with th e manne r
of a Dandini—one moment al l regal authority, the nex t chucklin g with
delight a t his own cleverness . The contras t was not on e tha t came easily
to Verdi, whose penchant, evident from his earliest years, was for making
the audienc e tak e th e mos t unlikel y event s seriously . His Belfior e err s
throughout o n th e sid e of solemnity. Typica l i n thi s respect is the Ac t I
duet wher e th e youn g love r Edoard o beg s th e 'sovereign ' t o tak e hi m
into his service as a soldier. Belfiore goes one better; he appoints Edoardo
his personal equerr y muc h t o th e youn g man' s delight . Th e mode l fo r
the due t i s clearly 'Venti scudi ' fro m L'elisir d'amore. I t is laid ou t i n th e
same three movements : a n allegro openin g i n dialogue, a central section
of asides and a final cabaletta. Neither o f the first two movements ha s any
distinction, th e second being downright clumsy ; but th e cabaletta strikes
a new not e tha t is clearly reflected i n th e tenor' s text :
Infiammato d a spirto guerrier o

Scorrerô déli a glori a i l sendero.
Not Romani , but th e swaggerin g decasyllabic s of the Risorgimento; of

the youn g Manzon i an d Temistocle Solera , wh o a s resident poe t o f La
Scala was doubtless responsible for an y alterations in Romani's libretto .
Verdi responde d lik e a warhorse to the trumpet with a martial variant of
Ex. i i n Oberto:
Ex. i
Ex. 2
Most o f th e oper a relie s o n cheerfu l buff o commonplace , coarse r an d

heavier tha n tha t i n Rossin i o r Donizett i an d wit h muc h banda-lik e
scoring; nearer in fac t t o th e styl e of Luigi Ricci whose oper a semiseria,
Chiara di Rosemberg, ha d bee n on e o f th e successe s o f L a Scal a durin g
Verdi's student days. The bes t of the oper a is to be found i n the ensem -
bles: ther e ar e tw o vigorou s quarre l duet s between th e buffi , on e o f
which ('Duett o genero') hint s at the Aida trumpet march .
Especial care went t o the concertat o of Act I where Belfior e surprise s
the Baro n an d Treasure r an d temporaril y shame s the m int o makin g
peace. Th e movemen t build s up impressivel y voice b y voic e afte r th e
Baron's opening stanz a ('I n qua l punto i l re c i ha coito!')—an irregula r
declamatory melod y whic h Verd i woul d perfec t thre e opera s late r i n
Ernani at a similar dramatic moment. There is an ingenious sestetto ('Cara
Giulia, alfin t i vedo!') in which th e various threads are effectively picke d
out—the 'billings and cooings' o f the lovers, the military talk of Belfiore
and th e Baron, th e Treasurer' s grumbling—al l cut short by the appear -
ance of the Marchesa, which sets off a general 6/8 scrambl e ('Madamine,
il mi ó scudiere') . A hauntin g terzett o fo r Giulietta , Edoard o an d a
172 • V E R D I
distracted Marchesa carries memories o f the minue t fro m Do n Giovanni.

Feeblest among th e ensemble s is the settimin o 'A tal colpo preparata', a
plodding imitatio n o f Rossini's 'Quest' è un nod o awiluppato ' fro m L a
Cenerentola.
Although at the tim e Verdi considered U n giomo di regno sunk beyond
recall an d too k n o furthe r interes t i n it , th e oper a enjoye d tw o fairl y
successful revival s in Venice in 184 5 and in Naples in 1859 . Ricordi paid
it th e complimen t o f publishin g i t unde r th e origina l titl e o f H ßnto
Stanislao, thereb y indicatin g that it ha d completel y eclipse d Gyrowetz '
opera. Indeed to insist as we do nowadays on the meaningless Un giorno di
regno is rather like calling Rossini's comi c masterpiec e Almaviva o l'inutil
precauzione.
None th e les s th e Verd i boom o f the las t twenty-five year s has no t
succeeded i n bringin g hi s second oper a bac k into th e repertory . I n his
early years Verdi's most conspicuous talent was for the cumulative effect ,
here precluded by bouts of recitativo secco. The moments which remain
most i n th e min d ar e those o f chuckling droller y tha t Verd i wil l recal l
in th e musi c of Fra Melitone (Ex . 3) .
In Nabucco th e influenc e of Verdi' s predecessor s still operates . Th e
model fo r thi s work i s Rossini's Moïse e t Pharaon, the Frenc h version o f
Ex. 3
his Mosè i n Egitto an d familia r t o Italia n audiences as H Mosè nuovo t o

distinguish it from its predecessor. Like Moïse, Nabucco is concerned wit h
the persecutio n o f the Jews b y a foreign power, thei r captivit y in exil e
and thei r eventua l triumph . Th e equivalen t o f Mose s i s Zacearí a th e
prophet, likewis e a bass wit h al l the bas s voice' s aptitud e fo r cal m au -
thority. Th e persecutor is in both case s a dynamic baritone. A s in Ros -
sini's oper a ther e i s a love interes t that span s th e opposin g sides ; bu t i t
no longe r occupie s a prominent place . Bot h Ismael e th e Israelit e an d
Nebuchadnezzar's daughter Fenen a are comprimario roles . Eve n a love
duet for which Soler a had written th e verses was rejected by Verdi wh o
wanted a prophec y b y Zacearí a instead . Th e sopran o lea d i s also th e
villainess of the piece, Abigaille, supposedl y a daughter of Nabucco bu t
in fac t th e chil d o f a harem slav e by on e o f the King' s wives . Sh e it is
who admit s the Assyrian troops into Jerusalem by a ruse and assumes the
crown when the king is struck down by madness. But in the depths of his
abasement Nabucco prays to the God of Israel; his faculties are restored to
him, and he leads out his troops in time to save Fenena and the Jews from
execution. I n a fit o f remorse Abigaille commit s suicide .
Whatever th e orde r i n whic h th e scor e wa s composed , it s stylistic
heart is to be found i n the great chorus of Hebrew slave s ('Va, pensiero')
which remain s it s chie f adornmen t t o thi s day , a transfigured national
anthem, embodyin g th e longing s an d aspiration s of a whole people . It s
principal feature s wil l appea r in many a Verdi oper a fro m her e on— a
slow, simpl e lin e articulate d in lon g strain s and underpinne d b y triple t
pulsations. Though it seemed entirely new to the Milanese of its time, its
prototype ca n be found , unexpectedly , i n th e chora l pendan t t o Rai -
mondo's narrativ e aria in Lucia d i Lammermoor ('Dall e stanze ove Lucia').
Thicken th e orchestra l texture , simplif y th e rhyth m an d exten d th e
scale of Donizetti's melod y an d you arriv e somewhere nea r the manne r
of early Verdi. But whil e Donizett i slip s unobtrusively into harmon y a t
the fina l cadence , Verdi explode s int o i t a t the star t o f the thir d stanza
('arpa d'or' ) wit h electrifyin g effect . Characteristi c to o i s th e patter n
of woodwind semi-quaver s tha t decorat e th e repris e of Ex. 4 , a rather
naive device for increasing the rhythmi c momentum .
The 'Va , pensiero ' styl e i s the opera' s mai n artery . I t i s prefigured
directly in Zaccaria's cavatina 'D'Egitto là sui lidi' in which he rallies the
174 ' V E R D I
Ex. 4
terror-stricken Israelite s (significantl y th e uniso n choru s break s i n o n

both movements); in the concertato finales of both the first two acts, but
particularly th e second— a fals e cano n o f remarkabl e rhythmi c weigh t
and tensio n i n whic h onc e mor e th e uniso n choru s play s a prominen t
role. The sam e manner, lightened by hope, pervades the 'prophecy' that
concludes Act III. Above al l it determines th e scal e and characte r of th e
ensembles. Th e openin g scene s of both Nabucco an d Moïse ru n parallel ;
but whereas Rossini i s happy to make do with tw o contraste d ideas, one
minor an d on e major , Verd i lay s ou t th e scen e in thre e massiv e para-
graphs, each with its own scorin g and rhythmic cut : the first a hurricane
of scale s an d diminishe d seventh s in E mino r ('Gl i arred i festivi" ) usin g
full orchestra ; the secon d fo r uniso n basses and a chorale o f lower brass
and bassoons; the thir d for women onl y with har p and woodwind i n E
major ('Gra n Num e ch e voli') i n which ful l voice s and orchestra even-
tually join. Here is primitive grandeur on a huge scale and a driving force
which make s Rossini's score seem almost sedate.
The thre e principal s are correspondingl y large r than life . Zacearí a is
the spearhea d of the Israelites , an Oroveso more closel y identified with
his peopl e tha n Bellini' s Archdruid . Nabucc o an d Abigaill e ar e bot h
monsters with the occasional redeeming moments of pathos. For the first
Verdi had the benefit of the finest baritone of his day, Giorgio Ronconi;
for th e secon d Giuseppin a Streppon i prove d s o manifestl y inadequate
that it is more likely that Verdi conceived thi s very demanding rol e mor e
in term s o f Sofi a Loewe , a well-known 'donn a d i forza ' wh o ha d ap -
peared a t La Scala earlier in the season . From he r first appearance, whe n
she interrupts the tender colloqu y o f Ismaele and Fenena, now a hostage
to th e Israelites , Abigaille show s he r claws , firs t i n phrase s o f snarlin g
sarcasm ('Prod e guerrier!') ; then he r fur y erupt s in ful l forc e (Ex . 5).
Ex.5
In thi s a s in mos t o f Verdi's earl y operas the character s define them-

selves mor e sharpl y in ensemble s tha n i n sol o arias . Thu s i n th e con -
certato finale of Act I ('Tremin gl'insani') Verd i breaks with tradition i n
keeping th e participant s musically separate without disturbin g th e sense
of a melodic unit . Nabucc o blusters; Abigaille vents her anger in soaring
leaps an d plunges ; Zacearí a remain s steadfast ; th e lover s plead lyrically .
Only wit h th e releas e of Fenen a b y Ismael e just a s she i s about t o b e
stabbed b y Zacearí a doe s the musi c plunge into a noisy, indiscriminat e
stretta.
Act II I offer s a n earl y example o f the Verdia n 'dynami c duet'. Out -
wardly i t follow s th e traditiona l three-movemen t plan— a dialogue , a
joint soliloqu y an d a cabalett a sparke d of f b y a n off-stag e signal . Bu t
instead of being set out in parallel verses the first movement i s designed as
a series of short exchanges over an orchestral theme in what Basevi called
a 'parlant e misto' 1 (compar e 'O r sia m soli ' fro m Donizetti' s Lucrezia
Borgia). I t is a particularly apt solution since the character s are not merel y
1
BSV, p. 32.
i y6 VERDI
expressing thei r point s o f view . Nabucc o mus t sig n th e Jews ' deat h
warrant, the n realis e that Fenena is amongst them; while Abigaill e must
tear u p th e evidenc e o f her humbl e birt h befor e Nabucco' s eyes . He r
mockery is summed up in an impudent orchestral phrase with woodwin d
prominent (Ex . 6).
Ex. 6
The centra l sectio n is , as usual, a joint asid e bur on e i n whic h th e

voices remain as far apart as possible. Nabucco expresses himself in simple
phrases in a n unstable F minor suitabl e to hi s wandering stat e of mind ;
Abigaille remain s firml y in D flat major glorying i n he r ne w authorit y
with many an imperious vocal gesture. When the voices eventually join,
it is in her key , though eac h singer retains his own identit y throughout .
In th e las t movement Nabucc o make s one las t appeal to Abigaill e i n a
slow melod y quit e unlik e tha t o f a norma l cabaletta . Sh e replie s wit h
Ex. 6, now a vocal, no t a n orchestral theme. Bot h musica l ideas are re -
peated before a final coda winds up th e duet . I t would b e eas y to poin t
to mor e graceful , bette r balance d and mor e delicatel y score d duet s by
Verdi's predecessors ; bu t ther e i s none i n whic h th e dramati c curren t
moves s o swiftly.
The remainin g solo s are more variabl e in quality . Abigaille' s doubl e
aria ('Anch'i o dischius o u n giorno' ) i s assured in styl e i f not especiall y
characteristic; but w e may note i n the first movement Verdi' s penchan t
From Obert o t o E r n a n i • 17 7
for throwin g th e mai n weigh t o f a cantabil e o n it s final phrase; als o a

Bellini-like us e o f expressiv e fioritur a withou t Bellini' s fondnes s fo r
appoggiature. More remarkabl e is Zaccaria's prayer, 'Tu che sul labbro' ,
following th e offstag e conversio n o f Fenena. Her e t o a ric h tapestr y of
six solo cello s h e speak s no t a s the leade r o f hi s people bu t rathe r a s a
man o f God wit h a noble simplicit y o f utterance and a richness of har -
monic inflexio n that almost carrie s us outside the world o f Italian opera.
There follow s a storm y scen e betwee n Ismael e an d th e Lévite s whic h
could be described as 'exasperated' Donizetti. Nabucco's 'Di o di Giuda!'
preceded b y a 'nightmare ' prelude— a montag e o f previousl y hear d
themes—and a powerful recitative shows Verdi's ability to creat e some-
thing movin g ou r o f Italia n oper a commonplac e whe n aptl y sited ; s o
too doe s Fenena' s smal l preghiem 'Oh , dischius o è il firmamento!' Tw o
solos stand out a s entirely sui generis: Nabucco's ('Ch i mi toglie il regio
scettro?') wit h it s manic alternation s o f majo r an d minor , andant e an d
allegro, an d Abigaille' s deat h scen e ('S u m e morent e esanime') , a free
arioso score d onl y fo r co r anglais , harp , cell o an d bas s wit h touche s
of clarinet , bassoo n an d finally—signifyin g deat h i n a stat e o f grace —
arpeggiating flute . I t i s th e firs t o f thos e miniature s score d fo r a mere
handful o f contraste d instrument s t o b e foun d i n al l the opera s u p t o
Macbeth. Th e mor e pit y tha t i t shoul d hav e bee n regularl y cu t durin g
Verdi's lifetime.
If Verdi had written nothin g else , Nabucco would hav e ensured him a
place in musica l history. Everything abou t it breathes a new ai r of con -
fidence even down t o the recitatives . Very little of it is poor—the banda
march in Act IV, reputedly based on one which he wrote for Busseto; the
hastily written overtur e based on theme s fro m th e oper a includin g 'Va ,
pensiero' twisted , Rossini-fashion , int o a different time : a jolly, Sunda y
bandstand piece containin g an anomaly of tempo whic h fe w conductors
manage to resolv e satisfactorily .
Of all Verdi's operas Nabucco depends for its effect o n the excellence o f
its chorus. I t is not well-serve d b y recordings whos e chie f attraction lies
in star principals and a refinement of orchestral sound. At this stage of his
career Verdi scored for emphasis, sonorous o r rhythmic. To tur n the ful l
searchlight o f stereophoni c techniqu e o n th e reach-me-dow n device s
whereby h e maintains the scal e and momentum o f numbers suc h a 'Gli
arredi festivi ' i s to d o the m n o servic e whatever. Nabucco will alway s be
iy8 • V E R D I
heard to best advantage in live performance by a repertory company with

adequate choral resources .
/ Lombardi alla prima crodata (1843 ) wa s clearly designed t o follo w u p
the success ofNabucco wit h as little self-repetition a s possible. Accordingl y
Verdi and Solera chose a plot which wa s not onl y far removed fro m that
ofNabucco bu t a very unlikely choice for an opera at all: an epic poem of
the crusade s by Tommas o Grossi , a friend o f Manzoni. Partl y a famil y
saga, partl y th e stor y o f a campaign , it s events spa n mor e tha n twent y
years; yet the y mus t be compresse d int o a s few a s will make th e youn g
heroine remai n plausibl y young throughout . I t begin s wit h th e publi c
reconciliation o f tw o feudin g brothers, Arvin o an d Pagano . Bot h ha d
been rivals for the hand of Viclinda, who ha d eventually chosen Arvino.
But Pagan o ha s neve r becom e resigne d t o he r los s even afte r sh e ha s
borne Arvino a daughter who i s now grow n up. Late r that night h e sets
fire to th e famil y home , onl y t o fin d tha t hi s victim i s not Arvin o bu t
their father, Folco . He i s banished, turns hermit an d spends the next few
years livin g i n a cav e nea r Antioch ; her e h e i s able t o rende r valuabl e
assistance t o th e Crusader s including hi s own brother , wh o fail s t o rec -
ognise him . Th e res t o f th e oper a i s th e stor y o f Arvino' s daughter ,
Giselda. Capture d b y th e Sulta n o f Antioc h sh e fall s i n lov e wit h th e
Sultan's so n Oront e an d h e wit h her . Eve n afte r he r rescu e b y th e
Lombards she joins hi m i n the deser t where h e die s in her arms , a con -
verted Christian . Durin g th e grea t drough t whic h cause s the Crusader s
to dro p lik e flies Oronte appear s to Giseld a i n a dream , directin g he r
to 'coo l Siloim' s shad y rill'. Refreshed , th e Christia n arm y joins battl e
with th e Muslim s an d defeat s them . Pagano , fatall y wounded , die s i n
the odou r of sanctity, having revealed al l to hi s brother an d niece .
Solera's adaptation is skilful and reasonably true to the original, even if
the convenienze require Giseld a to appea r in a scene which i n th e poe m
takes place before she was born an d her life t o be prolonged beyon d th e
end o f the oper a (i n the poe m sh e dies a victim of thirst); but ther e was
no makin g a dramati c unit y ou t o f such a sprawling narrative . Indeed ,
variety rathe r tha n unit y seem s to hav e been th e ai m here; an d for this
Verdi wa s as yet inadequatel y equipped . Th e musica l qualit y o f / Lom-
bardi fluctuate s disconcertingly . A chatterin g narrative chorus , word s
syllabated over a march-like tune o f incredible banality, is followed by a
sextet with a chorus (Tassale un tremito') tha t has the dramatic force of
some o f hi s later ensembles , eac h singer' s moo d define d b y hi s or he r
vocal line. The n ther e is a chorus of crusading fervour ('AU'empi o ch e
infrange'), whic h i s little mor e tha n a series of emphatic gestures; this in
turn give s wa y t o a naive , no t unattractiv e marc h ('O r basta!.. . ne
l'odio'); a scene of almost comic villain y for Pagano and hi s henchme n
rubs shoulders with one of the gems of the score, Giselda's 'Salve Maria'.
Erminia Frezzolin i wh o create d th e rol e wa s note d fo r he r smooth ,
expressive legato singing; accordingly her melody is remarkably plain and
unadorned eve n fo r a 'preghiera' . A s i n Abigaille' s death-arioso , th e
scoring is selective—eight violins, two violas, one bass, flute and clarinet.
The melod y evolve s i n tw o periods ; onl y wit h th e secon d doe s th e
tonality unequivocally declare itself with a melody tha t Verdi will recall
in hi s Pater noster o f 188 0 (Ex . 7).
Ex.7
A similar heartfelt simplicit y pervades the lov e due t from Ac t II I (' O

belle, a questa misera') whose lon g melodic line s are not spoil t by over-
emphasis eithe r i n th e voic e part s or th e accompaniment . Eve n -wher e
extreme bravura would hav e been i n order , a s in the cabalett a ('Non f u
sogno!') following her vision of Oronte, Giselda's joy i s expressed rather
by syncopations , variegate d win d doubling s o f th e voca l lin e an d th e
occasional bold progression, al l of which combin e t o make it one o f the
most effectiv e number s o f th e opera . Th e rondo-finale , 'S e van o è il
pregare', which end s Act I I is, despite the fier y outburst of its cabaletta,
disappointingly commonplace, usin g material that Donizetti would have
developed t o muc h better purpose .
Once h e ha s turned hermit , Pagan o acquire s the somewha t generi c
nobility o f his calling, whic h doe s much t o redee m th e crudel y score d
'Ma quand o u n suo n terribile' , hi s cantabile o f Act II , cas t i n th e usual
l80 • V E R D I
minor/major form of a romanza. Oronte presents himself with a cavatina

in which, fo r once, the cantabil e with it s massively swinging three-puls e
rhythm an d secon d bea t cadenc e ('L a mi a letizi a infondere' ) i s mor e
energetic than the cabaletta which follows it ('Come poteva un angelo'),
which is possibly why Verdi provided an alternative cabaletta to the same
words bu t i n a lighter, fleete r rhythm . Bot h ar e printe d i n th e score .
Oronte's solo, delivered from Heave n to an accompaniment of harps and
stage band, may be passe d over in silence.
It was with his choruses that Verdi had created the greatest impression
in Nabucco. Accordingly in I Lombardi there are choruses galore; choruses
of nuns, of 'sbirri', o f Muslim ambassadors , of mocking odalisque s and
of cours e crusadin g armies . Fo r thes e las t Verd i devise d a particularl y
brash theme t o serve as the Crusaders ' motif (Ex. 8). The Ac t IV chorus
'O Signore , da l tetto natio ' deliberatel y exploit s th e vei n o f 'Va , pen -
siero'; an d indee d fo r many Italian s o f th e tim e i t seeme d eve n mor e
poignant. Fo r listeners of today its dignity ma y be somewha t compro -
mised by the woodwind trilling s and gurglings that represent the streams
of Lombardy, o f which th e thirst-stricke n Crusader s are dreaming. Fa r
more strikin g is the pilgrims' choru s at the start of Act III ('Gerusalem!'),
another one of those pieces in which Verdi seems to anticipate the nobl e
austerity o f his final religious works.
Ex. 8
As i f all this wer e no t enough , th e oper a include s an orchestra l in -

terlude descriptive of the battle between Christian s and Muslims, the first
represented b y full orchestra and Ex. 8 , the second by the military band;
while the third scene of Act III is preceded by a prelude with concertant e
violin writte n i n the style of a Paganini concerto. Th e violi n supplie s an
obbligato fo r th e entir e scene , which , fortunately , Verd i brough t t o a
truly fin e conclusio n wit h a terzetto fo r Giselda , Pagan o an d th e dyin g
Oronte ('Quai voluttà trascorreré'). This is the high point o f the score: a
From Obert o t o E r n a n i • l8 l
majestically unfoldin g andante , Bellini-like in length bu t more varied i n

its texture an d with a wider tona l range and, above all, with a harmoni c
climax beautifully calculated on it s final phrase.
I Lombardi, then, i s a patchwork; a n opera o f indiscriminate vitality i n
which ther e ar e several inspired moments; thes e include not onl y whole
numbers bu t als o snatche s of lyrical arioso tha t anticipat e those phrases
which i n th e matur e Verd i wil l d o dut y fo r whol e arias . But i t i s im -
possible for us to recapture the enthusiasm of its first audiences for whom
it had the char m of being based on an Italian subject by a popular Italian
poet. Besides , i t i s a difficult oper a t o stage , havin g n o les s tha n eleve n
changes of scene. I t is rarely to b e see n today .
Emani on th e othe r han d ha s never lef t th e Italia n repertoire sinc e it
was first staged in 1844 . This i s a unique distinction fo r an early opera o f
Verdi's, but it can easily be understood. Her e th e composer ha s returned
to dramati c concentration. Th e logi c tha t underlies Victor Hugo' s most
extravagant conceit s provided hi m with th e premise tha t he needed . As
Bernard Sha w aptl y remarked , 'I t wa s Victo r Hugo' s chie f meri t a s a
dramatist to furnish Verdi with librettos.'2 No longer harnessed to Solera,
this time it was Verdi who planne d the shape of Emani, having perceived
the operatic skeleto n beneath the trappings of the play. Three men are in
love wit h th e sam e woman, Don a So l (Elvira in th e opera) : her elderl y
uncle, Silva , wh o i s also he r guardian ; Do n Carlo , Kin g o f Spain; an d
Ernani, a young noblema n wit h a price o n hi s head, wh o ha s turne d
bandit. Knowing tha t she returns his love, Ernani decides to carry her off .
But Do n Carl o ha s had the sam e idea; and Ernani arrives to find Elvira
repulsing his advances. All three are surprised by the appearance of Suva;
only Do n Carlo' s presenc e o f mind save s the situation . H e ha d merel y
come, h e said , t o canva s Silva' s suppor t fo r hi s candidatur e a s Hol y
Roman Emperor. Ernan i he passes off as one of his followers. Fro m the n
on alliances dissolve and re-form. Ernani, pursued by Carlo, seek s shelter
in Silva' s castle disguised a s a palmer. Despit e evidenc e tha t Ernan i ha s
abused hi s hospitality , Silv a hide s hi m fro m th e Kin g wh o the n take s
Elvira a s hostage. Ernan i an d Silv a no w unit e i n a conspirac y agains t
Carlo. I n earnes t o f his good fait h Ernan i give s Silv a the hor n tha t h e
2
Bernard Shaw, Shaw's Music, ed . Da n H . Lawrence , 3 vols. (London, 1981), II , p. 724.
182 • V E R D I
carries at his side. Silva has only to soun d it, and Ernani will yield up his
life. I n the third ac t the conspirators gather but ar e foiled by Don Carlo ,
who, a s Emperor Charle s V , finall y decide s t o pardo n them ; h e als o
agrees to the restoratio n o f Ernani's titles and estates and his marriage t o
Elvira. Bu t o n th e weddin g nigh t th e implacabl e Silva sounds the hor n
and Ernani obedientl y kill s himself; Elvira faints ove r hi s body.
In th e averag e Italian opera o f the tim e on e expect s n o mor e tha n a
single scen e o f confrontation—namely th e centra l finale , t o whic h th e
plot has been working . I n Ernani there ar e confrontations at every turn:
in Act I Elvira versus Don Carlo ; Ernani and Elvira venus the same; Silva
versus Ernani an d Do n Carlo ; i n Ac t I I Silva versus Ernani and Elvira;
Don Carl o versus Silva; in Act III Don Carl o versus the conspirators; and
in the las t act Silva versus Ernani and Elvira. It is by the elementar y clash
of personalities tha t early Verdian opera take s fire.
There is of course a difference betwee n a clash and an argument. Th e
former hardl y applies where th e singers , however antagonistic , share the
same material , a s do Enric o an d Edgard o i n th e Wolf s Cra g scen e i n
Lucia di Lammermoor. In Emani Verdi develops still further the procedur e
first adopted i n Nabucco whereby the two contendant s ar e kept musically
as fa r apar t a s possible. I n Ac t I Do n Carl o woo s Elvir a wit h a risin g
arpeggio phras e in th e major . She retort s wit h a n indignant downwar d
arpeggio i n the minor. When Ernan i appears the lines of battle are again
drawn up . Don Carl o leads with a declamatory melod y i n dialogue wit h
the orchestr a ('T u se ' Ernani ! Mel dic e l o sdegno') ; Elvir a an d Ernan i
reply wit h a convulsiv e cantilen a i n unison , muc h a s Leonor a an d
Manrico will reply t o th e Coun t in Act I of // trovatore. In Act I I wher e
Silva rage s a t th e tw o lover s ther e i s another oppositio n o f minor an d
major. The hostile exchange between Do n Carl o and Silva 'Lo vedremo ,
veglio audace' ) i s in fac t a n ari a fo r th e kin g wit h 'pertichini ' fro m hi s
subject; bu t s o contraste d ar e th e latter' s intervention s tha t th e effec t
is tha t o f a duet—th e irresistibl e forc e agains t th e immovabl e objec t
(Ex. 9) .
Throughout th e oper a Verd i show s a rare gif t fo r honin g the com -
monplaces o f Italia n oper a t o hi s own dramati c purposes . On e o f th e
hardest worke d openings o f any Ottocento aria is the rising sixths fro m
soh to mi falling back towards doh. I n slow time it usually connotes lov e
From Obert o t o E r n a n i • 18 3
Ex. 9
and tenderness. Here Verdi uses variants of it as a means of differentiatin g

his characters . Both Ernan i an d Elvir a tak e it i n a single leap or, wher e
they do not, continue the movement upwards . Don Carlo, more mature ,
approaches th e highe r not e mor e cautiously ; eve n i n ange r h e includes
the intervenin g doh . Silv a drag s himself almost painfully to th e apex , as
befits a characte r wh o regularl y move s b y smal l intervals. I n thi s wa y
Verdi establishes certain vocal archetypes: the heroic, pure-hearted tenor ,
now arden t no w despairing ; th e implacable , granite-lik e bass ; an d th e
baritone who partakes of both natures and commands a far wider range of
expression than either. This , too , serves the drama; for while Ernan i and
Suva remain fettered by their own strang e codes of honour, h e alone can
be moved b y wider considerations . Hence hi s magnanimity towards his
enemies.
The momentu m i s even better sustained in Emani than in Nabucco; and
once agai n it is the ensemble s that stand out: th e afore-mentione d duet s
and trios ; finale t o Ac t I ; the conspirac y of Act II I which culminate s an
another famou s uniso n choru s ('S i ridest i i l Leon d i Castiglia' ) o f mor e
energetic stamp than those of Nabucco and ILombardi; th e finale of Act III,
effortlessly dominate d b y Carlo ; an d th e fina l tri o o f Ac t IV , a linear
descendant o f the quarte t in Oberto, in whose relentlessl y rolling phrases
we sens e the noose being slowly tightene d roun d th e hero an d heroine .
But th e arias are far from negligible . Nothin g could be more hackneye d
than th e situatio n o f the openin g scen e with it s chorus o f bandits and
184 • V E R D I
cavatina fo r Ernani , bu t i t i s redeemed b y it s sheer wealt h o f melodic

ideas. Elvira's cavatina, written fo r the wide range and technical bravura
of Sofia Loewe , i s the first of Verdi's solos to bear transplantation to th e
concert hall .
To Bernar d Shaw Emani typified 'tha t ultra-classica l product o f Ro -
manticism, the grandiose Italian opera in which the executive art consists
in a splendid displa y of personal heroics, and the dram a arises out o f the
simplest and most universa l stimulants to them.' 3 This is an acute judg-
ment an d on e whic h make s du e allowance s fo r th e fac t tha t Verdi' s
technique is still relatively crude. His accompaniments consis t mainly of
waltz-like pulsations, guitar-like thrummings , elaborate, fidgety patterns
(see Ex. 9) which lend s emphasis if not substanc e to th e utterance of the
singer. He still uses wind instrument s to pick out certai n contours of the
singer's line. Except for a little duettino for the lovers in Act II, scored for
a handfu l o f sol o instrument s lik e Abigaille' s deat h scene , th e instru -
mentation i s still heavy and undistinguished. N o matter ; the oper a has a
freshness an d vitalit y tha t shoul d ensur e it s continuanc e i n th e Italia n
repertory.
3
Ibid., p. 725.
C H A P T E R F O U R T E E N
The Prison Years
I N 185 8 VERD I WROT E TO COUNTES S MAFFEI , 'EVE R SINC E NABUCCO

I haven' t know n a n hour' s peac e an d quiet , sixtee n year s o f har d
labour.'1 Th e expressio n 'ann i d i galera ' ha s bee n picke d u p b y hi s
biographers an d use d to designat e that period betwee n th e triump h o f
Ernani and the moment whe n Verdi settled in his own propert y in Bus-
seto an d coul d accep t or rejec t commissions a s he fel t inclined . Durin g
this tim e hi s powe r o f self-renewa l could no t alway s keep pac e wit h
the demand s mad e upo n him ; an d thoug h h e neve r repeate d himself,
one sometime s senses the languag e of Nabucco and Emani applied almost
automatically without an y of the composer' s forme r zest.
He began , however , b y striking out i n a different direction . Byron' s
Two Foscari h e describe d to Piav e a s 'a fin e subject , delicate an d ful l o f
pathos'.2 Certainl y th e plo t i s of the simplest , concerning a s it does th e
attempts o f Jacopo Foscar i to defen d himsel f agains t a fals e charg e o f
murder an d the powerlessness of his father, th e Doge, t o hel p him .
A closet drama is not th e best subject for an Italian opera. Byron's play
consists of five acts of argument, recrimination and rhetoric, al l couched
in high-flow n vers e and with a minimum o f action. Ther e ar e none o f
those surpris e incident s an d confrontation s that driv e Ernani forwar d
so effectively . ' I notic e tha t th e pla y doesn' t quit e hav e th e theatrica l
1
LCC , p. 572.
2
AGV,I, p. 516 .
185
186 • V E R D I
grandeur needed for an opera',3 Verdi noted, 's o rack your brains and try
to fin d somethin g t o mak e a bang , especiall y i n th e firs t act. ' Piave' s
solution wa s to introduce a few contrived shock s which i n no way alter
the cours e of the plot but merel y serve to precipitate a change of mood.
Thus Loredano , wh o i s not eve n a comprimario, twic e make s a melo-
dramatic appearance , causing the Foscar i famil y t o switc h fro m lamen -
tation t o anger . Even th e sudde n appearanc e of Lucrezia, Jacopo's wife ,
together wit h thei r two childre n i n th e Hal l o f the Counci l of Ten has
the sole function of detonating a concertato finale to Act II. In later years
Verdi complaine d o f the gloom y monoton y o f his first Byronic opera .
The positiv e achievemen t o f / du e Foscari i s a new sens e of intimacy
which will rarel y be found again until brought t o fruition i n Luisa Miller.
By tha t time , o f course , h e ha d acquire d a richnes s an d supplenes s of
harmonic vocabular y which i n 184 4 wa s as yet beyon d hi s reach. Th e
melodies of/ due Foscari are as straightforward as those ofEmani, bu t the y
are mostly much shorter. The rhythm s of 3 /4 an d 4/4 ar e plain, withou t
triplet subdivision . 3/ 8 an d 6/ 8 andantino s aboun d wit h th e kin d o f
barcarolle-like accompaniment much favoured by Donizetti. Th e scoring
is lighter than in previous works; and none of the three act-finales finishes
with a stretta. There is considerable formal compression, even innovation.
The due t betwee n Lucrezi a and her father-in-law tha t ends the first act
forestalls tha t of Violetta an d Germon t in L a traviata i n it s multi-move-
ment design where the music seems to be shaped entirely by the dialogue .
It is just unfortunate that dramatically it leads nowhere sinc e the positio n
of the two singer s remains exactly what it had been at the beginning .
Within thi s new , reduce d scal e the musi c ofte n show s a remarkably
long reach. Thus Ac t II begins with a prelude for viola and cell o depic-
ting the 'pozzo' i n which Jacopo i s imprisoned; from thi s Verdi generates
a dramati c scen a for th e hallucinatin g Jacopo, endin g wit h a brief can -
tabile, after which h e fall s i n a faint. Lucrezia arrives and rouses him wit h
one o f those long magical phrases which in the later operas will function
as surrogate-arias (Ex . 10) .
Their brie f scen a leads to a two-movemen t due t broke n of f an off-
stage chorus with band . Thence b y way of an excited transition, markin g
the entranc e of the Dog e t o a terzetto which end s in a quartet with th e
3
Ibid .
Ex. 1 0
Ex. ii
187
l88 • V E R D I
arrival o f Loredano . I n thi s way solo , duet , tri o an d quarte t ar e com -

prehended i n a simpl e sweep . Jacopo' s farewel l i n th e followin g ac t
('AlTinfelice veglio' ) i s a blend o f romanza, duet and concertato .
But th e mai n innovatio n o f / du e Fosean i s the us e o f recurrin g in -
strumental motifs t o characterise the three principals and the Council o f
Ten. O f thes e only the las t i s ever sung. Yet i t would b e wron g to call
them leitmotives , since they are never develope d i n Wagner's manner .
Rather they serve to limit the horizons of the drama, reminding u s how
little th e situatio n has changed with th e progres s of the action , such as
it is . The Counci l remain s secretive and inflexibl e (Ex . nd) ; Lucrezia
harassed an d angry (na) ; Jacopo patheti c (nb); th e Dog e a n impoten t
shadow, his theme scored with a diaphanous sonority (nc).
Only in th e final e ultim o doe s the wounded lio n tur n upo n hi s tor -
mentors with a revival of Verdi's massive risorgimentale manner ('Quest a
dunque è l'iniqua mercede'). Here is the true climax of an opera in which
up t o thi s moment th e chief vehicle of power ha s been th e soprano .
Thematic reminiscenc e wil l for m a n importan t par t o f Verdi' s dra -
matic technique; but onl y in Aida will he again use labelling themes, and
then fa r more sparingl y than i n th e presen t opera . Bu t despit e it s re -
stricted horizons , it s static plot an d it s lack o f romance , / du e Fosean i s
quite often revived , its charm lying not onl y in its simplicity and lack of
routine emphasis but als o in a certain 'marine' atmosphere, to be recap -
tured i n Simon Boccanegra.
With Giovanna à'Arco (1845 ) w e ar e bac k wit h th e gran d gesture .
Solera's libretto, which he claimed as 'an entirely original drama' 4—is in
fact a n operati c distillation o f Schiller' s Jungfrau vo n Orleans. It s heroin e
dies no t a t the stak e but o n th e fiel d o f battle, havin g earlie r been de -
nounced no t b y the Church bu t b y her ow n father . Soler a pointed ou t
that h e ha d no t followe d Schille r an d Shakespear e in makin g Joan 'fal l
basely in love with th e foreigner , Lionel'. No indeed ; since that woul d
have added an extra principal to the cast and therefore have restricted the
opera's circulation . S o Joan's love r i s Carlo , th e Dauphin , i f onl y fo r
reasons of economy. The res t is according to Schiller .
That Verdi's love affair with the German poet who furnishe d th e basis
of four of his operas had yet begun seems unlikely. There is nothing in his
4
Ibid., p. 534.
The Prison Years - 1 8 9
letters t o sugges t tha t h e wa s any more committe d t o thi s subject tha n

Donizetti to Maria Stuart. Rather h e seem s to hav e been conten t t o fill
out Solera' s canva s in th e manne r tha t was expected o f him. Hi s prima
donna was once more Erminia Frezzolini, heroine o f I Lotnbardi; and for
her he undoubtedly wrote the best music of the score: the prayer beneath
the oa k tre e ('Sempr e all'alb a e d all a sera' ) wit h it s fitfu l undercurren t
of martial spirit in the accompaniment ; th e pastoral romanza ('O fatídic a
foresta') wit h it s delicat e ranz de s vaches scoring; he r due t fro m Ac t II I
with he r forgiving father , Giacom o ('Amai , ma un sol o istante'), whose
long simple lines recall Giselda's duet with Oronte ; her death scene; and
greatest of all, her love duet with Carl o in Act I, a worthy forebea r ofthat
in U n bailo in maschera. I n bot h i t i s the teno r wh o make s the running ,
while th e sopran o i s oppressed b y a sense of guilt . Ange l voices in th e
form o f an unseen contralt o choi r accompanie d by harp and smal l har -
monium hav e warned her against succumbing to earthly passion. Demon
voices (an unseen male chorus with harmonium an d triangle) have urged
her t o gathe r he r rosebud s whil e sh e may . Hithert o sh e ha s held ou t
against their blandishments ; but no w sh e falls from grace . The trivia l in -
terventions fro m Heave n an d Hel l canno t spoi l th e beaut y of the due t
whose centra l movement contain s this transfiguring phrase:
Ex. 1 2
The grea t scenic tableaux are designed o n an especially massive scale and
show a growing pictoria l sense of a somewhat posterish variety. A back-
cloth o f orchestra l sigh s an d groan s set s i n vivi d relie f the hopelessness
of th e soldier s an d villager s o f Dom-Rémy , i n a scen e whic h Soler a
designed a s an introduzione e cavatina with Carl o a s soloist. In between hi s
spacious drea m narrativ e ('Sott o un a querci a parvemi') an d its comple-
mentary cabaletta ('Pondo e letal martiro') there is a swift chorus warning
IQO • V E R D I
him against the unholy spot he proposes to visit that points forward to the
sensational manner of// trovatore. Carlo, like Jacopo Foscari , is a sensitive
tenor; an d his music throughout tend s to a similar refinement, especially
in his last act arioso ('Quale più fido amico') with its selective scoring. I n
the finale t o Act II, set in Rheims Cathedral, Giacomo's denunciatio n o f
Giovanna, commonplac e i n itself , generate s a richly woven concertato ,
moving from abrupt shortwinded gestures to a long cantilena for soprano
and tenor underpinne d b y a design o f continuous semiquavers and piz -
zicato strings; even the stretta has a certain Bellini-like intensity . The las t
scene of all evolves from a funeral march through a parade of interlocking
themes to the moment o f triumph where Giovann a is called aloft b y th e
angels whil e th e demon s gnas h thei r teet h below , fortunatel y withou t
doing more tha n heighten th e genera l sonority .
The weakes t music is that written fo r Giacomo, partly , no doubt, be -
cause th e creato r of the role , Filipp o Colini , n o Ronconi , wa s a light,
flexible baritone more suited to the style of an earlier period. Not so much
weak a s thoroughly bana l are the choru s of demons ('T u se i bella') an d
the interminable 'processional ' for banda and orchestra that opens Act II.
There ar e on e o r tw o furthe r attractiv e touches : a tri o fo r flute ,
clarinet and oboe, sounding like a Flotenühr in the overture; a chorus of
English soldiery with a distinct and possibly deliberate reference to 'Heart
of Oak' ; a tri m littl e marc h t o represen t th e battl e i n Ac t HI . Bu t i n
general Giovanna d'Arco fall s below it s two immediat e predecessors. I t is
an oper a of brilliant, no t t o sa y garish patches; but th e sustaine d drive is
wanting and much of the inventio n lack s freshness .
The sam e passiveness that marked Verdi's attitude to Solera's libretto is
shown i n hi s unquestioning acceptance of Cammarano's scheme for an
opera on Voltaire's Alzire —with perhap s more reason . Cammarano was
the foremos t librettist i n Italy , now tha t Romani wa s no longe r i n th e
field; and Verd i doubtles s considere d tha t h e ha d muc h t o lear n fro m
him. A n inhabitan t o f the mos t repressivel y governed stat e in Italy , h e
could b e guarantee d t o remov e an y inconvenient rationalis t sting from
Voltaire's drama .
The plo t i s laid in Per u a t the tim e o f the Conquistadores . Gusman ,
the Spanish governor, i s to wed the Inca princess Alzira. But she is still in
love with th e Inca warrior Zamoro, though t t o have died unde r torture
by th e Spaniards . Zamoro ha s in fac t escape d and return s to clai m her .
The Prison Years • 19 1
Gusman would hav e him arreste d and tortured but hi s father, whos e lif e
Zarnoro had saved on a n earlier occasion, begs him t o sho w mercy. An
Inca uprisin g i s announced ; Gusma n allow s Zamor o t o g o free , pre -
dicting that they will meet on the field of battle. Once agai n the Incas are
defeated. Alzir a agree s to marr y Gusman to sav e he r love r fro m death .
But a t th e heigh t o f th e celebration s Zamoro , wh o ha s entere d th e
governor's palac e i n disguise , stab s hi s riva l t o th e heart ; whereupo n
Gusman gives his murderer a lesson in practical Christianity b y orderin g
that he be set free. Alzira is the onl y one o f Verdi's serious operas, apart
from Jérusalem, with a n unequivocally happ y ending .
Cammarano constructed the libretto wit h hi s usual expertise, makin g
the rescu e of Gusman's father, narrate d in the play, into a self-contained
prologue—an 'introduzione e cavatina' for Zamoro. S o where di d it go
wrong? Partly in the lack of ensembles. Apart from two finale s an d tw o
duets all the principal numbers are solos. Deprived of the opportunity o f
pitting themselves against one another , Verdi's characters are apt to be -
come purely generic and over-forcible. This is especially true of Zamoro,
the nobl e savage . All the Verdia n tenors we hav e so far considered hav e
their tender side and most make their entrance with a gentle andantino.
Not s o Zamoro; from his cavatina ('Un Inca—eccesso orribile') onwards
he is unremittingly emphatic . The cabalett a ('Dio della guerra') in which
characteristic use is made of the male unison chorus has strength withou t
beauty; yet we can only admire the propulsive effect o f shifting the triplet
from th e en d to th e beginning o f the phrase:
Ex. 1 3
The duet with Alzira, introduced by an excited pounding over a dominant

pedal, consist s of tw o allegr o movement s only—surel y th e mos t per -
functory lov e duet in opera. In the cours e of the finale to Act I Zamor o
192 • V E R D I
taunts Gusman with a stanza ('Teco sperai combatiere') which irresistibly

brings to mind Edgardo's curse from Lucia di Lammermoor and with good
reason, since it was in this role that Zamoro's creator , Gaetano Fraschini,
had earne d fo r himsel f th e soubrique t 'i l tenor e déli a maledizione' . I n
general i t woul d see m tha t Verdi' s melodi c inventivenes s wa s sorel y
tested by Cammarano's spaciously conceived arias ; and he compensate d
for lyrical breadth with swiftness of action. The resul t is an opera with the
brevity o f / du e Foscari but withou t it s charm.
Yet Alzira i s not withou t it s memorabl e moments . Ther e ar e tw o
essays in imaginativ e scoring : a section o f the overtur e fo r high wood -
wind an d percussion of a distinctly exotic colour, and a prelude in Act II
descriptive o f the lonel y caver n i n whic h th e Inca s have take n refuge .
Both finale s ar e impressive; the first with it s gradual build-up o f voices,
first singly the n i n pairs ; the secon d wit h th e bariton e lin e o f Gusma n
running lik e a golden threa d through th e chora l and orchestral tapestry.
But they are not enough t o restore the opera to the repertory—if indeed
it can ever have been sai d t o have entered it .
Attila (1846 ) i s the las t in the lin e o f homespun 'grand ' operas whic h
began with Nabucco. S o long as it had been intended fo r Piave Verdi ha d
been disposed to take charge of the dramatic scheme; but once Solera had
taken ove r h e was only too read y to rely on the judgment o f a librettist
whose formula e had never yet faile d wit h th e public . Soler a freely ma -
nipulated th e events of Zacharias Werner's turgi d drama, turning i t into
a vehicle for Italian—and more specifically Venetian—patriotism. To th e
opening scene, set during the sack of Aquileia, he added another showin g
the founding of Venice on the mudflats of the Adriatic lagoon. Th e tw o
principal scenes—Attil a turne d bac k fro m th e gate s of Rome by Pop e
Leo, and the banquet at which th e heroine thwart s a plot to poison Attil a
since she wants to stab him herself on their wedding night—are placed in
that order, contrar y t o Werner's scheme . Th e heroin e herself , the Bur -
gundian Hildegonde , become s th e Italia n warrior-mai d Odabella ; th e
tenor her o i s the historica l Aquileia n knigh t Foresto ; Attila's chie f ad -
versary an d bariton e lea d remain s th e treacherou s i f patriotic Roma n
general Ezio . Attil a himsel f i s a bas s rol e writte n fo r Ignazi o Marini ,
creator o f Oberto.
Here a t least wa s a subject fa r better suite d t o Verdi' s earl y manne r
than Alzira; an d indeed withi n th e blunt , no t t o sa y bludgeoning style
there i s considerable progres s i n melodi c craftsmanshi p even wher e in -

spiration i s lacking. Odabella' s cantabil e o f defianc e ('Allo r ch e i fort i
corrono') an d Foresto's 'Ell a in poter de l bárbaro!' ar e conceived o n a n
unusually large scale, the opening phrase of each yielding three variants so
graded a s to produc e a particularly strong clima x toward s th e fina l ca -
dence. In Ezio's 'Dagli immortali vertici' we have the archetypal baritone
cantabile of this period—plain, massive, articulated in long phrases. Th e
last two line s proclaim thei r autho r instantly :
Ex. 1 4
Ro - m a nelvi l c a - da - v e - r e ch i ra v - vi-sar , rav-vi-sa-reo r pu6 ?
Indeed Verdi's melodic style is as well integrated in Attila as it is in Emani.

Its salien t feature is a simple arch-lik e contou r whic h mark s sometime s
the opening , sometime s th e mos t emphati c momen t i n th e principa l
numbers. Example s othe r tha n Ex . 1 4 includ e th e mai n moti f o f th e
highly concentrate d prelud e which appear s again as the Druids' warnin g
in Act II; in Foresto's cavatin a and in his romanza from Act III ('Che non
avrebbe il misero'); i n Ezio's famou s proposa l t o Attila , 'Avra i tu 1'uni-
verso, resti l'Italia a me', which found so ready a response in the hearts of
Italian patriots, an d i n th e solem n concerte d final e t o Ac t I.
There i s a simila r advanc e in pictorialism , admittedl y o f th e forma l
heraldic sort—no question as yet of 'Mehr Ausdruck der Empfindung als
Malerei'. The storm in the prologue i s followed by the breaking of dawn,
an essay in orchestral colour clearly inspired by Félicien David's Le Désert
which ha d enjoyed a huge success in Milan the previous year. Odabella' s
romanza i n Ac t I ('Oh ! ne l fuggent e nuvolo' ) evoke s a moonlit scen e
with it s bright tapestr y of harp, cor anglais, flute and cello. Th e sens e of
unease tha t invade s th e priestesses ' choral danc e a t th e banque t i n Ac t
II—the chil l win d fro m th e tomb—i s symbolise d b y a figure o f demi-
semiquavers on the strings played at three bar intervals. Unfortunately the
big ensemble tha t follow s the extinguishin g o f the candles , with its un -
accompanied voice s and instrumental punctuations, remains on the level
of commonplace theatricality . Very differen t i s the concertato-final e o f
194 VERDI
Act I . Nothin g show s mor e clearl y Verdi' s abilit y t o ris e t o th e grea t

moment usin g the simplest of means than the scene where Attila awakes
from a dream t o confron t th e dream' s reality— a saintl y ol d ma n wh o
forbids him to enter the Holy City ; behind him a procession of Christian
maidens and children robe d in white and carrying palms; and in the sky
the figure s of St. Peter and St. Paul seeming to bar his way with flaming
swords. Pope Leo's command 'D i flagellar 1'incarco' is declaimed ove r a
sequentially develope d figur e a s pregnant wit h meanin g a s that o f Er -
nani's fatal vo w o r Monterone's curs e in Rigoletto.
Ex. 1 5
In the hymn that follows, the 'Risorgimentale' choral style is transfigured

in music of the utmost simplicity. The rosali a in the third phrase would
make u s smile i n an y othe r context . Her e i t seem s the perfec t way o f
arriving at the clima x o f the melodi c period .
It wil l b e notice d tha t th e youn g Verd i get s mor e ou t o f his com -
primario tha n his principal basses. The reaso n is simple; a comprimari o
bass can be require d t o sin g in ever y register of his voice; th e principa l
likes to be kept in that area where he can sing lyrically and make the most
noise. Which is why Le o is so effective i n hi s confrontation with Attila,
while th e due t between Attil a and Ezio in the prologue, apar t from th e
Roman's patrioti c line , i s not especiall y memorable . Th e clas h i s no t
between bariton e an d bas s but rathe r betwee n hig h an d lo w baritone .
The due t betwee n Forest o an d Odabell a ('Si , quell'i o son , rawisami!' )
has tensio n an d excitemen t fro m it s lon g allegr o preparatio n ove r a
dominant pedal (a favourite device of Verdi's to signify a lovers' reunion )
through th e andant e o f oppositio n t o th e cabalett a o f reconciliation .
However, a s in Alzira ther e is no tim e for tenderness. Once Foresto has
accepted Odabella' s argument about Judith an d Holofernes th e two are
off in a scampering unison.
The third act stands a little apart from th e rest . It had been n o part of
Solera's scheme that Odabella should flee before her wedding with Attila,
or that her bridegroom shoul d come after her unescorted and fall straight
into an ambush. But he had failed t o complete the last act; and Piave had
to do the best he could under Verdi's guidance. The succession of num -
bers, fro m sol o t o quarte t finale , certainl y make s possible a long formal
reach; whil e th e reduce d sceni c scal e allowe d Verd i t o infus e a littl e
humanity into hi s rather odiou s characters . But despit e a beautiful ter -
zetto wit h har p for Odabella , Forest o and Ezio ('T e sol , t e sol , que st '
anima') the final honours he with the victim. Scourge of God he may be;
but h e i s far more sympatheti c than his enemies.
For all its beauties Attila has more than its fair share of noisy strettas and
cabalettas—all indiscriminat e energ y an d poundin g accompaniments .
Even the unison chorus, once the great strength of Verdi's scores, begins
here t o los e it s freshness . Clearl y th e wa y forwar d la y i n a differen t
direction; an d happily in his next oper a Verdi found it .
In describing his Macbeth t o th e impresari o Lanari as belonging t o th e
'genere fantástico', 5 Verd i seem s to impl y tha t som e kin d o f precedent
for i t existed. But th e student of Italian opera will seek it in vain. Macbeth
breaks fresh ground i n a number of ways. It is the first Italian opera which
attempts to reflect the spirit of Shakespeare; and for that purpose it makes
free wit h th e conventiona l form s i n a way tha t ha d neve r bee n don e
before. I n n o previou s oper a i s there suc h a wealth o f mino r tonality ;
nowhere ha s th e gloo m o f th e nort h bee n s o powerfull y evoke d b y
instrumental means . Tru e i t wa s not th e firs t oper a t o dispens e with a
conventional love interest. Yet even today it is sometimes known in Italy
as Toper a senz a amore' just a s Mozart's 'Prague' symphon y i s called i n
Germany the 'symphony without minuet' though by no means unique in
that respect—surely a measure of its stature.
Verdi's enthusiasm for Shakespear e was by n o mean s general in Ital y
at th e time . Th e versio n o f Macbeth wit h whic h h e wa s familia r wa s
not, a s is sometimes said , that of Andrea Maffei , whic h wa s a long wa y
in th e future , bu t o f Carl o Rusconi , publishe d i n 1838 . Fo r th e
prose synopsi s whic h h e sen t t o Piav e Verd i extracte d th e witches '
prophecy o n th e blasted heath and its partial fulfilment; Lad y Macbeth's
5
Ibid., p. 656.
IQÓ • VERDI
soliloquy o n receivin g he r husband' s letter ; th e 'dagge r speech' ;

the murde r o f Duncan an d it s discovery; Banquo's murde r an d hi s ap-
parition at the feast ; Macbeth' s second visit to the witches and the she w
of Kings; the meetin g o f Malcolm an d Macduff o n th e English border ;
Lady Macbeth's sleepwalking scene and, finally, Macbeth's demise at the
hands o f Macduff . Appropriat e choruse s fil l ou t th e design , includin g
those o f the witches , increase d from thre e t o eightee n s o as to accom -
modate al l the femal e choristers . Only Macbet h an d hi s wife ar e prin-
cipals.
In 186 5 Verdi re-wrote almost a third o f the oper a fo r Paris, enrich-
ing i t wit h th e fruit s o f eighteen years ' experience . Bu t i t i s the origi -
nal versio n tha t demonstrate s ho w fa r Verd i wa s departin g fro m th e
standard pattern s o f th e 18405 . Afte r th e unremittin g F mino r o f th e
prelude, base d on themati c fragment s fro m th e sleepwalkin g scene and
the shew of kings, the dizzy plunge into the A minor of the blasted heath
in whic h noise s of storm blen d wit h eldritc h cackling s o n woodwin d
must have come a s a shock to conservative-minde d Italia n audiences; so
too the witches with their shrill staccato mode of utterance. What would
normally hav e been a cavatina for Macbeth ('Du e vaticin i compiut i o r
sonó') turn s ou t t o b e a duettin o fo r hi m an d Banque . Instea d o f a
cabaletta wit h choru s t o roun d of f th e introduzion e ther e i s merely a n
allegro of triumph for the witches ('S'allontanarono!') making play with a
fidgeting orchestral figure which will later function as reminiscence motif
for th e witche s themselves . Neithe r o f th e firs t tw o ac t finale s ha s a
stretta. As for the hallucinations at the banquet, the shew of kings and the
sleepwalking scene, there ha d neve r been anythin g like them i n Italia n
opera.
But Verd i coul d no t affor d t o brea k with conventio n entirely . Lady
Macbeth makes her first appearance with th e regulation two-movement
cavatina ('Vien i t'affretta!') whic h by a happy chance corresponds neatly
with Shakespeare's two speeches ('Hie thee hither' and 'Come you spirits
that ten d o n morta l thoughts') . The restles s patterned accompaniments
proclaim the music early Verdi; but the vocal line of both movements has
a rar e strengt h an d energ y (i t ha d bee n writte n wit h Sofi a Loew e i n
mind); which may explain why the composer did not se e fit to replace it
in 1865 . Likewise in Ac t I I Banquo is given a standard minor-to-major
romanza ('Com e da l cie l precipita') , ric h an d powerfu l in it s sonority ,

preceded by a chorus of murderers, pianissimo in bland C major but with
those sudde n explosion s whic h wer e Verdi' s usua l wa y o f conveyin g
villainy. Macbeth , too , ha s a formal romanza i n th e las t ac t ('Pietà , ris -
petto, amore' ) correspondin g t o ' I hav e live d lon g enough' , broadl y
articulated an d heavil y scored , th e Risorgimental e styl e infused wit h a
new pathos . Macduff als o has a romanza i n minor/majo r for m ('Ah , la
paterna mano') ; bu t bein g a mer e comprimari o h e ha s t o shar e th e
consequent cabaletta with Malcolm .
The origina l scor e containe d tw o isolate d cabalettas : on e fo r Lad y
Macbeth i n Ac t I I o f somewhat routin e brillianc e ('Trionfai , sicur i al -
fine') and Macbeth's 'Vad a in fiamme' at the end of Act III, equivalent to
'The castl e of Macduf f I wil l surprise' . Th e firs t wa s replace d b y th e
wonderfully siniste r 'L a luce langue' , th e secon d b y a duettin o fo r
Macbeth and his Lady ('Ora di morte e di vendetta'), although Verdi had
been please d with i t at the tim e an d had instructe d the singe r Varesi to
study i t wel l a s it wa s not i n th e usua l form, th e bariton e singin g con -
tinuously, withou t th e respit e of a ritornello. I n both case s th e musica l
gains were huge. 'L a luce langue' with it s wide range of modulation an d
richness o f harmon y remind s u s tha t i n th e 186o s soprano s wer e n o
longer expecte d t o us e mere coloratur a a s a means of forceful dramati c
expression. Th e duettin o ha s all the pit h an d concentratio n o f Verdi's
later manner . Th e mos t drasti c revisions occu r i n th e fourt h act . Thi s
Verdi had originall y opene d wit h a chorus of exiles afte r th e fashio n of
'Va, pensiero' an d 'O Signore, dal tetto natio', n o longer however i n the
decasyllabic rhythm an d strictly related to the melodi c styl e of the oper a
as a whole. In 1865 Verdi re-wrote it to the same text employing a wealth
of harmonic dissonanc e that points forward to the Requiem. Indeed, that
the though t o f writin g suc h a compositio n ma y hav e entere d Verdi' s
mind abou t thi s tim e ca n b e deduce d fro m a lette r fro m Marian i re -
garding a cholera epidemic that was raging throughout th e Peninsula: 'I f
the choler a kill s me , yo u wil l writ e m y Requie m Mass . I mea n this : I
would be very, very happy to die so that Italy and the whole world migh t
6
have such a gift fro m you.'
6
MPMV, p. 602.
I9§ • V E R D I
The en d o f the ac t was entirely altered . Originall y ther e ha d been a

perfunctory battle interlude, a brief exchange between Macbeth and Mac-
dufF, and a dying solo for Macbeth ('Mai per me chi m'affidai') i n dialogue
with bassoon s and lower brass . 'Yo u shoul d be abl e to mak e the deat h
very effective', Verd i wrote t o Varesi, 'if you ca n combine singin g with
intelligent acting.. . You mus t trea t i t i n a n entirel y ne w manner .
Let it be pathetic: but more than pathetic—terrible!'7 Indeed so effectiv e
is this death scene that many modern performance s splice it into the re -
vised ending where it has no place. For in 186 5 Verdi depicted th e bat -
tle in an orchestral fugato during which he had Macbeth die offstage. Th e
opera now conclude s with a stirring triumphal chorus of a nation set free
from tyranny.
Both th e banquet and the apparition scenes are enhanced in the revi-
sion, especially the latter where Macbeth's interventions have all the es -
sence of condensed arias; but eve n in their original form the y must have
seemed startlingly novel. The two visions of Banquo take the form of free
arioso, predominantl y lyrica l in 1847 , mor e declamator y in 186 5 wit h
richer harmonies and sharpened orchestration. The scene is held togethe r
by recurrence s o f th e conventiona l part y musi c an d Lad y Macbeth' s
drinking song 'Si colmi il calice'—also conventional but with somethin g
peremptory about it a s befits th e characte r of the singer . Only with th e
beginning o f the finale concertato ('Sangue a me') does the music return
to somethin g like a normal design. Likewis e in the scen e of the appari -
tions formality is delayed until Macbeth's final cantabile ('O mió terror !
dell'ultimo').
Not al l the modifications of 1865 are important. Beside those passages
where Verd i contrive d miraculousl y to re-ente r hi s original visio n and
expand i t ar e other s wher e h e merel y elaborate s for th e benefi t o f th e
sophisticated Parisians . The choru s o f aerial spirits ('Ondin e e Silfidi') ,
much i n th e vei n o f the Druidesse s i n Attila, is merely prettified in th e
revision. A parlant e during th e gran d due t i n Ac t I i s embellished b y
'interesting' inne r part s which i n n o wa y affec t th e musica l substance.
The ballet is usually omitted save in festival performances though it is one
of Verdi's most impressive, by turns majestic and demonic. Only the first
and las t movement s ar e danced . Th e res t i s a mim e buil t roun d th e
7
GVIM, pp. 438-9.
appearance o f Hecat e an d he r instruction s t o th e witches— a mor e

fruitful scheme , musically, tha n th e usua l succession of dances.
But som e o f the fines t musi c i n Macbeth passe d from th e firs t t o th e
second version with little or no modification : th e dagge r speec h ('M i si
affaccia u n pugnal?' ) whic h i n dept h an d richness of suggestion antici -
pates th e arioso-recitative s o f Rigoletto ; th e gran d due t followin g
Duncan's murder—ye t anothe r instanc e o f the dynami c due t i n whic h
the lineament s o f the Rossinia n tripartit e schem e ar e barely discernibl e
and th e listene r i s only awar e o f a continuous dialogue . I n the openin g
verse ('Fata l mi a donna ! u n murmure' ) th e accompanimenta l pattern is
for th e first time organicall y relate d to wha t ha s gone befor e (Ex . 16) .
Ex. 1 6
The centra l cantabile ('Allo r questa voce m'intes i ne l petto') i s ht u p

by one of those transcendent phrases similar to Carlo's in Giovanna à'Arco
('E pur o l'aère'), th e word s evidentl y take n fro m Macbeth's speech o f
vacillation fro m on e o f the scene s which th e librett o omits . Th e onl y
difference betwee n th e two version s occur s in the fourth bar where th e
chromatic E natural was originally a plain E flat.
The tensio n i s sustained in th e 184 7 version til l halfway throug h th e
cabaletta wher e traditio n ordaine d tha t soone r o r late r a minor move -
ment must end in the major. In 186 5 the rule no longer applied and Verdi
was able to conclude his grand duet in the tonality in which it had begun.
20O • V E R D I
Ex. 1 7
Most famous of all the origina l numbers is the sleepwalkin g scene. Once
again Lady Macbeth's solo ('Una macchia è qui tuttora') is launched by a
fidgety patterne d accompaniment; bu t her e i t is harnessed to a dramatic
purpose. The recurren t co r anglais lament convey s the eerie sorrow: th e
restless string figuration the continua l washin g of the hands.
Ex. 1 8
Observe too that the same pattern does not persist throughout. A t bar 19 it
is succeeded by another, returnin g only in fits and starts as the sense of the
verse requires. Th e huge design of 63 slow bars pivots on a typical Verdian
axis of D flat and E, including at the words 'co ' suo i balsami' what will be -
come on e o f th e composer' s hallmarks— a plung e ont o a 6/ 4 chor d
in a remot e key . A uniqu e conceptio n fo r 1847 , i t i s n o les s strik -
The Prison Years • 2O I
ing i n it s later context. Significantly , soon afte r th e first performance th e

great actress Adelaide Ristori took the corresponding scene in Shakespeare
into he r repertory .
In n o previou s oper a had Verdi give n suc h careful though t t o th e or -
chestra. The witche s utte r their firs t prophecies t o a combination o f oboe,
trumpet, clarinet , bassoo n an d bras s bass . Th e 'she w o f kings' i s accom -
panied by a subterranean band of two oboes, six clarinets, two bassoons and
a contra-bassoon. The dagge r speech, the grand duet and the sleepwalking
scene al l employ selectiv e scoring: a basic palette o f clarinet, co r anglais,
horns, bassoons , mute d string s an d timpan i i n shiftin g combinations , t o
which th e first two add a flute, while the second is reinforced by trombone s
and bass drum at the sequenc e beginning 'Methough t I heard a voice cr y
"Sleep no more!" ' The difference between suc h numbers and the brightly
scored panels in Attila and the preceding opera s is that they are no longe r
isolated patches. All contribut e t o th e prevailin g 'tinta' . T o Vares i Verd i
wrote regardin g the 'scen a e gran duetto', 'Remember that it's night; ev -
eryone's asleep; so this duet should be sung sotto voce but in a hollow voic e
such as will inspire terror. Macbeth himself will sing one or two phrases in
full voice as though carrie d away for the moment... The orchestr a will be
very quiet and therefore you two on stage will have to sing with your mutes
Q
on.' Hearin g tha t Macbeth wa s t o b e revive d i n Naple s wit h Eugeni a

Tadolini a s prima donna, Verdi wrote to Cammarano pointing out that she
would sing the music too beautifully: 'Tadolini has a marvellous voice, clear
limpid and strong; and I would rather that Lady's voice were rough, hollo w
and stifled.'9 He concluded that 'both duet and sleepwalking scene should
not b e sun g but rathe r acted and declaimed i n a voice tha t is hollow an d
veiled'. B y th e tim e o f th e Pari s revision , whe n Adelaid e Ristor i wa s
performing Shakespeare's scene with a snore or a death rattle between eac h
line, Verdi had realised the danger s of unbridled realism; and in a letter t o
Escudier h e recommende d simplicit y and restraint . Bu t hi s concer n fo r
dramatic truth and fidelity t o Shakespear e never wavered .
Francis Toy e describe d th e oper a a s 'a n uncommonl y interestin g
failure.'10 Recen t time s hav e seen a school o f thought propounde d by ,
8
Ibid., p. 437.
9
LCC, pp. 60-2.
10
TGV, p. 277.
202 • V E R D I
amongst others , th e lat e Gabriel e Baldini , whic h rank s Macbeth abov e

Otello o n the grounds that in it the composer experiences Shakespeare at
first hand, not dilute d through th e preciosity of Boito.1 * It is also possible
to admire the work and wonder a t its boldness while having reservations
about certain passages which Verdi did not think it necessary to replace in
1865. No t th e musi c o f th e witches , whos e 'trivia l an d gossipy ' ton e
when no t engage d i n prophecy Verd i himsel f intended . No t th e con-
certed finale of Act I which, althoug h old-fashioned for the i86os , is too
closely welde d int o it s context , rhythmicall y an d thematically , t o b e
changed. Bu t afte r th e refreshin g novelt y o f th e scen e o n th e blaste d
heath, Lad y Macbeth's cavatin a ('Vieni, t'affretta' ) wit h it s self-perpet -
uating accompanimental pattern brings us back with a jolt to a standard
Verdian formul a o f th e 18405 . Then , too , the final e o f Act I I wit h it s
jaunty lil t make s a n incongruou s effec t afte r th e terror s o f Banquo' s
ghost. A s for the 6/ 8 band a march which introduce s the silen t figure o f
Duncan, upholders of the 'Macbeth a t all costs' school perform wonderful
mental acrobatics to justify its existence—'a suitably trivial expression of a
trivial event'—and so on. Mos t of us will be content t o call it trivial and
leave i t a t that . Bu t wit h al l it s shortcoming s Macbeth i s nowaday s a
repertory work and rightly so. 'If we cannot make something great, let us
at least make something ou t o f the ordinary.' 12 And thi s they did.
If by comparison the cut of / masnadieri seems old-fashioned, it should
be remembere d tha t b y hi s ow n accoun t Verd i ha d begu n i t befor e
Macbeth. No t onl y that. The libretto was by that noted man of letters and
Germanist Andrea MafFei , who m Verd i hel d i n hig h esteem . I t was his
first and only essa y in libretto-writing and he brought t o it considerabl e
skill an d intelligence , turning , a s he pu t i t ' a hug e conceptio n int o a
miniature withou t alterin g its physiognomy, lik e a concave lens whic h
diminishes object s while preservin g thei r shape'. 13 Bu t h e solve d th e
problem alon g strictly conventional lines. Poet an d composer mus t have
agreed o n th e schem e betwee n the m durin g thei r sta y a t Recoaro to -
gether in 1846 . Only on e letter of Verdi's, written i n September oftha t
year, can be found asking for certain details of Act II to be adjusted. Verdi
11
G. Baldini , Abitare la battaglia, trans . R. Parke r as Th e Story o f Giuseppe Verdi (Cambridge ,
1980), p. 123 .
I2
AGV, I , p. 643 .
13
Ibid., pp. 718-19.
was usuall y much mor e successfu l whe n h e assume d comman d o f op -

erations from the start.
Schiller's first play is a typical product of the Germa n Sturm und Drang,
a movemen t o f blind revol t agains t a rationalist society i n th e nam e o f
emotion. I t concern s a youn g ma n who , disinherite d throug h th e
machinations of a younger brother , turn s Robin Hood, rescue s his old
father fro m starvin g to deat h i n a dungeon an d drive s th e brothe r t o a
remorseful suicide. But this is no simple tale of a wrong righted. The her o
is given to Hamlet-like self-communing s and feelings of guilt and shame.
He canno t bring himsel f t o revea l his identity t o hi s father; an d soone r
than allo w hi s beloved t o join the robber ban d t o whom h e has bound
himself by an oath he prefers t o stab her in their presence. The dramati c
exposition i s laid ou t i n wha t wa s fo r Verd i tha t mos t uninspirin g o f
routines—a chai n o f cavatinas. As in Alzira th e character s have n o op -
portunity t o define themselves by contrast. However on e may notice i n
each a ne w tendenc y t o articulat e th e melodie s fro m shor t rhythmi c
figures capabl e o f variation an d developmen t rathe r tha n th e long , in -
flexible lines of Attila and Nabucco. But Verdi was not ye t ready to follow
up th e implication s o f thi s ne w trend , s o that / masnadieri remain s es -
sentially a 'grandiose' work in the composer's earl y manner. The cavatina
of Francesc o ('L a su a lampada vitale') pose s th e proble m o f villainy i n
music and in Italian opera in particular. A principal baritone expected t o
make a sympathetic impression on his audience so long as the plot allowe d
him to do so. Even his anger, like Enrico Ashton's, must be expressed in
bland lyrica l phrases however tensel y uttered. Bu t Enrico' s feeling s are
not wholl y unjustifie d accordin g to his own cod e of honour. Francesc o
Moor o n th e othe r han d i s a self-confesse d monster. No t ye t havin g
acquired the techniqu e tha t woul d enabl e hi m t o depic t lag o wit h th e
lightest of brush-strokes Verdi can only think of making Francesco bluster
and shout . A very differen t proble m aros e with Amalia' s cavatina . Fo r
though Verdi had been very keen to write fo r Jenny Lind, he discovered
in the event that hers was not th e kind of voice that interested him . Fo r
her cavatin a ('Lo sguardo avea degli angelí') h e employs the same rather
tinselly styl e tha t ha d serve d fo r Alzira' s cabalett a ('Nell'astr o ch e pi u
fulgido') wit h prancing bass and little spurts of bravura. Far more affectin g
is her andant e at the star t of Act I I ('T u de l mio Carlo a l seno') with its
delicate accompaniment of harp, cello and bass touched in here and there
2O4 • V E R D I
by sustainin g woodwind— a Victorian balla d sublimated . Bu t th e new s

that her beloved Carlo is still alive plunges Amalia into a shallow cabaletta
('Carlo vive!') which i s all trills and fioritura . Indee d it is to the Swedis h
Nightingale's limitation s tha t w e mus t ascrib e th e failur e o f her subse -
quent due t wit h Francesc o in Ac t II . Th e situatio n i s precisely that o f
Elvira an d Do n Carl o i n Ac t I o f Emani—he pleading , sh e angrily re -
pelling. Bu t someho w n o contac t i s made; th e spar k fails t o ignite ; an d
what should be an exciting duet of confrontation remains rather flat.
Not unti l the duet between Francesc o and Pastor Moser i n Act IV do
we fin d th e clas h o f vocal archetypes that make earl y Verdian oper a so
exciting. Significantl y Moser i s a comprimario bass , dispose d t o parad e
the ful l extensio n o f his voice an d so providing th e granit e roc k against
which Francesco' s force dashe s itself in vain (Ex . 19) .
Carlo's musi c i s engagingl y fresh , fro m th e heroic s o f hi s cabalett a
'Nell'argilla maledetta' (in which he may seem to take the task of forming
a robbe r ban d rathe r lightly ) an d th e 'giuramento ' followin g th e dis -
Ex. 1 9
covery o f his father starvin g to deat h in a dungeon t o th e patho s of his

Donizettian romanza ('D i ladroni attorniato' ) fro m Ac t II, on e o f those
haunting minor-key melodie s whic h achiev e resolution withou t repos e
in the relative major. Ther e is novelty i n the love duet in Act HI ('Qual
mare, qua l terra' ) wit h it s dialogue o f repeate d phrases ; also in Carlo' s
duet wit h Massimilian o ('Com e i l baci o d'u n padr e amoroso' ) wher e
each seems to be continuing th e other' s thought . Ther e i s an abundance
of choruses, chiefly mal e voice, som e highly inventiv e and exciting, lik e
that o f Rolla's rescu e in Ac t II , som e unbelievabl y bana l ('Gl i estrem i
aneliti'), als o tw o importan t narrativ e aria s fo r Massimilian o an d Fran -
cesco respectively. The first ('Un ignoto, tr e lune or saranno') is the less
effective o f th e two , bein g designe d a s a minor/major romanz a hardl y
suitable to th e horribl e event s it describes. But Francesco' s vision of the
Day of Judgment ('Paream i che sorto de lauto convito') has a much more
original for m whic h anticipate s the lon g narrative reac h o f Azucena's
'Condotta ell'er a i n ceppi' , an d i s marred onl y b y a schematic use o f a
three-fold pattern of sequences, as though Verdi were playing unduly safe
in hi s organisation of the larg e spac e the tex t allowe d him . Al l the act -
finales are strong, bu t especiall y the quarte t of Act I following th e fals e
news of Carlo's death . This i s in the bes t tradition of Verdian ensembles
with partwritin g which allow s th e characte r of the participants to stand
out an d a climax enhance d b y tha t idiosyncratic us e of the remot e 6/ 4
already note d i n Lad y Macbeth' s sleepwalkin g scene . No r shoul d w e
forget the grave Prelude with its concertante cello, written for Verdi's old
friend Alfred o Piatti . Yet / masnadieri remains unsatisfying as a whole. All
of it is recognisably Verdi; but th e centra l dramatic conception i s lacking
and with it the unifyin g 'tinta' .
Jérusalem i s essentiall y a wor k o f reclamation ; bu t i t als o represents
Verdi's first attempt to come to grips with the Paris Opéra, tha t cynosure
of the ambitiou s Italia n compose r eve r sinc e the tim e o f Piccinni. Lik e
Rossini wit h L e siège d e Corinth an d Donizett i wit h Le s martyrs, Verd i
made hi s debu t wit h a n adaptatio n o f a previousl y writte n work , /
Lombardi. I n hi s cas e th e plo t wa s completel y re-fashioned , onl y th e
Crusading ambience being retained . Bu t th e Crusader s are now Frenc h
marching under the banner of the Count of Toulouse. Hélène, th e new
Giselda, i s hi s daughter ; an d she , no t he r mother , i s th e objec t o f
her uncle' s crime . Bu t Roge r (formerl y Pagano) succeed s in throwin g
206 • VERD I
suspicion on her lover, Gaston, her father's hereditary enemy. Thereafter

all fou r character s make thei r separat e ways to th e Hol y Land . Roger
becomes a hermit, Gasto n i s captured by th e Sulta n of Ramla, Hélèn e
goes in search of him, onl y t o suffe r th e same fate. Both ar e freed by th e
Count a t the head of his Crusaders. But Gasto n is stripped of his armour
and condemne d t o death , t o b e save d a t th e las t momen t b y Roger' s
confession. Like his counterpart in ILombardi Roger dies fatally wounde d
after havin g beheld th e su n rising over th e gate s of the Hol y City .
All this necessitated a re-shuffling o f many of the old numbers; but this
matters little since / Lombardi is essentially episodic. Th e 'cabalett a della
visione' i s no w prompte d b y Hélène' s discover y tha t Gasto n i s alive,
though i n captivity; 'O Signore, dal tetto natio' (' O mon Dieu, t a parole
est don e vaine' ) i s assigned not t o th e crusader s but t o a compan y o f
weary and thirst-stricken pilgrims, for whom the arrival of the Count and
his troops brin g salvation. The terzett o take s place in the equivalen t of a
condemned cell , where Gasto n is granted absolution and a promise that
he will in the en d be vindicated.
Just as the librettists, Royer and Vaez, had removed th e implausibilities
of the origina l plot , s o Verdi se t himself t o eliminat e al l that wa s em -
barrassingly naif i n th e music . Th e battl e interlud e wa s cut , likewis e
certain marc h themes , t o b e replace d b y bette r ones . Eve n th e piece s
which pas s to the new versio n are improved. Th e terzett o i s shorn o f its
concertante violin . Gaston' s 'J e veu x encor e entendre ' (originall y Or -
onte's cavatina ) i s more lightl y score d an d extende d u p t o a hig h C ,
doubtless so as to exploi t Gilbert Duprez ' famou s 'u t de poitrine'. Many
of the transitions are strengthened by the introduction of new motifs; and
in general the new version gives the impression of being more through-
composed tha n th e old . Ther e i s som e vivi d mime-musi c ( a Frenc h
speciality) at the point where Hélèn e first presents herself at the hermit' s
cave. Newl y compose d number s includ e a Meyerbeer-lik e jewelle d
miniature in the form o f a duettino for Hélène an d Gaston accompanied
by sol o hor n onl y an d followe d b y a 'sunrise' interlud e a s in Attila bu t
more subtl y scored; a rather commonplac e cabalett a of rage for Roger
which is not perhap s an improvement o n wha t i t replaces; and a no les s
commonplace ballet , after the style of Pugni, whose only point of interest
is the adagio of the pas seul (no 3 A) in which flute, oboe, clarinet and harp
weave a complex tapestr y of bright threads such as we shall meet again in
the balle t music to L e trouvère (H trovatore). Bu t b y far the mos t significant

of the addition s is the ne w final e t o Ac t III , set in th e publi c square of
Ramla, where Gaston is publicly disgraced and sentenced to execution by
the Papa l Legate . Her e i s a canva s o f contrastin g musica l an d sceni c
elements typical of Parisian grand opera, which Verd i exploits to greate r
effect in the operas to come. The herald's proclamation, Gaston's protests,
the knights' brutal response, the chanting of the monks, the women's plea
for mercy to be shown—all these form a triple pattern of rising sequences,
linking Gaston's moving andante ('O me s amis, mes frères d'armes') with
his final, desperate stretta ('Frappez, bourroux, frappez') .
That Jerusalem improves musically upon / Lombardi is beyond question.
How, then , can we explain the fact that it remains the least often revive d
of all Verdi's operas ? Partly becaus e it i s something o f a hybrid. I n th e
reckless primitive vitalit y of I Lombardi there is a certain charm, which is
stifled b y th e refinemen t o f the late r work; no r i s there sufficien t ne w
music in Jérusalem to compensate for its loss. Then, too, it requires all the
resources o f a Frenc h gran d oper a withou t offerin g th e reward s o f Les
vêpres siciliennes and Do n Carlos which are entirely fresh creations. But a s a
step on the road to those masterworks it will always be of interest to the
Verdi student.
// corsaro (i 848) is traditionally rated along with Alzira at the lowest en d
of the Verdian canon, a judgment whic h migh t seem reasonable to those
who hav e never heard it. For while for a time he cherished high hopes for
Alzira, h e seem s t o hav e writte n of f // corsaro eve n befor e h e bega n
writing it. His Byronic phase had by then passed. At first, it is true, he had
waxed enthusiasti c over th e subject , but i t seem s that Macbeth wipe d i t
from hi s mind . Originall y intende d a s th e oper a fo r London , i t wa s
replaced by / masnadieri. When he eventually came to compose U corsaro it
was merel y b y way o f discharging his obligations t o Lucca . He di d no t
bother t o go to Trieste t o mount it s première, thoug h h e sent a letter to
the prim a donn a Mariann a Barbieri-Nin i wit h instruction s fo r it s in -
terpretation—a sign that he was not wholly indifferen t t o it. However, it
failed an d Verdi showed n o furthe r concer n fo r it s fate.
Certainly it is minor Verdi and highly conventional in form: a string of
arias an d duet s wit h th e centra l finale-concertat o locate d a t th e poin t
where Corrad o fall s int o th e hand s of the Turks . Th e sol o cabaletta s are
without exceptio n generic , not to say perfunctory; indeed Corrado's 'Si:
2O8 • VERD I
de' Corsar i i l fulmine ' plunder s fro m Carlo' s 'Nell'argüí a maledetta' ,

doubtless because the situations are similar (both cabalettas are sparked off
by th e singer' s receipt o f a letter). There ar e als o a few o f thos e 'Ri -
sorgimentale' gesture s which hav e become tarnishe d with age—suc h as
Pasha Seid' s hym n 'Salv e Allah ! tutt a quant a la terra ' wit h it s uniso n
chorus; whil e th e actio n musi c durin g th e attac k on Coro n i s on th e
lowest leve l of invention. But ther e ar e some striking novelties as well:
the prelud e to Act III for violin, cello and strings where Conrado lies in
prison, not unlike the corresponding piece in / due Foscari but with richer,
more poignan t harmonies ; the due t between Corrad o an d th e Pasha's
favourite, Guiñara , no longe r cas t i n a succession of contraste d move-
ments but unfolding on a continuous thread with an accompaniment that
reflects the shifting mood of the speakers. (These two pieces, it should be
remembered, ar e the firs t musi c composed b y Verdi durin g hi s conva -
lescence afte r th e premièr e o f Attila.) Ther e i s genuine dram a in Gul -
nara's duet wit h th e Pash a ('Vieni , Guiñara' ) whos e fals e suavit y erupt s
into fur y a s he sense s he r sympath y for hi s deadliest enemy; an d i n th e
cabaletta tha t follows Verd i breaks with traditio n i n keeping the voice s
apart throughou t a s though indicatin g the gul f that separates slave fro m
master—Seid blustering, Guiñara muttering furiously ('Yo u know better
than I' , Verdi wrote to Marianna Barbieri-Nini 'tha t anger need not be
expressed by shouting'). 14 There i s an unexpectedly humorous vignette
where Corrado, disguise d as a palmer, first confronts th e Pasha, lifting u p
his voice in a priestly whine while his enemy huffs and puffs. A duet of a
very differen t sor t i s tha t betwee n Corrad o an d hi s frail , flower-lik e
Medora ('No, tu non sa i comprendere') which in its delicacy and pathos
recalls that archetypal duet of parting lovers, 'Dalla tomba' fro m Lucia di
Lammermoor, an d especially in the cabaletta ('Tornerai, ma forse spenta'),
which ha s all the inspire d simplicity of'Verranno a te sull'aure'.
In other words, beneath the often conventiona l surface of// corsaro the
process of refinement is ceaselessly at work. Th e cantabil e of Gulnara's
cavatina ('Vol a talo r da l carcere') proceeds tunefully bu t unremarkabl y
until it s final phrase, which break s into a cluster of Chopinesqu e har -
monies (x) . This stepping up o f the harmoni c rhythm is a device which
Verdi will ofte n emplo y t o heighte n a lyrical climax.
I4
CIIV, pp. 308-9.
Ex. 2 0
Two principle s may be observed at work throughout the opera: thematic

economy an d variation . Example s o f th e firs t ar e th e concertat o an d
stretta of the finale to Act II both for the first time in Verdi evolved fro m
a short rhythmic cel l which paradoxically yields more variety than many
a chai n of separate ideas; others are Medora's romanza ('No n so le tetre
immagini') and the first two movement s o f her duet with Conrado ; and
Corrado's narrative in Act III ('Per me infelice'). Variation is to be found
in the second strophes of Medora's romanz a and Seid's 'Salve Allah', the
one encruste d wit h fioritura , th e othe r se t i n th e mino r key ; an d i n
Corrado's cantabil e Tutto parea sorridere'. All this gives to H corsaro a trim
compactness which marks it out from the other operas written about that
time, and does much to compensate for the variable quality of the music.
The rul e 'no-repeat-without-variation ' i s stil l mor e eviden t i n L a
battaglia di Legnano (1849), Verdi's belated tribute to the political events of
2IO • VERDI
the time . Here , deprive d b y th e dualit y o f the plo t o f a long dramati c

reach, Verdi mad e u p th e los s by a meticulous attentio n t o detail . Th e
truth i s that Méry's La bataille de Toulouse neede d fairly drasti c treatment
before it could become suitable for an Italian opera. Cammarano showed
all hi s ol d skil l i n th e adaptatio n fro m nineteenth-centur y Spai n t o
twelfth-century Italy . The hero , Arrigo , is accommodated wit h that fa-
vourite pro p o f Italia n juvenile leads— a saintly , but invisibl e mother .
His belove d Lida , believin g hi m dead , ha s marrie d hi s bes t frien d i n
obedience t o a dying father's wishes. But the outstanding trait of Méry's
two comrades-in-arm s i s thei r reticence—hardl y a valuabl e qualit y
in an Italian opera. Cammarano's solution wa s to make his hero rag e at
Lida while remainin g strictl y correct i n his behaviour toward s her hus -
band. The triangl e drama is interwoven wit h patriotic scenes which pro -
ceed o n a differen t leve l altogether . A s a result , tha t delicat e balanc e
between publi c an d private sentiment, between lov e an d patriotism, so
perfectly struc k in Rossini's Guillaume Tell an d later in Verdi's ow n Le s
vêpres siciliennes, is here lacking. Arrigo is one o f the mos t unsympathetic
of Verdian heroes.
None the less the special données of the plot produce unusual and in-
teresting solutions. The openin g scene , which see s the gatherin g of the
Italian contingents outsid e the gates of Milan and the reunion o f Arrigo
with hi s frien d Rolando , i s laid ou t wit h classica l symmetry , choruse s
alternating with solo s and culminating i n a grand 'giuramento' led alter -
nately b y th e tw o principals . Th e whol e i s framed b y a n instrumental
march. The Hymn of the Lombard League ('Viva Italia! sacro un patto'),
a trenchan t martia l theme firs t hear d i n th e overture , form s th e centra l
refrain (Ex . 21).
Cammarano's verses are as vivid and inspiring a s one coul d wish; yet
somehow tha t theme, like so much of the score, has more of France than
Ex. 2 1
of Italy. It is as though Verdi were deliberately offering his country all the
fruits o f his Parisian experience. Rolando' s cavatin a ('Ah ! m'abbraccia ,
d'esultanza') is even cast in the Frenc h ternary mould with a modulating
middle section; while th e preceding dialogue is set not a s recitative but as
a free arioso with a n accompaniment o f studied elaboration .
Lida's cavatina ('Quante volt e com e u n dono' ) ha s one o f those self -
perpetuating accompanimenta l pattern s typica l of Italia n opera , bu t s o
permeated wit h morbi d chromati c inflexion s as to mirro r to perfection
the singer' s mood o f accidie. Th e melody , alread y halfway t o a Chopin
nocturne, avoids literal repetition throughout . Verdi' s uncanny ability to
find a form appropriate to every confrontation is shown in the duet finale
between Lida and Arrigo. Here for once he reverts to a near-sonata for m
such a s one find s i n Frenc h oper a a t th e tur n o f th e century . Arrig o
launches hi s accusatio n in th e tonic ; sh e replie s a t lengt h wit h a ne w
theme in the dominant. During the development h e seems to pursue her
from key to key. Finally both take up their positions in a new movemen t
in the same tempo ('T'amai , t'amai qual angelo') with wha t is essentially
the sam e theme; bu t wher e th e melod y i s the sam e th e harmonie s ar e
slightly different an d vice versa. Unifying both movements is a persistent
semiquaver figure symbolisin g the stag e direction: 'shakin g her roughl y
by the arm' . Lida, it appears, can never d o anything right .
Of th e gran d scene s the mos t origina l i s that i n whic h Arrig o an d
Rolando rouse the cit y fathers o f Como against the German s only to be
cut shor t by the sudde n appearance of Frederick Barbarossa at the head
of an army . The Germa n Emperor , bein g a comprimario, ca n lead th e
concertato wit h a phrase which take s him dow n t o A flat—quie t bu t
mocking; th e tw o heroe s keep u p a muted defiance , whil e Federico' s
power is asserted with increasing vehemence. At a sign from him the doors
of th e counci l chambe r ar e flun g ope n t o revea l th e surroundin g hill s
thronged wit h Germa n soldiers . In th e final allegro Federic o proclaims
himself as Italy's destiny; his two opponents rally; the Comaschi weigh in
on the Emperor's side and the act ends in a huge trial of strength. It is one
of the most effective use s ever made of the concertato-stretta formula, th e
two movements no longer polarised but moulded into a steady crescendo
of feeling , t o whic h th e highl y wrough t accompanimen t make s a sig -
nificant contribution .
212 • V E R D I
Arrigo's enrolmen t amon g th e knight s o f Deat h ( a selec t ban d o f

warriors wh o hav e pledged themselve s t o di e rather tha n be take n pris -
oner) provide s the excus e for a particularly sensational piece o f writing .
The ceremon y take s place i n a subterranea n vault , whos e atmospher e
is evoke d b y a successio n o f funerea l figure s o n trumpets , trombones ,
cimbasso and bassoons with intervenin g gesture s for lower strings and a
timpani rol l a t th e cadence . Verdi , wh o ha d onc e score d mainl y fo r
emphasis, is beginning mor e and more to score for colour. Once, we may
be sure, he would have added horns and clarinets to the chords; but thes e
would hav e blunted th e feeling of menace and diminished th e starkness.
The harmonies , too , are correspondingly mor e sophisticated— a chain of
dominant seventh s carryin g th e musi c fa r fro m it s tona l root s befor e
coming hom e t o a stron g A mino r cadence . Th e choru s tha t follow s
('Giuriam d'ltalia por fine ai danni') with its massive two-part writing has
all the sombre grandeur the situation requires. Verdi never wrote blacker
music tha n this.
The final act forms a typical 'grand opera' tableau of musical and scenic
contrasts: the praying congregation insid e the church ; Lid a on her knees
in the vestibule; th e far off sounds of victory; the return of the Lombar d
army to th e strain s of Ex. 21 ; th e joyous choru s o f thanksgiving, inter -
rupted b y a funeral marc h a s Arrigo is born i n fatall y wounde d (having ,
however, dispatche d Frederic k Barbarossa), his death an d reconciliatio n
with Rolando ; an d th e whol e beautifull y crowne d b y a lyrical phrase ,
announced b y Arrigo, take n u p b y Lid a and finally by th e whol e em -
semble, 'Ch i muor e pe r l a patri a alm a s i re a no n ha!'— a well-wor n
musical coin tha t in Verdi's hands becomes ne w minte d (Ex . 22).
Yet a t th e en d o f i t al l it i s the sol o scene s that remai n mos t firml y
etched i n th e mind: Lida' s hysterical scena at the star t of Act III with its
turmoil of inchoate themes, as saturated in melody as any scena of Bellini;
Ex. 2 2
her subsequen t duettino with Roland o as he give s their son his blessing
on the ev e of battle; the cantabil e ('S e al nuovo d i pugnando') where h e
recommends hi s famil y t o Arrigo' s car e shoul d h e himsel f b e killed .
Except i n hi s on e cabalett a Roland o i s consistentl y characterise d as a
'barítono nobile ' wit h a smoot h lin e capabl e o f dee p melanchol y an d
tenderness. Even i n the grea t terzett o wher e h e confront s Lid a and Ar-
rigo, as he mistakenly thinks, in flagrante, his anger is conveyed mor e b y
harmony an d rhyth m tha n b y voca l vehemence . I n thi s oper a a t leas t
Verdi had found how to make use of the limited means of Filippo Colini,
the bariton e o f Giovanna à'Arco.
La battaglia d i Legnano undeniabl y represent s a n advanc e i n musica l
craft upo n anythin g tha t Verd i had yet written . Thi s is evident in the
overture alon e wit h it s variegated scoring, it s clever superimpositio n o f
themes i n th e mai n allegro , it s delicately patterne d andant e whic h re -
appears as the Prelud e t o th e secon d scen e of Act III . All this tells in its
favour i n th e eye s o f foreigners who ar e ofte n embarrasse d by certai n
crudities i n th e earl y works . Italians , t o who m th e spiri t i s more im -
portant tha t th e manner , fin d tha t th e sophisticatio n o f L a battaglia di
Legnano militates against its impact a s a tract for th e time , o r indee d fo r
posterity. Compare d t o Attila or Emani it seem s 'sicklied o'e r wit h th e
pale cast of thought'. Certainly the opera does to some extent suffer fro m
its dual origins; but the consistently high level of invention shoul d ensure
it a worthy plac e in th e canon .
All writers, beginnin g wit h Abram o Basevi , have haile d Luisa Miller
(1849) a s the oper a tha t inaugurate s Verdi's 'secon d manner'—tha t i n
which h e abandons the grandios e gestures of his youth fo r a simpler and
quieter style, more suite d to the portrayal of ordinary huma n beings and
human emotions. A s we have seen, this process of refinement had already
begun wit h Verdi's sojour n in Paris, if not earlier . I t was like an organi c
process at work at the roots of his musical thought; bu t it was natural that
it shoul d firs t becom e generall y apparen t i n a n oper a i n whic h thes e
qualities wer e especiall y calle d for . Fo r Schiller' s Kabale un d Liebe, an -
other produc t o f his youthful Sturm und Drang, is a bourgeois traged y o f
young lover s sacrifice d t o th e intrigue s o f a cruel an d corrup t regime .
Needless t o say , Cammarano remove d fro m i t al l political overtones ,
making i t a dram a o f individual s onl y an d th e firs t scen e a n operati c
214 ' V E R D I
Giselle—artless villag e maide n wooe d b y th e Count' s so n i n disguise .

(Curiously Verdi would ofte n sho w a desire to venture into the world of
La sonnambula o r Linda di Chamounix, bu t Ac t I o f Luisa Miller wa s th e
nearest h e cam e t o it. ) Th e Tyrolea n villag e ambience , th e choru s o f
peasants bringing flowers to th e heroine , Luisa' s cavatina that turns to a
duet when her lover appears and then to a terzetto as Luisa's father voices
his unease—all these require an idyllic pastoral atmosphere such as Bellini
and Donizett i kne w s o well ho w t o evoke . An d Verdi rises to th e oc -
casion with music of a matutinal freshness, delicately scored. Grandiosity
however i s not banished . I t return s in both movement s o f Miller's ari a
('Sacra la scelta') together with some old habits of instrumental doubling ;
and eve n mor e i n Luisa' s aria ('Tu , puniscimi , o Signore' ) wher e sh e
prepares to sign the letter she has been blackmaile d into writing . I n th e
long emphati c line s supporte d b y on e o f thos e fidgeting , inexpressiv e
accompaniments tha t see m t o dat e fro m fiv e year s earlier, th e villag e
maiden becomes engulfed in the prima donna. If there are inconsistencies
in th e portraya l o f Luisa , Rodolf o remain s on e o f th e bes t integrated ,
most rewardin g teno r role s i n al l Verdi . Her e fo r th e firs t tim e th e
composer exploit s th e essentiall y vulnerable qualit y of the teno r voic e
when pitted against baritone or bass. His is the tragedy of youth in chains
like tha t other her o o f Schiller's, Don Carlos . Onl y once does he break
free fro m parenta l authority . A t th e en d o f Ac t I , afte r a finel y differ -
entiated an d flexible concertato of confrontation, just where w e shoul d
expect th e conventiona l stretta, Rodolfo thric e threaten s his father, hi s
voice rising higher each time. Twice Count Walter shrugs him off " with
contempt; the third time he gives in and orders Luisa's release. This is the
first time that an operatic 'curtain' has taken its form from that of the play
from whic h i t derives.
But Rodolfo i s no mere ranting tenor. I n his duet with Federica , the
cousin whom his father wants him to marry, both recall their childhoo d
days i n musi c tha t savour s o f a dream y Schuber t Ländle r ('Dall'aul e
raggianti d i vano splendore'). Th e mos t famou s numbe r i n th e scor e is
Rodolfo's 'Quand o l e ser é a l placido' , a teno r melod y a s beautifull y
fashioned a s an y o f Donizetti' s an d fa r mor e imaginativel y scored .
Chromatically shiftin g strin g chord s an d a cell o gestur e i n th e intro -
duction, ripplin g clarine t in the accompaniment , all enhance the lyrical
poetry. Wholly Verdian is the slancio, emphasized by a preceding mod -

ulation, o f the refrai n ('Ah , m i tradia!' ) that concludes bot h verse s as in
French couplets.
Ex. 2 3
By thi s time Verd i i s ready to spare a thought fo r th e opposin g sid e as

well. Count Walte r i s not the ogre of Schiller's play but a man of power
who genuinel y ha s his son's welfare at heart. S o much i s clear from hi s
first cantabile ('I I mio sangue, la vita darei') in which sadnes s and regre t
alternate with authoritaria n menace. Like many a Verdian bass, Walter is
a smoulderin g volcano , quiescen t bu t no t extinct . Th e tru e villai n i s
Wurm, t o who m Verd i wishe d t o giv e a touc h o f th e comic ; bu t
Cammarano dissuade d him o n th e ground s tha t thi s woul d giv e hi m
parity wit h Walte r an d therefor e strai n th e resource s o f th e averag e
company. Apart from his duet of complicity with Coun t Walter ('L'alt o
retaggio no n h o bramato' ) Wur m i s confine d mainl y t o transitiona l
passages where h e expresse s himself with a sinister suavity. Federica on
the othe r han d i s a nullity . Announce d wit h al l the pom p o f a female
chorus she has only a recitative, a duet in which the interest is centred o n
Rodolfo an d th e fina l quartet— a strin g of parlanti finishing in a n unac -
companied ensemble , which i s a pretty piece o f workmanship but quit e
undramatic. No wonde r tha t when th e great Alboni undertook th e part
at th e opera' s firs t London performanc e in 185 8 sh e fille d i t ou t wit h
Leonora's cavatina fro m Oberto!
Whatever th e shortcomings of the first two acts , there are none in the
third. Fro m he r scen e with Laur a an d the villag e maidens , through th e
two duets , the preghiera and the tri o finale Luisa's music is no longer that
of a type but of an individual. The due t with Miller in which he dissuades
her from suicide ('La tomba è un letto') is on the highest level of those in
Rigoletto—and none th e les s so for carrying in its cabaletta distant echoes
of a similar one i n Donizetti's Belisario, where fathe r an d daughter set of f
2IÓ • V E R D I
to wande r throug h th e worl d a s vagrants. I n th e due t wit h Rodolf o

thematic transformation plays a notable par t in th e lyrica l structure: the
buds of U corsaro bursting into ful l flower .
If i n L a battaglia d i Legnano Verd i lavishe d unusual care o n th e or -
chestra, in Luisa Miller he brings it into the forefront o f the action. Several
times it will voice sentiments which the singers are too moved to utter, as
when Rodolf o swear s to Mille r tha t hi s intentions ar e honourable , o r
when Luisa realises that she must write her self-incriminating letter if she
is t o sav e he r father' s life . (I n both Verd i bore i n min d th e prowes s o f
Sebastiani, first clarinet of the Sa n Carlo Theatre.) I t is the orchestr a to o
that expresse s the evi l natur e o f Wurm wit h man y a brutal gesture . I t
provides the themati c background t o th e sombre choru s that opens Act
III. Finally it gives us what many people to this day consider Verdi's finest
overture. Certainly it is his most classically designed, with first and second
subjects an d a closel y worke d developmen t al l carve d ou t o f a singl e
theme. Th e spiri t of Weber with th e technique o f Haydn.
Though hi s rate o f compositio n ove r th e nex t fe w year s slackened
only gradually , Verdi afte r Luisa Miller wa s n o longe r unde r th e sam e
pressure from management s as before. He wa s free t o accept or to rejec t
offers o f commissions a s he fel t inclined . The priso n years were over .
C H A P T E R F I F T E E N
The High Noon
F ROM TH E THIR D AC T O F LUISA MILLER T O RJGOLETTO, TH E FIRS T

full flowerin g o f Verdi's genius, seem s but a short step. Bot h pro -
ceed by a swift successio n of short, simple ideas spontaneously generated
one fro m another . I n between, however , Verd i foun d tim e t o writ e a
work o f an entirely different character . Stiffelio concern s the ministe r of a
Protestant sec t wh o return s fro m hi s travel s t o fin d tha t hi s wif e has
committed adulter y and whose feeling s therefore impel him t o a course
of action which hi s cloth forbids . He i s thwarted b y hi s father-in-law ,
Stankar, no t fro m an y motive s o f Christia n forbearanc e bu t becaus e
Stankar himself wishes to tak e vengeance i n secret on his daughter's se -
ducer an d eventuall y succeeds in s o doing. Stiffelio' s conscienc e is em -
bodied i n th e ol d ministe r Jörg, who , afte r th e rathe r undistinguishe d
overture, set s the ton e o f the oper a with a magnificent recitative, preg-
nant with th e suggestio n o f liturgical chant:
Ex. 2 4
217
2l8 • V E R D I
The overlappin g fourth s are a well-known topos i n the nineteent h cen -

tury, standing for religious aspiratio n (compare the fourt h movement o f
Schumann's Rhenis h Symphony , Liszt' s Les Préludes and Cesa r Franck's
D minor Symphony) . They reappear in ascending form in the settimino
of Act I ('Colla cenere dispersa') and in the concertato of the Act I finale,
an elaboratel y worke d piec e i n whic h th e choru s ar e onc e agai n 'in -
strumentalised' into a pattern of staccato semiquavers. Generally speaking
the melodies ar e articulated in long, wide-spanning phrase s that suggest a
determination t o kee p th e stronges t feeling s unde r dignifie d control .
Typical here is the opening o f the duet in which Stanka r comes upon his
daughter i n th e ac t o f writing a confessio n to he r husband . I s she no t
content wit h havin g dishonoure d he r marriage ? I s she determine d t o
bring public disgrace upon their house and break StifTelio's heart as well?
Ex. 2 5
Stankar onl y onc e lose s contro l o f himself . Tempte d t o tak e hi s ow n

life afte r Stiffeli o ha s learnt the truth , h e i s told tha t th e adulterer , Raf -
faele, i s still within hi s walls. Straightaway h e break s int o a cabaletta o f
savage gle e (' O gjoi a inesprimibile') . But fo r onc e i t i s sung pianissimo
until th e fina l phrase , whos e impac t i s all the greate r fo r th e previou s
restraint.
The High Noon • 21 9
The part of Stiffelio i s unlike any tenor role that Verdi had yet written;
a ma n n o longe r young , who , lik e Othello , i s 'not easil y jealous, bu t
being wrought, perplex' d in the extreme'. To begin with h e is all charm
and kindness as he tells his family and guests in a graceful baracarolle ('D i
qua vareando') how h e recently destroyed the evidence of a guilty liaison
offered t o hi m b y a boatman. (Littl e did he gues s that his own wif e was
involved.) His first scene alone with Lina has something of the dialectical
quality to be found in that between Lucrezi a and Doge Fosean . But th e
two side s are unequal, sinc e Lina is tongue-tied with guilt . Everythin g
she manage s t o sa y produces th e reactio n sh e least hope s fo r an d thu s
twists th e knif e i n he r wounds . Verd i therefor e casts th e scen e not a s a
duet but a s an aria con pertichini, but on e o f unusual flexibility since each
stage in th e argumen t i s marked by a new movement . Graduall y Stiffe -
lio's suspicions are awakened; and his rage erupts in a final cabaletta ('Ah
v'appare in fronte scritto') .
But Stiffelio' s outburst s are weighty an d considered, wit h nothin g of
the volatilit y o f a n Arrig o o r Rodolfo . B y th e star t o f Ac t II I h e i s
addressing his wife with the bland bitterness in the manner of Ex. 25 as he
tells her tha t he is determined upo n a divorce. Lin a has so far come very
badly out of the drama. Her excuses have been confused and inconsistent.
But at her moment o f total abjection she takes on an unexpected nobility .
No longe r distraught and barely coherent, sh e appeals to Stiffelio no t a s a
husband but a s a man o f God. Th e harmonie s are bare and hollow; bu t
warmth i s unmistakably breaking in . Appropriately , this piece is a gen -
uine duet from whic h Lin a emerge s with honour .
Ex. 2 6
22O • V E R D I
Ex. 2 0 (continued)
Dramatically the best act is the second. The openin g prelude depictin g
the cypress-gir t cemetr y by night is as fine a piece of tone-painting as any
that Verd i ha s yet achieved ; more , i t i s a n 'expressio n o f feeling' , i n
Beethoven's phrase , reflectin g Lina's moo d o f desolation sho t throug h
with moment s o f panic . The n th e moo n come s ou t an d reveal s he r
mother's grave . He r andant e ('A h dagl i scann i eterei' ) i s an extraordi -
narily subtle essay in divisi string writing, surroundin g th e cantilena with
a soft , shimmerin g radiance . Raffael e arrive s fo r hi s assignatio n wit h
Stankar; Lin a threaten s t o tel l he r husban d everything; bu t onc e agai n
Stankar enter s i n tim e t o forbi d her . Th e actio n move s swiftl y an d in -
evitably towards the duel, which is interrupted by the sudden appearance
of Stiffelio. H e bid s th e opponent s pu t u p thei r sword s i n th e nam e o f
Christian duty, only to be told by Stankar that RafTaele is his wife's lover.
The quartet that follows ('Ah era vero... ma no, è impossibile') is Verdi's
most flexibl e t o dat e an d encompasse s a n especiall y wid e rang e o f
emotion an d of key. Th e ac t ends wit h th e tw o motif s of the drama —
earthly passio n an d religiou s duty—polarised . Stiffelio' s savag e denun-
ciations ar e cu t shor t b y th e soun d o f a congregationa l psal m an d th e
reproving tone s o f Jörg.
The final e ultim o ha s a very differen t character , Stankar' s murder o f
Raffaele ha s drained Stiffelio o f all feeling; it has put th e final touch to his
nightmare. Bu t the faithful awai t him. H e allows himself t o be led to the
pulpit b y Jörg; h e open s th e Bibl e a t th e stor y o f the woma n take n i n
adultery. So far the musi c has been almos t athematic in its austerity. Th e
continuity i s afforde d b y spars e orchestral gesture s suc h a s Bellini wil l
use in transitional passages. All the mor e heartwarming , therefore , is the
richly harmonised cadenc e at the word 'Perdonata' . Econom y ca n surely

go no further .
Stiffelio demonstrates yet again how an unusual plot will elicit from
Verdi a n unusua l solution. It s weak spot s ar e few—a n undistinguishe d
overture, som e trivial party music, a flashy cabaletta for Lina in Act II. If
the censorshi p ha d no t le d Verd i t o re-writ e th e oper a i n a fa r les s
satisfactory form , it might hav e remained i n the repertor y t o thi s day.
Rigoletto is a very differen t proposition : a drama o f fierce passions , of
black humou r an d mockery , o f grotesqu e juxtaposition s an d bizarr e
logic. Verdi described it as a revolutionary opera . This is an exaggeration;
for i n it he neve r overturned th e ol d forms a s Wagner woul d d o in Das
Rheingold. Rathe r h e adapte d the m t o th e particula r demand s o f th e
drama; onl y wher e thi s wa s no t possibl e di d h e strik e ou t i n a ne w
direction. Th e cabalett a tha t end s Rigoletto' s firs t due t wit h Gild a
('Veglia, o donna') is entirely orthodox, Gild a echoing her father's music
as she will soo n ech o her lover's , unti l Rigoletto suddenly breaks off on
hearing a nois e outside . H e rushe s t o investigate , find s nothing , re -
iterates hi s instructions t o th e duenn a no t t o admi t anyon e an d finally
resumes the reprise , s o bringing a touch o f realism t o what woul d oth -
erwise be a mere standar d repeat. Likewise the earlier movements o f the
duet ar e packed with musica l incident whil e keepin g t o th e basi c post-
Rossinian patter n o f 'tempo d'attacc o ('Figlia.. . Mió padre'), cantabil e
('Deh, non parlar e al misero'), tempo d i mezzo ('Gi à da tre lune'); only ,
as in the best of the earlie r duets, the boundaries are submerged beneat h
the dramatic current. On the other hand the opening scene and the entire
third ac t from the beginnin g o f the stor m onwar d ar e entirely withou t
precedent. Th e resul t i s that eve n th e traditiona l element s appea r dis -
solved withi n a wider perspective .
Like the King Lear that Verdi had always longed to write, Le roi s'amuse
is a dram a o f paternity . Triboule t lead s a doubl e life : a s jester t o a li -
centious monarc h and as protective fathe r to a young daughter. Th e first
he spur s on t o vic e an d debauchery ; th e secon d h e keep s i n cloistere d
seclusion. One da y he mocks another father whose daughter the king has
seduced. Th e ol d ma n curse s him; an d fro m tha t moment Triboule t i s
haunted by th e fea r tha t the curs e will strike him a t his most vulnerabl e
point—his ow n daughter . Th e fac t tha t such a misfortune would hav e
happened t o him anyway , since the kin g is already wooing his daughter
222 • VERD I
in disguise and the courtiers are only too ready to revenge themselves on
the hated jester, i s beside the point. Th e curs e symbolises the retributio n
that will fall on Triboulet for his vicious behaviour. Verdi sums it up in a
pregnant moti f that dominates the prelude . I t is not strictl y speaking th e
curse bu t rathe r Rigoletto' s recollectio n o f i t ('Que l vecchi o male -
divami'), and it fall s ove r muc h o f the first act like a shadow.
Ex. 2 7
In a letter to Cammarano of 1848 Verdi had expressed a wish to be able to

blend th e comi c an d th e terribl e 'i n Shakespeare' s manner' . Thi s i s
precisely wha t happen s i n th e opera' s openin g scene . Ther e ar e n o
conventional choruse s and cavatinas . Instead a string o f banda melodie s
sets the atmosphere of the Mantuan court, while in the skipping elegance
of his ballata ('Quest a o quella' ) th e Duk e proclaim s his Macheath-like
philosophy. Ther e are two further dances played by a string band on stage
during th e first of which, a Don Giovanni-like minuet , th e Duk e flirts
with th e Countes s o f Ceprano . Rigolett o make s fu n o f he r husband ,
unaware that the courtier s have already discovered the hous e where he
keeps hi s daughter (hi s mistress as they think ) unde r lock an d key . Th e
music coalesces naturally into a kind o f concertato with no preliminar y
surprise t o se t it of f an d n o attemp t a t skilled part-writing . Th e voice s
hurtle agains t one anothe r ove r th e poundin g o f the banda . The shoc k
comes with th e appearanc e of Monterone. H e i s received b y Rigoletto
with a grotesque parody of regal ceremony. Th e vocal line, beginning i n
long notes , topple s over itsel f in a flurry of semiquavers. Th e orchestr a
seconds him with abrupt unison gestures, trills and gruppetti. Monteron e
responds with a violent denunciatio n backe d by ful l orchestr a and cul -
minating in the famous curse. The Duke orders his arrest; and the scene is
wound u p with a conventional strett a in which th e actio n freezes, eve n
Monterone remainin g o n stage ; but i t begins hushe d an d in th e mino r

key. Monterone ha s spoiled all the fun.
So far Rigoletto has figured a s little more than a master of ceremonies.
From th e secon d scen e onward s h e fill s ou t t o becom e th e mos t full y
rounded character that Verdi has yet given us. The recitativ e 'Pari siamo'
has n o preceden t sav e i n Macbeth' s dagge r speec h ('M i s i affacci a u n
pugnal?'). Frame d b y tw o statement s of Ex. 27 , i t fetche s a wide tona l
sweep as it moves from fea r t o anger , t o pathos , to tendernes s and wit h
the return of the curse motif, back to fear. A similarly powerful recitative
occurs in Act III ('Egli è l à . .. morto!'), but the mood is one of eagerness
and triumph, a s he contemplate s the sac k that he believes to contai n th e
Duke's body. Th e sequenc e of arioso phrases beginning 'Or a mi guarda,
o mondo ' movin g fro m G fla t t o B fla t majo r ha s something o f th e
exultant finalit y of Otello's first entry, thoug h hi s triumph wil l be shat-
tered fa r sooner tha n th e Moor' s b y a mere voic e singin g offstage . Th e
great centrepiece o f the part is the scene with th e courtiers in Act II. Th e
opening parlant e ('La-ra , La-ra' ) i s a masterpiec e o f dissimulation ; bu t
events soo n caus e the mas k to sli p until, wit h a violent wrenc h fro m F
major t o E flat , Rigoletto crie s ou t tha t Gild a i s his daughter. Hi s ari a
('Cortigiani, vil razza dannata' ) is in on e movemen t articulate d i n thre e
sections, eac h correspondin g t o hi s changing mood . I n th e first he in -
veighs indiscriminatel y an d wit h utmos t savager y agains t th e vena l
courtiers; in the second ('Ebben... io piango... ') he pleads with on e of
them t o tak e pit y o n him ; an d i n th e thir d ('Mie i Signori , perdono ,
pietate') he begs them al l to forgive him; an d just at the point where h e
has thrown awa y the last remnants of his pride he rises to a new nobilit y
of utterance. The musi c moves from F minor int o a warm D flat major:
the singer' s lin e i s doubled a t the sixt h b y th e plangen t co r anglai s and
accompanied b y a pattern o f cell o semiquaver s no t unlik e tha t whic h
accompanies th e heart-rendin g ple a o f anothe r father , Willia m Tell' s
'Sois immobile'. I t will no t b e th e las t time tha t Verdi places a baritone
aria a t a n importan t turnin g poin t o f th e drama . Th e courtier s ar e no t
appeased, but they are effectively annihilated . Whe n the distraught Gild a
rushes t o he r father' s arm s the y ca n onl y shuffl e awa y mutterin g
shamefaced excuse s to themselve s an d eac h other . Durin g th e scen e o f
Gilda's capture they had taken on a corporate entity, lik e the witches in
Macbeth. Thei r chorus 'Zitti, zitt i muoviamo a vendetta' an d associated
224 ' V E R D I
parlante hav e th e explosivenes s tha t w e associat e with Verdi' s earlie r

collective villains ; the uniso n 'Scorrendo uniti' has a certain swaggerin g
humour a s it recount s ho w Gild a wa s carried of f wit h th e jester's un -
witting connivance. Bu t after Rigoletto's outburst the courtiers have no
further existence . I n th e nex t ac t Verdi will hav e a different us e for his
exclusively male chorus.
It is in the duets with Gild a that Rigoletto's tenderness bursts into ful l
flower. These rather than the solos tax the baritone hardes t since they call
for sustaine d legato singing just below th e highest part of his register. All
three bend the traditional forms to meet the dramatic situation. In 'Tutte
le feste a l tempio' Gilda has two length y parallel strophes moving fro m E
minor to C majo r i n which t o tell the stor y of her deception ; a s against
this Rigolett o ha s onl y on e i n A fla t ('Sol o pe r m e 1'infamia' ) a s h e
laments the overturning of his own private altar, before they find relief in
the cantabil e ('Piangi , fanciulla') . Bu t i t i s the orchestr a that weep s fo r
them, whil e th e voice s unit e i n flights of the pures t lyrica l beauty—a
superb example of musical catharsis (Ex. 28).
To thi s th e fina l cabalett a ('S i vendetta') , prompte d b y th e re -
appearance o f Monterone agai n in stentoria n voice, provide s a brilliant
contrast, th e tonic-dominan t oppositio n betwee n Gild a an d he r fathe r
increasing th e forwar d thrust . Th e duett o final e t o Ac t II I ('V'h o in -
gannato') i s essentiall y a minor-majo r romanz a fo r tw o voice s whic h
never sing together. It s high point is an ethereal harmonic side-slip wher e
Gilda, no w a n almost disembodied spirit , again promises to pray for he r
father i n Heave n (Ex . 29) .
The portraya l o f Gilda ha s been a matter o f debate. Eve r since Tos -
canini cas t Zink a Milanov in th e par t for his recording o f the thir d act ,
the lírico spinto has tried to claim it from the 'piping coloratura'. The fac t
that Gild a neve r descend s below th e trebl e stav e an d tha t sh e sing s i n
tenths with th e tenor rather than the traditional sixths indicates a lighter
soprano tha n Verd i usuall y demands ; bu t he r characte r doe s develo p
during th e opera . He r first entrance t o a n impulsive orchestra l melody ,
her artless pleas to Rigoletto, the delicate wisps of melody that colour her
brief dialogue with Giovann a and her aria 'Caro nome' designed like th e
Liszt-Paganini stud y 'L a Campanella ' a s continuou s variations—th e
perfect illustration o f a young girl weaving fantasy about the name of her
beloved—all sugges t youth an d innocence . Bu t th e musi c o f 'Tutte le
Ex. 2 8
feste a l tempio' i s unmistakably that of one wh o ha s woken fro m dream s

to reality ; while th e Gild a wh o sacrifice s hersel f for her love r an d wh o
dominates the symmetrical terzettino that crowns the height of the storm
is no mer e girl. During th e cours e of the oper a Rigoletto's daughter has
come o f age.
The Duke on the other hand is drawn entirely from the outside. In the
duet (' E i l sol dell'anima') w e se e him throug h Gilda' s eyes— a Princ e
Charming, all passion and poetry. His grand aria in Act II ('Parmi veder le
220 • V E R D I
Ex. 29
lagrime') i s sometimes criticise d a s being ou t o f characte r an d a mer e

concession t o th e demand s o f a star singer. Ye t i t ha s a subtle aptness ,
since the Duke, like many who are used to deceiving others, may well be
expected t o deceiv e himself . Th e fac t tha t Gilda , who m h e ha s take n
endless trouble to land, has suddenly, as he thinks, been removed fro m his
reach lend s he r a very specia l qualit y fo r on e wh o i s accustome d t o
getting hi s ow n way . S o ther e i s nothing improbabl e i n hi s singin g a
poetic an d musicall y concentrate d cantabil e (not e th e telescopin g o f
the thir d an d fourt h phrases ) a t a poin t wher e a certai n stasi s i n th e
action comes as a needed respite. But the moment h e knows that Gilda is
safely hi s he revert s t o typ e wit h a noisy cabalett a ('Possent e amo r m i
chiama').
Also i n characte r is the canzon e ('L a donn a è mobile'), carrie d ove r
from th e pla y ('Souven t femm e varie') . Lik e al l such 'stag e items ' (i.e .
songs that would figur e as such even if the opera were a spoken play), it is
on a different mor e perfunctor y level o f expression tha n the res t o f th e
opera. Ther e i s no nee d therefor e to tak e offenc e a t its catchiness, lik e
Honegger, wh o declare d that its banality is enough t o stifle a barrel-orga n
in the Rue d e Lappe. 1 Indeed it is precisely because it stands outside th e
language o f it s contex t tha t i t serve s as a vital pro p late r on . N o such
objections ca n be made t o the quarte t 'Bell a figlia dell'amore', the mu -
sical gem of Act III. It was not th e first time that Verdi had encompassed
1
A. Honegger , Presentation t o th e Almanack d e la Musique ig¡o (Paris, 1949) , pp. 3-7 .
four different mood s and characters within a single movement; but in no

previous instanc e i s th e integratio n s o faultless . Th e duke' s ardour ,
Maddalena's flirtatious chuckling, Gilda' s grief, Rigoletto's grim menace
all merge i n what seems a single, many-faceted melody. Hug o regrette d
that i t wa s an effec t beyon d th e powe r o f mere poetr y t o achieve . H e
could hav e adde d tha t i t wa s beyond th e powe r o f most composer s as
well.
What most impressed contemporary reviewers ofRigoletto wa s the use
Verdi mad e o f th e orchestra . Certainl y i t i s th e scoring— a strange ,
phosphorescent blen d o f clarinets , bassoons , lowe r string s an d bas s
drum—that lends so sinister an atmosphere t o Rigoletto's first dialogue
with Sparafucile; an d it is the orchestra that speaks most eloquently of the
grief o f Gild a an d Rigolett o i n Ac t II . Th e 'tempesta ' howeve r i s
something ne w i n musica l dramaturgy . Storm s i n Italia n oper a ar e
plentiful; mostly , however , the y functio n a s prelude s an d interludes ,
ceasing before the dram a resumes its course. In Rigoletto the stor m keeps
step with the action, reaching its climax with th e murder of Gilda. Again
unlike mos t musica l storms i t doe s no t preserv e a continuous texture .
Verdi takes a handful o f short motifs, descriptiv e or merely atmospheric,
alternates them with snatche s of melody, includin g reminiscences of 'La
donna è mobile ' an d 'Bell a figli a dell'amore ' an d develop s th e dram a
across them with a sense of growing tension . Two feature s stand out: the
use of wordless choru s t o sugges t the moaning of the wind and a figure
whose precise significance is elusive but which powerfully contributes to
the genera l eerines s (Ex. 30) .
As the dram a proceeds the motif s follo w eve r harder on eac h other's
heels to culminate in a formal trio melody ('Se pria ch'abbia il mezzo')—a
regular Verdian device fo r givin g cohesio n t o a scene that threaten s to
Ex. 3 0
228 • VERD I
become amorphous . Eve n afte r th e clima x ha s passed an d majo r har -

monies hav e indicate d th e clearin g o f the skies , the occasiona l flash of
lightning and growl of thunder recu r intermittently. Indee d it is one such
flash that reveal s to Rigoletto the body o f his daughter.
Opera ha s alway s recognise d tw o specie s o f time : th e eve r rollin g
stream and the expanded moment . I n the early eighteenth centur y it was
the secon d tha t provide d th e musica l interes t wit h mer e recitativ e t o
carry th e actio n forward . I n th e nineteent h centur y tim e becam e eve r
more continuous ; an d the expande d momen t tende d t o survive only i n
the concertat i and cabalettas of Italian opera. What make s Rigoletto seem
uniquely moder n amongs t Verdi' s opera s o f the perio d i s that it i s th e
only on e in which, bu t for a brief moment i n the stretta of the first scene
and i n th e Duke' s ofte n omitte d cabaletta , tim e neve r stand s still—an
aspect which i t is tempting t o link with a most remarkable document i n
the archives of S. Ágata: an uninterrupted draf t o f the entire opera, set out
mostly on one or two staves, and with onl y twenty-fou r bar s scored out .
'To compose well', Verdi is reported as saying, 'one must do so in a single
breath, leavin g till later the tas k o f tidying u p th e sketc h and filling out
the details. ' Here it is as though th e headlon g pac e of the dram a carried
Verdi's imaginatio n alon g with i t from th e first to th e final note.
This i s certainly not tru e o f f l trovatore (1853) , ofte n regarde d outsid e
Italy as an amiable backsliding on the composer's part and the epitome o f
all that i s most absur d in opera . Paradoxically , i n choosin g th e subjec t
Verdi seems to have wished t o continu e alon g the path of Rigoletto with
the gips y woman Azucen a as protagonist—a figur e i n who m materna l
and filial love fight for mastery. Yet despit e Verdi's demand s for novelty
of form, Cammarano persisted along the well-trodden path of cavatinas,
cabalettas and pezzi concertati, and Verdi ended by accepting his scheme
with onl y mino r modifications . A t leas t Cammarano' s comman d o f
traditional operati c languag e enable d hi m t o encompas s th e comple x
events o f Gutierrez' s plot , settin g ou t i n compendiou s narrativ e wha t
could no t b e show n dramatically . The happening s of U trovatore may be
bizarre, bu t the y ar e never unintelligible ; an d th e situation s themselves
are always crystal clear. I f the musica l forms are old-fashioned, the y ar e
none th e les s suitabl e t o a n oper a which , lik e Lohengrin an d Euryanthe,
inhabits the world o f medieval chivalr y and romance. Thoug h set in th e
sixteenth century, Rigoletto is essentially a modern drama . As recent pro -

ductions have shown, i t will bear transplanting to a nineteenth- o r eve n
twentieth-century setting . // trovatore will not .
But i f the bottles are old the wine is excitingly new. / / trovatore is a late
flowering o f Italian Romanti c oper a possible onl y t o on e wh o ha s seen
beyond it . I f it i s a drama o f the expande d momen t rathe r than a con -
tinuously developin g action , th e theatrica l interest neve r slackens . The
symmetry o f th e dramati c scheme—eight contraste d scene s each buil t
round on e or more finit e numbers—results from the tension of opposing
forces held in equilibrium; and for once the two force s are symbolised by
the two prima donnas. In Azucena Verdi first exploits the potentialities of
the mezzo-sopran o voic e a s a femal e equivalen t o f th e baritone . Hi s
model i s sometimes sai d to be Fide s in Meyerbeer's L e Prophète, th e first
of th e grea t mother-figure s i n opera . Bu t Fide s i s a 'nobl e mother '
throughout; Azucen a i s fa r mor e varie d an d interesting . Whil e th e
heroine, Leonora , is the epitom e o f everything lyrical, an aristocrat who
expresses hersel f in lon g flowin g melodies , Azucen a is a woman o f th e
people, speakin g a demotic language , mostl y i n 3/ 8 o r 6/8 , mostl y o f
short-breathed rhythmi c patterns . Lyrical by fit s an d starts , sh e i s oth -
erwise the essenc e of everything dramatic. When Leonora tells the story
of how sh e first met the hero, Manrico , the music makes no attemp t t o
underline the events of her narration; nor do we expect this. Our interest
is concentrated in the windings of her melody. But when Azucena relates
how sh e saw her mothe r burne d a t the stak e and hear d he r callin g fo r
vengeance; ho w sh e stole the count' s son intending to thro w hi m onto
the still smouldering pyre, but th e poor mite wailed so piteously that her
resolve faile d her ; ho w a vision o f her mothe r cause d her t o los e con -
sciousness; and when sh e came to her senses, there was the Count' s son
beside her; it was her own baby that she had burned—the music outlines
every detail with such vividness that what might soun d like a subject for
one of Harry Graham's Ruthless Rhymes becomes a horribly convincin g
tragedy. Eac h singe r ha s her ow n tona l area : A fla t major , D fla t an d
related keys for Leonora, E minor and G major, C major and A minor for
Azucena. Typically, where Leonor a opens with a full 'scen a e cavatina',
Azucena's first solo i s a short strophi c canzon a ('Strid e l a vampa!'), th e
central episod e o f a gipsy chorus .
230 • V E R D I
Ex. 3 1
A stage item, like 'La donna è mobile', it none the less sums up during its
course th e tw o force s which motivat e th e singer—thirs t fo r revenge (E
minor) an d materna l tendernes s fo r th e so n tha t is not her s ( G major).
Bridging th e two keys is the note B which recurs throughout th e melod y
with th e forc e o f an obsession.
Azucena doe s no t appea r til l th e secon d act ; bu t he r presenc e ha s
already been fel t i n th e first scene of all. The forma l part o f Ferrando's
narration ('Abbiett a zingara' ) ha s the sam e triple rhythm , th e sam e key
with a similar tendency to oscillate between i t and its relative major, even
though th e subjec t is not Azucen a but he r mother . He r narrativ e ari a
('Condotta ell'era in ceppi' ) i s open in form with Ex . 3 1 high u p in th e
strings servin g a s its lynch-pin; i t i s a tou r d e forc e o f graphi c musica l
expression. From the n o n i t i s the patheti c sid e o f Azucen a tha t pre -
dominates. He r appearanc e at the Coun t o f Luna's cam p in fetter s an d
her subsequent interrogation hav e all the drama of a recognition scen e in
a Greek play. Both ar e cast in the short-winded demoti c idio m w e have
come t o associate with her; but twic e th e force o f her emotion prompt s
her to long lyrical phrases that approach the idiom of Leonora: both time s
the subject is her 'son', the comfort of her declining years, whom she calls
upon t o com e t o he r rescue . The las t scene o f all shows us an Azucena
transfigured, afte r a tumultuous , hysterica l scena , i n th e hauntin g 'A i
nostri monti', in whose folk-like simplicity there is something o f Brahms.
Woven int o th e subsequen t terzett o ('Parla r no n vuoi?') , it s nobilit y
seems t o rebuk e th e wrangling s o f Leonora an d Manrico . Onl y a t th e
curtain doe s Azucena' s Blutrache re-awak e a s she tell s th e Coun t exul -
tantly that h e ha s killed hi s own brother .
By contras t Leonor a ha s al l th e emalgenc e o f Romanti c woman -
hood—a les s passive , mor e robus t Luci a Ashton . He r openin g scen a
passes fro m recitativ e throug h a deliciou s momen t o f arios o ('Com e
d'aurato sogno' ) t o he r cavatin a ('Tacea l a notte') whic h show s Verdi' s
melodic craftsmanshi p at its finest. Even his earliest arias show a tendency
to thro w thei r main musical weight toward s the end. Her e the melodi c
centre o f gravity seem s to ris e wit h eac h successiv e strain, ending i n a
soaring flight up to a high B flat enhanced by chromatic inner parts, a roll
on th e drum s an d a steady reinforcement from th e orchestra.
Ex. 3 2
The fioritur a of the cabalett a ('D i tale amor') i s of the 'angelic ' variety .
Again Lucia comes to mind (compar e 'Quand o rápit a nell'estasi').
Balancing thi s 'scen a e cavatina ' i s Leonora' s gran d ari a i n Ac t I V
('D'amor sull'ali rosee'), constructed o n a n even larger scale since it en -
closes the famou s 'Miserere ' scene in which sh e remains the dominatin g
figure. Again in the cantabile the music is minted from the purest gold of
the Italia n lyric tradition; bu t whereas in 'Tacea la notte' the phrases had
mounted eve r higher, her e the y tend toward s a dying fal l accompanie d
by poignant harmonies . The chantin g of the monks prompts her solemn ,
declaimed melod y 'Que l suon , quell e preci ' whic h i s answere d b y
Manrico's voic e floating dow n fro m th e towe r ('Ah , ch e la morte og -
nora') t o b e followe d b y he r passionat e rejoinde r ('D i te , d i t e scor -
darmi!'). I n a reprise th e divers e element s coalesc e in on e o f the mos t
memorable o f all Verdi's tableaux, suffused wit h a romantic beauty that is
all the greater for being simple and unselfconscious. With the concludin g
cabaletta ('T u vedra i ch e amor e i n terra' ) Leonor a seem s t o regai n a
certain hop e an d wil l t o action . Throughou t th e oper a sh e irradiate s
every scen e in which sh e takes part. Her s is the gloriou s melodi c fligh t
which frame s th e concertat o finale o f Act II ('Sei tu dal ciel disceso, o in
ciel son io co n te?') ; hers too i s the soarin g refrain o f her due t with th e
Count ('Calpest a il mió cadavere , ma salva il trovator').
The Count , a s an aristocrat, belongs essentially to Leonora's world. A
somewhat generic , unsympatheti c role, i t i s redeemed b y th e poeti c 'I I
balen' wit h it s velvety sonorit y an d th e martia l vigour o f 'Pe r me , or a
232 • V E R D I
fatale'. Manric o o n th e othe r han d i s poise d betwee n th e idiom s o f

Azucena an d Leonora . Hi s openin g harp-accompanie d serenad e ('De -
serto sull a terra' ) imbue s Azucena's style with a touch o f mystery. Later
Manrico wil l b e foun d t o tak e o n th e musica l colourin g o f the prim a
donna i n whos e scen e h e take s part. Th e turnin g poin t o f th e actio n
occurs wher e event s caus e hi m t o cros s fro m Leonora' s spher e int o
Azucena's in his grand aria in Act III. The andant e 'Ah! si, ben mio' is a
masculine conterpart to 'Tace a l a notte', makin g us e of those reiterate d
notes with which Verdi likes to lead up to a tenor cadenc e (see Ex. 333) .
But thes e sam e reiterations take o n a very differen t significanc e in th e
cabaletta 'Di quella pira'. Here the y become par t of the short , obsessive
phrase out o f which the entire movement is generated (Ex . 33b). It is the
language o f Azucena elevated into hig h heroism .
Ex. 3 3
A quality identified b y Basevi as characteristic of the oper a as a whole i s

'insistenza', an urgent driving home o f the musical argument. Essentially
a consequent of the Azucena style, it is noticeable in the demoni c stretta
('Su l'orl o de i tetti' ) tha t end s th e firs t scen e o f Ac t I , i n th e racin g
cabaletta ('Perigliart i ancor') wit h whic h Manric o take s leav e o f hi s
protesting 'mother ' i n Ac t I I an d th e strett a to Ac t III , scene 3 ('Deh ,
rallentate, o barbari') wher e Azucen a is condemned t o th e stake . But i t
informs som e o f the Leonor a scene s as well: the terzett o final e t o Ac t I
with its alignment o f voices à la Emani', in the concertat o finale t o Act II
amid Leonora's tremulou s happines s and th e tau t ferocit y o f he r riva l

suitors; and in th e Ac t I V duet betwee n he r an d the Count , where sh e
bargains fo r Manrico' s lif e ('Mira , d i acerb e lagrime'). I t remain s to b e
added that in no other opera is Verdi so prodigal o f memorable 'tunes' —
and no t jus t i n th e solo s an d duets . Th e ol d uniso n choruse s o f th e
Risorgimento find an exhilarating echo in the colourful 'Vedi! le fosche',
with it s 'anvil ' refrain , an d th e swaggerin g 'Squilli , echegg i l a tromb a
guerriera', with it s wholly nove l treatmen t o f decasyllabic metre .
For th e Frenc h versio n o f 185 7 Verd i mad e certai n modifications ,
mostly for the benefit of the new Azucena, Adelaide Borghi-Mamo; but
they als o include d elaboration s o f th e texture , doubtles s designe d t o
impress the Parisian cognoscenti. Non e of them are improvements. Th e
headlong spontaneit y o f U trovatore is not enhance d b y such tinkerings.
The ballet music, however, considered on its own is competent in a pre-
dominantly Spanish-gips y fancy dress . For onc e in a ballet Verdi quotes
from the oper a itself; the Pas des Bohémiennes contains themes from 'Vedi!
le fosche ' cunningl y wove n int o th e material . Th e Sevillana feature s a
whirling violin melod y like a rustic perpetuum mobile. L a bohémienne, a
fortune-teller's pa s d'action , i s notabl e fo r som e ingeniou s wind-pat -
terning. I n th e final galop th e rising star of Offenbach ca n be glimpsed .
'In th e hear t o f Africa o r th e Indie s you wil l alway s hear U trovatore.'
Thus Verd i t o hi s friend Coun t Arrivabene in 1862 . H e wa s not exag -
gerating. From its première i n 185 3 unti l it was overtaken by Gounod' s
Faust it was the most popular opera in the entire repertoire. Parodies of it
sprang up everwhere. 'Ah, che la morte ognora' and 'II balen' were to be
heard o n ever y barrel orga n and street piano in the world . T o Germa n
Italophobes of the lat e nineteenth centur y it epitomised everything that
was most vulgar in the Italian tradition. It is of course understandable that
those t o who m expressiv e harmony i s everything should fee l uneas y at
the moments where negative emotions are conveyed in bright, major key
melodies (Azucena' s 'Rallentate, o barbari' i s one cas e amongst many).
This i n Germa n eye s is a common Italia n failing. (Weber , i n on e o f his
literary sallies, describes the muse of Italian opera as wearing 'a saccharine
look' and singing 'sorte amara' 'to the prettiest passages in thirds'.)2 Th e
2
C.M. von Weber, Writings o n Music, ed. J. Warrack, trans. M. Cooper (Cambridge, 1981) , p.
343-
234 ' V E R D I
truth i s that when emotiona l utteranc e i s immediate i t i s often undif -

ferentiated; wha t count s i s it s force. Th e character s o f U trovatore ar e
supremely unreflective . Manric o flies to Leonor a th e momen t h e hears
that sh e is about t o tak e the veil , just a s he flies to Azucena' s rescue th e
moment h e hears of her capture . 7 / trovatore has all the confidenc e of th e
age in which i t was written, henc e it s popularity a t the time . Ou r ow n
more self-doubtin g centur y tends to prefer its successor.
Within Verdi' s idio m o f th e 1850 5 L a traviata i s a s differen t fro m
Rigoletto and II trovatore as they are from each other. An Italian critic of th e
time describe d i t a s 'chamber music', rathe r misleadingly fo r i t i s in n o
sense a 'chamber opera'. But t o a nineteenth-century Italia n 'músic a da
camera' mean t th e kin d o f romanz a o r ariett a whic h Donizett i an d
Mercadante turne d ou t i n grea t quantitie s to b e sun g in th e salon s of
Naples and Milan. And here the comparison i s apt; for the melodic style
of La traviata with its simple, waltz-like rhythm s and its themes that move
by small intervals does indeed approach that of Verdi's own romanze . La
traviata i s a very private opera i n whic h th e chora l number s ofte n see m
like a n intrusion .
It i s n o les s misleadin g t o regar d th e oper a a s an earl y exampl e o f
verismo. Even if Verdi had had his way and the work ha d been mounte d
in contemporary costumes , the language of the libretto would hav e kept
realism at a distance. Besides, the demi-mondaine who abandon s a life o f
promiscuity fo r the lov e o f one man , the n return s to i t unde r pressure
from th e man' s father undergoe s a progressive idealisation fro m real lif e
to novel, from novel t o play and from play to opera. Dumas' Marguerit e
remains purely theatrical; Violetta is a creature of poetry.
The prelud e i s a portrait o f th e opera' s heroine . I t begin s wit h th e
diaphanous blend o f divisi violins, which wil l characterise the invali d of
Act III; then comes the theme o f her declaration of love for Alfredo, not
as in the course of the opera, a sudden passionate outburst but as a steadily
burning flame . I f th e openin g phras e ca n b e foun d not e fo r not e i n
Donizetti's Pi a de'Tolomei th e long, climactic conclusion with its sense of
two phrases rolled int o one stamps it with Verdi's patent (Ex . 34). In the
tripping violin descan t that decorates the repea t there i s a suggestion o f
the venee r o f frivolity that marks the hostes s of Act I.
Violetta dominates the opera as no previous hero or heroine ha s done.
Her presenc e give s lif e an d individualit y t o th e othe r tw o principals .
Ex. 3 4
Without it they tend to lapse into the generic. 'Fa r from her, life holds no
joy' ar e Alfredo' s firs t word s a t th e star t o f Ac t II . Non e th e les s his
cantabile 'De' miei bollenti spiriti' is a neat and pithy statement o f a frame
of mind , th e lyrica l lin e subduin g th e simme r o f pizzicat o strings .
Likewise Germont's 'Di Provenz a i l mar, il suol' with its woodwinds in
thirds, it s seesawin g strings , it s simpl e Donizettia n conjugatio n o f th e
opening phras e is a suitable expression o f nostalgia, as befits on e wh o i s
trying t o persuad e hi s so n t o retur n t o simpl e way s an d values . Bu t
Alfredo's 'Oh mio rimorso! O infamia!' is a touch heroic for one who has
merely discovere d tha t hi s mistres s ha s been sellin g he r possession s t o
keep the m bot h i n funds ; whil e Germont' s 'No, no n udra i rimproveri '
adds nothing t o what we have already heard. Clearly, to deny a principal
baritone hi s cabaletta was not t o be though t of ; but fro m th e sketche s it
would appea r that it took Verdi six attempts to reach the version whic h
satisfied him , wit h onl y th e secon d hal f repeated . Bot h cabaletta s ar e
often cut in performance without any great loss. Yet a kind wor d from
Violetta suffice s t o launc h Alfredo o n th e brindis i ('Libia m ne'liet i ca -
lici'), a melody whose charm lies in the five-bar structure of its phrases, so
skilfully balanced that the listener is not awar e of the irregularity but onl y
of the forward thrust. Alfredo's too is the other mai n theme o f the opera ,
a simpl e declaratio n o f lov e clearl y related t o Ex . 34 . (Strang e tha t th e
generally perceptiv e Basevi should see in th e downwar d curv e an illus-
tration of base love, so at variance with th e idealistic feelings expressed in
Bellini's ' A te, o cara'. )
It occurs first as the crownin g momen t o f Alfredo's first strophe in the
cantabile of the 'Valzer-Duet' ('U n di, felice, etéreo'); it persists beneath
the skittis h frivolity of Violetta's reply ('Ah , s e ció è ver, fuggitemi') . I t
forms th e major-key releas e of Violetta's 'Ah , fors'è lui' and at the same
time a refrain t o what i s written a s a French-style 'couplet' , though mos t
Violettas always omit th e second strophe. Alfredo recalls it in the distance
236 • VERD I
during he r cabalett a ('Sempr e libera') . I t i s heard agai n o n attenuate d

strings (tw o first violins o n th e melody , th e res t tremolando ) a s for th e
hundredth tim e Violett a take s Germont' s lette r fro m he r boso m an d
speaks it aloud—a device not ye t vulgarised by Hollywood; and in a still
more etherea l voicing o f strings it accompanies her fals e recover y a t th e
end o f the opera . Eac h placing is exactly calculated to mak e a dramatic
point.
Ex. 3 5
Like Luisa Miller, Violetta is a developing heroine ; bu t he r progress is

musically smoother an d surer. In Act I she is the lively hostess, ready with
repartee an d concerne d t o mak e th e part y go . Eve n he r due t wit h Al -
fredo i s no mor e tha n a gentle dallianc e as far as she i s concerned. Th e
first not e of seriousness comes with he r scena and aria ('Ah , fors' è lui'),
only t o b e immediatel y contradicte d b y th e waltz-lik e 'Sempr e libera',
whose immediat e purpos e wa s doubtles s t o allo w ful l scop e fo r th e
bravura o f Fann y Salvini-Donatelli ; ye t i t work s perfectl y well o n th e
plane of dramatic irony. Violetta imagines herself to be heart-whole; bu t
the distan t intrusion o f Ex. 3 5 tell s us otherwise .
During th e week s tha t separat e Acts I an d I I nothin g bear s witness
more powerfull y t o Violetta' s growin g statur e tha n th e warmt h an d
dignity o f th e seven-ba r phras e wit h whic h sh e turn s asid e Germont' s
rudeness (Ex . 363) . Thei r gran d due t ('Pur a siccom e u n angelo' ) form s
the centre-piec e o f th e ac t an d th e turnin g poin t o f th e drama . I t i s
dialectical in th e manne r of the duetto-final e o f Act I between Lucrezi a
and th e Dog e i n / du e Fosean which i t excell s no t onl y musicall y bu t
dramatically as well. Fo r in the earlie r work althoug h th e moods chang e
the situation does not. Father and daughter-in-law ar e no further forward
at th e en d tha n a t th e beginning . Bu t b y th e en d o f th e presen t due t
Violetta will have taken a decision and Germont scored a victory, thoug h
one which give s him less pleasure than he had hoped. Through a chain of
short contrasted movements, a s Germont's logi c tightens its grip, Violetta
Ex. 3 6
passes fro m tremulou s hop e t o pani c fear , t o despai r and finally to res -
ignation, a t first infinitely sad, then transfigure d in the andante 'Dite alla
giovine'. Thi s i s the stil l hear t o f th e duet , th e momen t a t whic h th e
intimate Traviata styl e reaches spiritual heights (Ex . 36b) .
The cabalett a ('Morro , l a mí a memoria' ) i s fragmente d a t it s fina l
reprise as though Violetta were on the point of breaking down. Her letter
to Alfredo , like Luisa' s to Wurm , i s accompanied b y a sighing clarine t
theme, thoug h mor e prolonge d an d expressive . Ther e follow s th e
controlled hysteri a prompted b y Alfredo' s unexpected entrance—fort y
bars o f steadil y mountin g tensio n tha t find s releas e i n wha t coul d b e
called an apotheosis of Ex. 3 4 ('Amami Alfredo!'), th e final bars doubled
in length as if to tell us that everything lies in the cadence (so much for Pia
de'Tolomeil)
In the finale (often performed as a separate act) Violetta's part is smaller
but alway s telling. Thre e time s durin g th e card-game , se t to a n electric
orchestral theme bristlin g with acciaccature , her voice rises and falls in a
desolate phrase, scored slightly differently eac h time in a typically Verdian
gradation. A touch o f conventional Romanti c opera mark s the conclu-
sion o f th e act . Alfredo' s denunciatio n ('Ogn i su o ave r ta l femmina' )
238 • V E R DI
follows the tradition of Edgardo's 'Maledetto sia 1'istante', the major key
and th e studie d declamatio n bringing ou t th e bitte r iron y o f Alfredo's
taunts. I n the concertat o that follow s Germont's entrance th e moo d o f
each principa l i s caught i n th e contou r an d articulatio n o f thei r lines :
Germont's dignified reproof, which gather s warmth a s it proceeds; Al -
fredo's babble d excuses ; Violetta's heart-break . Her s i s th e musi c that
generates that sad-sweet cantilena with which th e Italian Romantics lik e
to pour balm on a tragic situation and which gathers up the ensemble in a
final burs t o f lyricism . Even her e th e Parisia n walt z i s no t altogethe r
forgotten.
The mortall y sic k Violetta o f th e fina l ac t i s portrayed i n a prelud e
whose point o f departure is the sequence of violin chords that began th e
prelude t o Ac t I ; bu t her e the y launc h a deepl y expressiv e cantilen a
beginning in C minor, then wandering into D flat and finally returning
to th e hom e ke y and a coda ful l o f sighs stressed off the beat . It is one o f
Verdi's leas t formal melodie s wit h th e freedo m o f a Chopin nocturne ;
and it forms a thematic backcloth to th e conversatio n tha t follows. Th e
aria 'Addio, del passato' is the valedictory counterpoise to 'Ah, fors' è lui'.
Both shar e the sam e couplet desig n o f minor ke y strophes leading t o a
major ke y refrain . Bu t her e th e consolator y effec t o f th e majo r is im -
mediately dispersed in a return to the original mode. For the last time th e
outside world obtrude s in the for m of a noisy carnival chorus ('Largo a l
quadrupède'); then a palpitating allegro heralds the arrival of Alfredo; and
for a brief moment th e lover s enjo y unclouded happines s in th e simpl e
tenderness o f 'Parig i o cara' ; ye t eve n her e w e ar e reminde d o f th e
heroine's frai l conditio n b y th e transparen t texture o f divisi violins tha t
accompany her replie s to Alfredo. In the following transition th e music
captures ever y detail—he r failur e t o rise , he r feigne d cheerfulness , the
chill realisatio n tha t no t eve n he r lover' s retur n ca n sav e her an d he r
outburst o f grief at having to di e so young. I n th e cabalett a 'Gra n Dio !
morir s í giovine ' jagged interval s in th e melodi c lin e compensat e fo r
the lac k o f expressiv e harmony . Th e en d i s soon reached . Th e caba -
letta runs without a pause to th e entr y of Germont which i n tur n leads
to th e final ensemble—one of Verdi's shortes t an d simplest. It is domi-
nated throughou t b y Violetta , seconde d b y thos e fata l tattoo s o n th e
full orchestr a that in Italian opera connote the imminence o f death. Afte r
the last swelling cadence comes the collapse , preceded by a brief illusio n
of well-being— a detai l whic h Bernar d Sha w carrie d ove r int o Th e

Doctor's Dilemma. Th e fina l exclamation s of th e bystander s are usually
omitted.
For the revival of 1854 Verdi made certain changes whose importance
he strov e t o minimise ; bu t al l are for the bette r an d al l passed into th e
definitive score. Some were clearly designed to accommodate th e part of
Germont to the average baritone who lacked the height of Varesi. Some
improve th e genera l shap e o f a number , other s sharpe n a local effect .
Thus i n Violetta's violent protes t at having to renounc e Alfred o ('No n
sapete... ') what was originally expresse d through vocal contour alon e is
now conveye d throug h harmon y an d increased orchestral participation.
As well a s that, the risin g inne r lin e of the revise d versio n forges a link
with 'Addio , de l passato' in the followin g act.
Finally, a word abou t Violette, th e Frenc h versio n performe d a t th e
Théâtre Lyriqu e in 1864 . Th e oper a is divided explicitl y into four acts,
while th e onl y musica l alteratio n occur s a t th e en d o f wha t ha s no w
become Ac t II . Violetta' s impassione d outburs t an d exi t (Ex . 34 ) is re -
peated fortissim o on ful l orchestra . The n D'Orbe l (Germont ) enters ,
holds ou t hi s han d t o th e happil y absorbe d Rodolph e (Alfredo ) an d
launches straight into 'Lorsqu e des folles amours' ('Di Provenza il mar, il
suol'). When his son refuses t o listen he follows it with th e cabaletta 'Ah
reviens, c'est la vie' ('No, non udra i rimproveri'), with, however, a note
to the effec t tha t this may be omitted. Onl y when a 'domestique' brings
the lette r fro m Violett a sayin g wher e sh e ha s gone , doe s he r love r
plunge int o a despairing D flat which bring s dow n th e curtain . A dis -
advantage of this scheme is that it robs the baritone aria of its consolatary
overtones. Despit e th e advocac y of Franci s Toye , i t i s unlikely t o b e
revived today.
When aske d a few years later which wa s his favourite among his ow n
operas he i s said to hav e replied 'Speaking as an amateur, La traviata, as a
professional, Rigoletto' ? Today L a traviata is the best-loved oper a in th e
Verdian canon . No t tha t i t i s the mos t flawless. In it s world o f private
relationships th e proble m o f th e cabalett a is not entirel y solved ; whil e
much o f the publi c music from the brindis i onwards seem s deliberately
charmless. Th e bogu s gipsie s an d torero s o f Ac t I I ar e mer e tunefu l
3
MV, p. 146 .
24O • VERD I
interludes. Th e greates t moments o f La traviata have the simplicity that is

an attribut e no t o f naivete bu t o f extreme refinement , th e exclusio n o f
everything superfluous . I n number s suc h a s 'Ah , fors' è lui' , 'Dit e all a
giovine', 'Addio, del passato', and 'Parigi o cara' the Italian lyric traditio n
of the time is pared down to its finest. The way of self-renewal woul d li e
in a different direction .
C H A P T E R S I X T E E N
Towards Grand Opera
F OR AL L THEI R CONSPICUOU S DIFFERENCE S RIGOLETTO, I L TRO-

vatore an d L a traviata al l shar e a commo n idiom : th e languag e o f
Italian Romanti c oper a purged o f all that is inessential to dramati c ex -
pression; a heart-on-sleeve manne r i n which , thoug h th e forma l reac h
may b e long , th e componen t unit s ar e shor t sinc e th e singer s com e
quickly to the point (Verdi , like Mozart, has the ability to say in a handful
of bars what other s ca n barel y expres s i n a whole aria) . Th e rhythmi c
schemes are plain, the accompaniments unencumbered. Th e emphasi s is
all o n th e individual—li t fiercely , a s in / / trovatore o r gently , a s in L a
traviata; bu t th e ambienc e barel y impinges . (Th e Parisia n walt z o f L a
traviata is the subtles t of odours.) Verdi no w aspire d to wide r an d mor e
varied canvasses. Over the next few years his sources would be many; but
the mos t immediat e wa s Paris and the worl d o f Meyerbeer.
Les vêpres siciliennes, concernin g th e uprisin g o f th e Sicilian s against
their French conquerors in 1282 , is an eminently conventional subject for
a gran d opera . I t differ s fro m Guillaume Tell an d Le s Huguenots onl y i n
that th e tw o lover s ar e on th e sam e side and the hero' s divided loyalty
springs fro m hi s discover y tha t th e oppresso r o f hi s peopl e i s his ow n
father. Ye t i t gav e Verd i a n opportunit y t o tr y hi s han d a t a mor e
complex genr e whos e measur e he ha d scarcel y taken in. Jerusalem.
The overture , Verdi's last in the post-Rossinian styl e with it s roots in
sonata form, conveys the opera's 'tinta' with admirable succinctness. The
menace of death tha t hangs over th e actio n like a sword o f Damocles is
241
242 VERDI
embodied i n a persistent 'rat-a-tat' that dominates the slow introduction .

The secon d them e o f the allegro , take n fro m th e tenor/bariton e due t
('Pour moi, pour moi quelle ivresse inconnue') typifies the lyrical aspects
of the oper a wit h a melody broade r an d mor e varie d i n it s articulatio n
than anything in II trovatore (Ex. 373). But th e mai n motif of Meyerbeer' s
L'étoile d u nord i s not fa r of f (Ex . 37b).
Ex. 3 7
Les vêpres siciliennes i s a n oper a o f dramati c tableaux , o f grandios e

spectacle agains t whic h th e principal s move , ofte n i n a somewha t di -
minished perspective .
The curtai n rises on a double chorus ('Beau pays de France') in which
Verdi fo r th e firs t tim e make s a musica l distinctio n betwee n th e tw o
choral groups—majo r key and prou d swaggerin g gait for the French , a
subdued minor-ke y mutterin g fo r th e Sicilians . With a few def t rhyth -
mic touche s he depict s the drunke n Robert , unstead y on hi s feet, an d
the gracefu l bearin g o f the tw o officer s Vaudemon t an d Béthune. Th e
great cabaletta with chorus ('Courage, courage') with which th e Duchess
Hélène lashe s th e Sicilian s into a spirit of revolt recall s Lady Macbeth' s
'Or tutt i sorgete ' bu t i t ha s a more spaciou s design, wit h episode s that
serve to increase the music's momentum. There i s a similar scene in th e
first act o f L e Prophète; bu t whil e Meyerbee r relie s o n a multiplicity o f
ideas for hi s effect, Verd i sweeps to th e clima x on a single breath.
Towards Grand Opera • 24 3
The theatrica l highlight o f Act I I is the 'rap e o f the Sabin e women'

carried ou t durin g th e Feas t o f Sant a Rosalia . Her e i s th e worl d o f
Auber's La muette de Portia enriched by a greater musical imagination: th e
lively tarantella , th e gracefu l barcaroll e ('Jou r d'ivress e e t d e délice' )
against which th e Sicilians ' impoten t rage , fanne d b y Hélène, an d Pro -
cida, dashes itself in a succession of death tattoos. Act III culminates in the
attempted assassinatio n of Montfort , thwarte d a t th e las t momen t b y
Henri. Th e rathe r OfFenbachia n part y music i s brought t o a halt; and a
succession o f abrup t gesture s i n Verdi' s mos t sensationa l vei n resolve s
itself into a broad cantilen a o n th e line s o f Ex. 37 3 but harmonised , a s
often i n Meyerbeer, b y a single line of stalking quavers in the bass. In Act
IV othe r death s ar e prepared—those o f Hélène, Procid a an d th e con -
spirators, to be suspended if only Henri will acknowledge Montfor t as his
father. While the monks chant a Deprofundis, th e female bystanders plead
for mercy and the side drum beats out a death signal, muted violins sing a
poignant melod y ful l o f anguishe d sob s and displace d accents . As tw o
monks han d Hélène ove r to the headsman , Henri ca n bear it no longe r
and cries out 'Mo n père!' The ac t ends with a cheerful strett a disturbed
only b y th e vengefu l muttering s o f Procid a an d hi s men . Th e fina l
massacre is preceded by a terzetto o f unbearable suspense during whic h
Hélène trie s to pu t of f her wedding , Procid a threaten s and Henr i crie s
out i n bitter reproach. Montfort's arrival resolves the situation. H e gives
the coupl e his blessing, Procida echoe s him mockingly ; an d the curtai n
falls o n a scene of carnage .
In an opera where historical events, genuine or imagined, take pride of
place the problem arises of giving depth and consistency to the principals.
If Verdi ha d faile d t o solv e i t i n L a battaglia d i Legnano, h e i s far mor e
successful here . Th e Henr i wh o proudl y defie s Montfor t i n th e Gou -
nodesque duett o final e o f Ac t I i s manifestl y th e Henr i wh o court s
Hélène in the duo of the next act—one who, like Lovelace's hero, coul d
not love her so much loved he not honour more. Bu t with th e discovery
that h e i s Montfort's so n h e become s fatall y uncertain ; an d hi s state o f
mind—unusual fo r a Verdia n tenor—i s beautifull y capture d i n th e
strophic romance 'O jour de peine' and its agitated allegro coda. Durin g
the subsequen t duo wit h Hélèn e h e regain s his serenity to becom e th e
poet o f hi s Act V 'Mélodie' . Hélèn e hersel f develop s i n th e opposit e
direction t o Violetta. A female Tyrtaeu s in Act I, by Act V she is a happy
244 ' V E R D I
young brid e lookin g forwar d t o he r weddin g (he r famou s Sicilienn e

'Merci, jeunes amies ' i s a worth y counterpar t t o Elvira' s polacc a i n /
puritan!). But the gradation is beautifully managed. Already in the central
movement o f he r Ac t I I du o ('Prè s d u tombeau' ) wit h it s strangel y
hollow harmonies we ca n sense kindlier feeling s encroachin g upon he r
grim determination to avenge her brother. True, i n Act IV she begins by
treating her lover coldly. Sh e flings back at him his excuse ('Malheureux
et non coupable') in irony and scorn—until in an impressive paragraph of
melodic declamatio n h e reveal s his paternity. Agai n Hélèn e repeat s his
plea, bu t a t a lower pitc h an d i n a tone o f compassion . I n thi s way a n
identical passag e of words an d musi c is given thre e differen t emotiona l
shadings. The centra l movement o f the due t is a solo for Hélène, ful l o f
sorrow an d tenderness; for she is sure that they are both doomed ; bu t a t
least the y wil l di e assure d of eac h other' s love . Th e codett a illustrates
Verdi's newfoun d richness of harmonic vocabulary.
Ex. 3 8
The fina l cabalett a i s all lightness and charm . Hélèn e i s already rejuve-
nated.
Montfort is the first of Verdi's lonely figures of authority, a precursor of
Simon Boccanegra and King Philip. In the first act he is little more than the
governor who m everyon e fears except Henri. No t unti l Act III do we see
the ma n behind th e office . Hi s aria ('Au sein de la puissance') again shows
Verdi forsaking the path of easy lyricism for unexplored regions of musical
expression—witness the middle episode where th e rhyth m dissolve s into
irregularity an d eve n th e F shar p mino r tonalit y seem s uproote d a s
Montfort contemplates the void about him. The majo r key brings its usual
sense of comfort, but of the most austere kind with many a question mark.
In th e gran d duet which follows, once again a dialectical scheme of short
contrasted movements, i t is Montfort's warmth tha t dominates, expressed
in Ex. 373 . Henri reacts with horro r whic h give s way to despair . For th e
final movemen t Verd i decide d t o replac e th e origina l cabalett a wit h a
reprise o f Ex. 373 , thi s tim e sun g by Henr i t o differen t word s ('Ombr e
sainte que je révère' ) which make s a far more satisfactor y conclusio n t o a
duet in which nothin g ha s been resolved. It is also in line with the French
practice whereby duets often conclud e with a restatement of the principal
\
melody (see 'A moi les plaisirs, les jeunes maîtresses' from Gounod's Faust).
Nor i s the music so unsuited to Henri a s might appear . 'Je veux courir en
vos bras', he has said, 'Je ne peux pas'. From now on Montfort command s
all ou r sympathy . Nothing ca n b e mor e movin g tha n th e Sarastro-lik e
phrase with which he proclaims the marriage of the lovers ('Soyez unis, o
nobles fiances') . Th e butche r o f Palerm o ha s become a father-figur e i n
every sense of the word .
Procida, however , provide d a problem. Verd i complained tha t Scribe
had made of him 'a commonplace conspirato r with a dagger in his hand'.
The rea l trouble i s that unlike Guillaum e Tel l o r Masaniell o h e ha s no
personal or family wrongs to avenge. He is a political animal and nothing
else. Verd i redresse s the balanc e against him wit h th e beautifu l 'E t to i
Palerme', one of the great favourites of the bass repertoire. Precede d by a
barcarolle-like introductio n o f th e mos t delicat e workmanship, i t i s a
French ternary design with a middle episod e that incorporates the death -
tattoo to the words 'Leve z vous'. Procida also has the leading part in the
quartet o f Act I V ('Adie u mo n pays , je succombe') . Th e musica l high
point of the act, as Verdi intended that it should be, it is a quartet of pure
contemplation; therefor e the character s are distinguishe d les s obviousl y
than usual ; but i n harmoni c an d rhythmi c freedo m (th e clima x i s pre -
ceded by a bar of 5/4) as in breadth and sweetness of melody i t is unsur-
passed amon g Verdia n ensembles . But i t i s not enoug h t o pu t Procid a
into ou r goo d graces . His Act I I cabalett a ('Dans l'ombre e t le silence')
follows th e patter n o f Luna's 'Per me 1'or a fatal ' wit h a spezzato chorus
protesting their departure and refusing to go; but it is far less spontaneous.
By the Ac t V terzetto Procid a ha s become th e blackes t of villains.
It is in the nature of Meyerbeerian grand opera to include genre pieces
of a purely decorative o r episodic nature . There is nothing o f this in Les
246 • VERD I
vêpres siáliennes until the fifth act. The openin g chorus in the Spanish style
never rises above the level of prettiness; while the two solos for bride and
bridegroom, wit h al l thei r char m an d refinement , merel y mar k tim e
dramatically. The balle t 'Les Quatre Saisons ' is vastly better than tha t of
Jérusalem sinc e presumably Verdi had more tim e t o giv e to it ; but i t fall s
some way short o f Delibes o r Tchaikovsky. Th e classica l ballet had no t
yet com e of age. Flashily scored little waltzes, mazurkas and polkas were
the orde r o f the day . S o far Parisian ballet coul d boas t n o scor e mor e
distinguished than Adam's Giselle. I n Le s vêpres siciliennes Verdi produce d
one gem in the 'siciliano' movement dance d by the nymphs of summer as
they gathe r th e corn— a hauntin g melod y tha t ha s been compare d t o
Musorgsky's 'vecchio castello'. An adagio for 'Autumn' shows an ability
to bend th e rhythmic scheme so as to underline a choreographic flourish ;
and there is some ingenious mime music for the transition between eac h
season. Yet Verdi himself authorised the omission of the ballet; and this is
usually done excep t at festival performances.
Les vêpres siciliennes has never been a repertory piece. The necessit y of
coming t o grip s wit h new , mor e sophisticate d technique s sometime s
results i n a muting o f Verdi's artisti c voice; an d a concern wit h crafts -
manship ma y resul t i n a los s o f spontaneity , a s i n th e Ac t I quarte t
('Quelle horreu r m'environne') , a mere exercis e i n voca l part-writing .
Yet th e oper a ha s qualities no t t o b e foun d elsewher e i n th e canon .
Berlioz was not far wrong in talking about a sense of power, impassione d
but slo w t o deplo y itself , whic h 'stamp s th e wor k wit h a grandeur , a
sovereign majest y mor e marke d tha n i n th e composer' s previou s crea -
tions'.1
Simon Boccanegra is for it s time a far bolder venture . Th e origina l play,
by Gutiérrez , ha s al l th e complexity , th e vastnes s o f tim e scal e o f E l
trovador, bu t it s centra l figur e i s historical—th e fourteenth-centur y
Genoese freebooter who rose to become Doge of his native city and who
died poisoned b y one o f his own faction . Th e plo t is full o f intrigue and
melodramatic incident , includin g th e recovery o f a long-lost daughter .
All this Verdi reduce s to a basic theme—the conflict and reconciliatio n
between Boccanegr a and his political adversary, Jacopo Fiesco , the first a
baritono nobile, despite his humble origins, the second a basso profondo
1
Quoted i n L a France musicale, 7.10.1855.
as hard and unyielding as the basalt rocks of his native Liguria. The lynch-
pin o f the action is Amelia, daughter of Boccanegra and grand-daughte r
of Fiesco, who remain s ignorant o f her origins right up t o th e final act.
There is a conventional love interest, but i t takes second place. Gabriele
Adorno, Amelia' s suitor, is the leas t interesting of the fou r principals.
For Verdi th e fourteent h century was an age of blood an d iron. Ac -
cordingly h e aime d her e a t a n austerit y o f lin e an d textur e i n whic h
moments o f tendernes s occu r lik e fitfu l gleams . 'I f ther e aren' t an y
melismata', h e wrot e t o Leon e Giraldoni , th e first Boccanegra, 'there' s
no need to clutch at your hair and throw a mad fit. ' 185 7 was the year in
which Mercadant e wrote Pelagio, which contain s one o f the mos t florid
baritone parts ; wha t i s more , it s creator , Filipp o Coletti , woul d sin g
Boccanegra under Verdi's direction. T o a star baritone of the day it must
have seemed an unrewarding part. Not onl y i s the word setting syllabic
and much of it on a single note, the Doge has not a single aria to himself;
his part is mostly dialogue and declamation. Eve n the cabaletta-them e of
Boccanegra's due t wit h hi s newfoun d daughte r ('Figlia ! a ta l nome i o
palpito') which provide s the opera's chief recurring motif has, especially
in th e 185 7 version, a somewhat martia l ring:
Ex. 3 9
2
Letter to L . Giraldoni (unpublished) , 9.12.1857, in the archive s of the Istitut o Nazionale di
Studi Verdiani, 48/50.
248 • VERD I
Where Boccanegr a reveal s t o hi s would-b e assassin , Gabriele , tha t

Amelia is his daughter, not, as the young man had supposed, his mistress,
the line is almost without expression , neither recitative nor arioso, yet all
the mor e moving fo r its bleak restraint (Ex . 40).
Ex. 4 0
Not until his final duet of reconciliation wit h Fiesco does Boccanegra's
voice join with another' s i n what a n Italian of the 1850 5 could regar d as
truly lyrical. 'At last', Basevi remarked in 1859 , 'real passion and not just a
dull combination o f notes.' And he added, 'It was high time.' 3 The sub -
sequent concertato lights up the las t pages of the oper a i n a sunset glow.
In Jacopo Fiesc o Verdi first brought t o a principal basso profondo th e
qualities previously associated with comprimarii such as Pope Leo, Pastor
3
BSV, p. 278.
Moser an d Jörg: a n authority, a power o f pregnant utteranc e out o f all

proportion t o its length. Hi s cavatina 'II lacerate spirito', a lament for his
dead daughter whom h e had kept a prisoner in his palace, is remarkable
not onl y fo r it s craggy sombreness (i t does no t nee d a beautiful voice ,
only intelligence and good low notes) but also for its concision: a minor/
major romanz a reduce d t o it s smalles t proportions , it s concentratio n
facilitated b y an elliptical us e of the 6/ 4 chor d i n the maggior e section .
The pentatoni c contou r o f th e melod y i s an importan t elemen t i n th e
opera's tinta (Ex. 41).
Ex. 4 1
Such is the pressure of banked emotional fires that it seems to generate

a long consolatory postlude. Throughout th e oper a Fiesco's appearances
are brief but alway s telling: and nowhere more than in the last act where
with hi s one lin e of dialogue ('Er a megli o per te' ) h e hold s Boccanegra
fascinated lik e a snake . At th e star t o f thei r due t ('Dell e fac i festant i a l
barlume') Fiesc o thunder s a t hi s ol d adversar y like a n Ol d Testamen t
prophet, onl y t o collaps e durin g th e followin g allegro— a movemen t
250 • VERD I
with something o f the dynamism of Beethoven's Egmont overture—into

musical sighs and groans when h e discovers Amelia's identity. I t is the fal l
of a colossus.
Novelties o f the 185 7 score includ e tw o scènes-à-fair e in whic h th e
musical argumen t fall s t o th e orchestra : th e gatherin g o f th e plebeia n
voters for the election of Simone as Doge, an d Boccanegra's exploration
of the Fiesc o palace to the accompaniment of mime-music; a prelude t o
Act I evoking moonlight o n the bay of Genoa; an aria-movement fo r the
heroine ('Com e in quest'ora bruna') o n grand-oper a scal e with a mod -
ulating central episode an d full reprise—a n aria moreover whic h offer s a
perfect instanc e o f th e three-limbe d melodi c desig n tha t wil l becom e
more and more frequent i n the operas to come. But not all that was new
in the first version passed over into th e second. The fierc e 'giuramento '
between Gabriel e an d Fiesc o wa s replaced b y a solemn duettin o wit h
modal overtones ('Vien i a me, ti benedico') i n which th e old man blesses
the futur e bridegroo m o f hi s ward . Th e Ac t I final e wa s startlingl y
original for its time. The concertato , a reaction to the sudden appearance
of Amelia after he r kidnap, is built on naturalistic lines: the words 'Ella è
salva' ar e tossed fro m on e chora l grou p t o anothe r lik e a n exclamatio n
(compare 'Der Schwan! Der Schwan' in Lohengrin) and answered by two
caressing cadences like sighs of relief ('Alfin , alf m respiro') . Then, as the
principals add their comments , th e lyrica l fragments com e togethe r an d
so wind u p the ensemble in a blaze of sonority. There i s a free 'racconto'
in whic h Ameli a describe s her abductio n bu t refuse s t o nam e he r ab -
ductor except to the Doge. By this time the general excitement has risen
to suc h a pitch tha t the musi c topples straight over int o the stretta—n o
ordinary exampl e o f its type but a turmoil o f rugged counterpoint , oc -
casionally interrupte d b y call s o f 'Giustizia ' supporte d onl y b y har p ar -
peggios, sustaining strings and upper woodwind. It is a long way from the
conventional finale s tha t were stil l being writte n b y Pacini an d Merca -
dante. But in the en d it too wa s superseded.
In makin g his revision o f 188 1 Verdi was concerned firstl y t o softe n
the opera' s harshnes s without alterin g it s character or tinta . Bu t h e also
wished t o giv e dept h an d idealis m t o wha t i s otherwis e a dram a o f
political intrigue . Henc e th e notion o f a scene in the Counci l Chambe r
in which th e Doge woul d cal l for unity amongst the Italia n peoples; bu t
under Boito's stimulu s he went muc h further. A brief debate is followed
by a ful l 'sommossa ' o f the peopl e buil t o n tw o developin g theme s i n

Verdi's maturest manner (remembe r tha t the revisio n was made on th e
threshold of Otello) an d culminates in the Doge's address ('Plebe! Patrizi!
Popólo!) in which h e call s for peace between Genoa' s warrin g factions ,
nobles and populace, Guelph an d Ghibelline. I t is just what th e origina l
opera s o conspicuously lacked— a sol o i n whic h th e protagonis t coul d
put forth the whole o f his moral and spiritual strength to stand revealed as
the nobles t o f al l Verdia n bariton i nobili . Appropriatel y th e melodi c
climax preserves the pentatonic contour of the opera's tinta. All this gives
rise to a new and freer concertato with Amelia and Fiesco standing out in
relief, th e ol d man' s gloom y despai r becoming submerge d beneat h th e
general sens e o f reconciliation , jus t a s Count Almaviva' s ange r i s out -
weighed b y th e strengt h o f famil y affectio n i n th e sexte t fro m Figaro.
There i s no strett a but a powerful scene in which th e Doge forces Paol o
to pronounce a curse upon himself. Needless to say it was Boito, wit h his
penchant fo r creatin g Satani c figures, wh o wa s responsible fo r turnin g
Paolo from a mere self-interested intriguer into the most melodramatic of
villains. But eve n in 185 7 Verdi had insisted that the part needed a good
actor. Hi s only sol o in the oper a remains his 'racconto' i n the Prologu e
('L'atra magio n védete?') , a nimbler, mor e concis e counterpar t t o Fer -
rando's 'Abbiett a zingara ' which likewis e cause s its listeners to scatte r in
terror. Th e res t of his music, neutral in 1857 , is reinforced in 188 1 her e
and there with the blackest of colours. Agai n it was Boito, wit h hi s sure
instinct fo r an effectiv e stag e picture, wh o foun d him a suitable exit i n
Act III . While behind th e scene s a female choru s i s singing a wedding -
hymn fo r Gabriel e an d Amelia , Paol o bein g escorte d t o priso n i s con -
fronted b y Fiesc o who ha s just been release d (in the origina l version h e
had never been confined). Verdi set this as a kind of funeral march with a
sinuous line clearl y deriving fro m th e musi c of the self-impose d anath -
ema, and a motif associated with poison woven into the accompaniment .
The brida l choru s function s as a major-key trio ; afte r whic h th e initia l
theme resume s as Paolo i s led away.
Many o f th e fines t touche s i n th e revisio n occurre d t o Verd i quit e
independently o f Boito. Th e tex t of the Prologue wa s left unaltered . But
Verdi discarde d th e origina l prelud e base d o n theme s fro m th e opera ;
instead h e supplie d a n entirel y ne w melod y t o us e as backcloth t o th e
opening scen e of dialogue betwee n Paolo , Pietr o and Boccanegra as he
252 • VERD I
had used the prelude to the third act of La traviata, but with the differenc e
that the melodic fragment s ar e not merel y repeated but developed . Th e
melody itsel f makes for one o f the mos t beautiful opening s of any opera
(Ex. 42a) . Likewise the recognition due t is enlarged by a short episode in
which a new freedo m of harmonic vocabulary yields phrase after phras e
of the pures t poetry (Ex . 42b).
Ex. 4 2
In 188 1 acts were expected to be continuous unless there was a change

of scene . Therefor e a s well a s removing th e weake r number s o f 185 7
(a commonplac e Hym n t o th e Doge , a cabalett a fo r Amelia , tw o un -
distinguished 'ballabili') Verdi was also careful t o tak e away the ful l stops
from th e number s tha t remained. A cabaletta for Amelia and Gabriel e is

shortened an d made to finis h o n a half-close. Ex. 3 9 ends in the for m of
an orchestra l peroration tha t passe s straigh t int o th e conspiratoria l dia -
logue between Paolo and Pietro. There are other local improvements to o
numerous to name; but on e o f the most strikin g is the re-elaboratio n o f
the final concertato. Here the original materia l is welded int o still longer
phrases; the melodi c contour s so graded as to increase the sens e of scale,
the textur e diversifie d b y a cross-rhyth m i n th e bas s an d th e clima x
enhanced by a typically Verdian 6/4 i n a remote ke y just before the final
cadence.
Describing t o hi s frien d Coun t Arrivaben e th e premièr e o f 1881 ,
Verdi remarked that the second act drew less applause than the others; he
added that with different singer s it might have been otherwise. I n fact th e
second act is the least revised of all. Indeed the orchestral reminiscence o f
Ex. 39 , which occur s wher e th e Dog e fall s asleep , quote s th e origina l
1857 cadence; while Gabriele's aria ('Sentó awampar nell'anima'), cast in
the manne r o f 'Cortigiani , vi l razza ' doubtles s du e t o th e similarit y o f
situation (rea l i n Pvigoletto' s case , imagined i n Gabriele's ) i s allowed t o
retain it s cadenza—a n extraordinar y anachronis m fo r th e i88os . Th e
explanation i s probably tha t th e ac t belongs essentiall y t o Gabriele , fo r
whom Verd i fel t littl e sympathy ; compare d t o thos e o f Fiesc o an d
Boccanegra th e problem s o f that aristocrati c young hot-hea d see m un -
interesting. True , at several points Verdi lifte d hi s line for the benefi t of
Tamagno an d always with musical gain (the duet in Act I 'Vieni a mirar la
cerula' is a case in point). Yet despit e the ne w scen e for Paolo i n whic h
we se e him preparing the Doge's poison; despit e the new musi c for the
Doge i n whic h w e se e him drinkin g i t an d despit e th e happ y touche s
brought t o the duet and final terzetto it is difficult no t to feel a slight drop
in the musical level after the glories of the Council Chambe r scene . As in
all Verdi's revisions , th e bette r i s the enem y o f the good .
Simon Boccanegra i s now a repertory wor k mor e love d perhap s by th e
connoisseur tha n th e genera l public . No t s o Aroldo (1857) . Thi s i s un -
doubtedly th e leas t successfu l o f Verdi's revisions , force d o n hi m b y th e
censors of 1850 . Here the dramati c thesis is fatally compromise d sinc e th e
procedures tha t befit a Protestant ministe r o f the nineteent h centur y will
not appl y to a n English crusade r of the thirteenth ; s o that much o f what
was daring in Stiffelio is replaced by the conventional. A drinking chorus—
254 ' V E R D I
the most hackneyed of all devices for opening an opera—cannot, howeve r

well written, compensat e for a recitative as rich in nuanc e as that of Jörg
(Ex. 24). This is not to deny that certain of the re-written numbers surpass
their original s both i n forc e o f expressio n an d i n musica l craftsmanship .
Mina's Prayer ('Salvami , t u gra n Dio') i s nobler an d mor e concentrate d
than Lina' s (' A t e ascenda, O Di o clemente') . Th e 'masked ' cabalett a o f
Aroldo's ari a ('Sott o i l sol di Siria' ) wit h it s controlle d iron y delay s th e
outbursts of his anger to a more effectiv e moment , unlik e Stiffelio' s rathe r
petulant 'Ah v'appare in fronte scritto'. The danc e music in the Act I finale
is better organised; and Mina has a vastly improved cabalett a in Act II. All
these changes affect onl y their immediate context. The impact of the opera
as a whole i s far weaker tha n tha t of Stiffelio. Th e ne w las t act, however ,
deserves some attention . Her e agai n most of the element s ar e the meres t
romantic stock-in-trade—choruses of shepherds, huntsmen, femal e reap -
ers; an evening prayer ; a storm; the arriva l of Mina an d Egberto in peni-
tential moo d an d a quarte t finale . Bu t hi s essa y i n pictorialism , no t
admittedly one of Verdi's most distinguished, will have a bearing on futur e
works. Hithert o h e has not bee n over-concerne d wit h fillin g in a scenic
background except where the surroundings reflect the singer's mood. Th e
evening's activitie s by the bonn y bank s of Loch Lomon d ar e quite inci-
dental to the drama; they impinge on the feelings of Aroldo and his fellow
hermit onl y b y contrast . But the y pave the wa y fo r such episodes as the
encampment scene ofLaforza de l destino and the bonfire choruses ofOtetto.
The presence of Mariani as conductor emboldened Verd i to try effects that
he woul d neve r otherwis e hav e risked . 'Angio l d i Dio ' i s a fa r mor e
ambitious essay in unaccompanied vocal writing than anything he had yet
attempted; while the storm that lashes the Highland loch already prefigures
the one which will rage outside the harbour in Cyprus. Nor i s the quartet
finale t o b e despised— a plain, pared-down versio n o f a formula that has
served Verd i fo r man y a n earlie r opera' s ending , eac h phras e just lon g
enough t o make its point withou t undu e repetitio n an d extension. Littl e
known i n it s tru e context , i t i s familiar t o ballet-lover s a s the final e t o
Charles Mackerras's Verdian ballet Th e Lady an d the Fool.
Un bailo in maschera has been called Verdi's Don Giovanni by some, his
Tristan un d Isolde b y others . There i s a certain truth in both descriptions .
None o f his love duet s has the blazin g intensity oftha t i n Act II. Her o
and heroine are devoted to no common caus e like Foresto and Odabella,
Henri an d Hélène ; i t i s a cas e o f 'al l fo r love' ; henc e th e Wagneria n

comparison. Ye t U n bailo i n maschera i s les s a romanti c traged y tha n a
comedy wit h blac k edges; hence the compariso n wit h Mozart . Wholl y
Mozartean to o i s the eas e with whic h th e compose r embrace s extreme s
of mood within a polished almost-classical framework, passing from on e
to the other without an y sense of the incongruous. The subjec t is neither
new o r promising : Eugèn e Scribe' s fictiona l account o f th e historica l
death at a masked ball of Gustavus III, King of Sweden in 1792 . The tru e
facts ar e obscur e t o thi s day. But t o Scrib e i t wa s a case of 'cherche z la
femme'—the wife o f his private secretary; her husband being the assassin
and th e murde r itsel f prophesie d b y a soothsayer . I t ha d bee n se t b y
Auber i n 183 3 an d i n Cammarano' s Italia n adaptation a s U reggente b y
Mercadante without muc h distinction. Verdi makes of it a drama of light
and darkness, of reality and make-believe. Throughou t th e opera the two
forces reac t upon eac h other alway s in a subtle and unexpecte d way. A
sense of impending danger may be built up only to dissolve into mockin g
laughter, as at the end of Act II. In the final scene lightning strikes from a
clear sky; the stage band continue their elegant mazurka for a while afte r
Riccardo's murder, unaware that anything untoward has happened. Th e
love duet take s place at the gallow s foot.
Unlike U reggente and Gustave 111, U n bailo i n maschera i s a genuinel y
human dram a i n whic h ther e ar e n o heroe s o r heroine s an d nobod y
learns from experience. I n the word s o f Rudyard Kipling :
The so w returns t o he r mire ,
And th e burn t Fool' s bandage d finge r
Goes wabblin g bac k to th e Fire .
Riccardo, Conté di Warwick and governor o f Boston, remains to the

end the frank, reckless pleasure-loving ruler that he was at the beginning .
His love for Amelia is epitomised in the phrase which open s his cavatina
('La rivedr à nell'estasi' ) wit h it s risin g fift h suggestiv e o f outstretche d
arms (Ex . 433) . Th e agent s o f darknes s ar e summe d u p i n th e fugat o
theme o f the conspirator s Samuel and Tom (Ex . 43b). Both theme s are
heard in the prelude an d will recu r at various points in the opera , a t one
point bein g combine d i n a kind o f impressionistic counterpoint .
Together with Riccard o o n th e sid e of light, projectin g hi s master's
character into the soprano range, is the page Oscar. A French importation
2f6 • V E R D I
Ex.43
(Italians traditionally prefer thei r travesti roles mezzo), he add s brilliance

to ever y scen e in whic h h e appears , sometimes wit h superbl y ironica l
effect a s in the stretta following the drawing of the lots. Both hi s arias are
in Frenc h 'couplet ' form . I n 'Volt a l a terrea' , i n whic h h e extol s th e
powers of the soothsayer Ulrica, each refrain i s preceded by an orchestral
shout o f laughter; in the teasin g 'Saper vorreste' h e carol s away happily
like a Viennese soubrette of twenty years later. A sophisticated ambience
for Riccardo' s cour t wa s something o n whic h Verd i insiste d fro m th e
first. Second Empire Paris could not therefore be far away. The courtier s
echo th e refrai n o f Riccardo' s parod y o f a seafarin g son g (also , b e i t
noted, in couple t form ) strictl y in the manne r of a Frenc h operett a
chorus. Togethe r wit h Riccard o an d Osca r the y win d u p th e 'in -
troduzione' wit h a superbly Offenbachian hig h kic k (Ex . 44).
Amelia, curiously , is entirely on the dar k side of the drama. From th e
start she is a Donna Anna , consumed with feeling s of guilt—witness th e
turbulent moti f to which sh e makes her entrance incognita int o Ulrica' s
cave (Ex. 45). Both her arias are in a minor key. In the first ('Ma dall'arido
stelo divulsa' ) eac h strophe , afte r a brief momen t o f major-key conso -
lation, ends in the same mode as it began: not until the coda is a terrifying
Ex. 4 4
Ex. 4 5
hallucination followe d b y th e sam e consolator y phras e turne d int o a

prayer ('Deh ! m i regga , m'aita , O Signor') . Th e secon d ('Morro , m a
prima in grazia'), where Amelia begs for a last look at her infant son, is still
more devoi d o f hope . Her e th e for m i s ternary, bot h th e centra l an d
outer themes beginning an d ending in the mino r key . The middl e epi -
sode has an obbligato for that most mournful of all instruments, the cello ;
and the final cadence is re-inforced by a Neapolitan depressio n ('che mai
più').
Here a distinctio n shoul d b e mad e betwee n th e rea l darkness that
surrounds Amelia an d th e artificia l gloo m generated b y Ulrica , wh o i s
merely putting on a charade. Samuel and Tom, too , for all their inky bass
resonance an d malevolen t mutterings , ar e harmless, even comi c figure s
until joined b y Renato. Th e openin g o f Act II recalls the horro r o f the
introduction to the graveyard scene in Stiffelio raised to a higher power.
In the terzetto in Act I ('Delia città all'occaso') Ulrica's insinuating tones
and swiftly changin g harmonies contrast with Amelia' s long-drawn-out
phrases over tense string tremolandos. At such moments one realises why
Amelia i s ofte n cas t a s a dramati c sopran o rathe r tha n th e usua l lirico
spinto.
Renato o n th e othe r han d ha s al l the ambivalenc e o f th e Verdia n
baritone. It is he who brings the darkest shadows into the brilliance o f the
introduzione wit h hi s warning t o Riccard o abou t th e plot s agains t his
life. Eve n hi s cavatin a ('All a vit a ch e t'arride')—lik e Riccardo' s i n on e
movement wit h th e gai t of a cabaletta—is faintl y clouded , a prominen t
horn in the second phrase , even though it signifies no more than a tender
concern fo r hi s master' s safety . Ver y remarkabl e i s th e terzettin o
movement i n Act II ('Odi tu come fremono' ) i n which h e is the movin g
spirit i n mor e sense s than one . Sometime s unkindl y compare d t o th e
258 • VERD I
Lord Chancellor's drea m in lolanthe it has a demonic insistence suggesting

an inferna l hunt wit h Riccard o a s the quarry . It s perfect symmetry o f
form has already been the subject of an essay by Dallapiccola. But what is
its purpose i n th e drama ? To suggest , surely, tha t th e force s whic h ar e
hounding Riccard o ar e thos e o f hi s ow n nature ; an d tha t Nemesi s i s
already presen t i n th e figur e o f Renat o eve n thoug h h e ha s no t ye t
discovered Amelia' s identity. Face d with danger , Riccard o remain s fas-
cinated by it, unable to move til l too late . A modulation o f Schubertian
poignancy i n hi s final romanza ('M a s e m'è forz a a perderti') hint s that
Riccardo migh t hav e learne d fro m experience ; but no; the final scene
shows hi m onc e mor e dancin g o n th e edg e o f a precipice , wit h fata l
consequences.
The turning point of the drama is embodied i n Renato's 'Eri tu', justly
one of the most famous arias in the baritone repertory, i n which h e turns
the ful l force of his rage on th e absent Riccardo. Never befor e have two
sections been mor e strongl y contraste d within a single movement. Th e
Italian convention whereb y a minor-key movemen t i s allowed t o end in
the relativ e majo r i s her e exploite d fo r al l it s inheren t nostalgia . ' O
dolcezze perdute' , introduce d b y flute s an d harp , i s a deepl y movin g
lament for a lost Eden. Fro m no w o n Renato is heart and soul with th e
conspirators.
The form s of Un bailo in maschera are both freer in relation to the post-
Rossinian traditio n tha n usua l yet a t the sam e time mor e balance d and
tightly knit. The openin g 'introduzione' embrace s three cavatinas within
an openin g an d closin g ensemble . Th e tw o movement s o f Ulrica' s
cavatina ('Re dell'abisso, affrettati') ar e based on the same theme, mino r
in th e first, major i n th e second . Th e followin g comple x scène-à-fair e
which sees the arrival first of Silvano the sailor then of Amelia's servant is
held together by varied repetitions of a single cadential phrase (one thinks
of the quartet 'Non ti fidar' from Don Giovanni). Ulrica's grim prophec y
detonates th e expecte d concertato ; bu t i t i s a s far remove d fro m th e
customary massive ensemble as can be imagined. A s light as a soufflé, i t is
based on two themes, the first stated by Riccardo ('E scherzo od è follia'),
the secon d by Osca r (' E tal fia dunque i l fato') eac h in a different ke y t o
begin with, the n recapitulated sonata-fashion in the original tonic. There
are characteristic interventions for Ulrica an d the two conspirator s and a
neat modulatory epigram t o finish. More surprisin g still the two theme s
of the martial stretta ('O figli o d'Inghilterra') are thinly disguised versions
of those o f the concertato . By a final strok e of bravura Verdi combine s
them vertically in th e reprise.
The fina l ensemble o f Act II is a rondo base d on a theme that derives
quite logically fro m th e previous scena material ('Ve', se di notte'). Here
there is a deliberate sense of anti-climax. Eve r since the lov e duet a sense
of imminen t dange r ha s been pilin g up . Bu t wit h th e unmaskin g o f
Amelia it melt s into hilarity . A husband having a moonlit tryst with his
own wife—what a story that will make! The insisten t laughter aggravates
Renato's bitternes s and sens e of betrayal; but fo r th e momen t bot h hi s
and Amelia's episodes are muted. No t unti l the beginning o f the next act
does he ven t his feelings i n a harrowing scen e with hi s wife. Th e 'con -
giura' which follows the entrance of Samuel and Tom i s organised on the
polarity o f two themes , one conversational , developing an d confined to
the orchestr a wit h 'parlanti ' interventions , th e othe r static , regular and
vocal ('Dunqu e Tont a d i tutt i so l una') an d despit e it s dar k scorin g o f
thrumming harps , cellos an d basse s perhaps a trifle idealisti c in ton e fo r
three people who ar e actuated solely by personal vengeance. I t is the first
theme whic h supplie s the arpeggi o moti f tha t accompanies the castin g
and drawin g o f th e lots , musicall y th e mos t terrifyin g momen t i n th e
opera, t o whic h Verd i brings al l the resource s of a by now sophisticate d
orchestral technique. A s in Simon Boccanegra the grandios e slow ensemble
is reserved fo r the hero' s deat h scene .
The centre-piec e o f the score is the love-duet o f Act II. It is cast in the
traditional thre e movements ; bu t th e first two shad e int o on e another ,
while th e secon d proceed s i n a constan t crescend o o f emotio n whic h
finally carries the music away from it s tonal base into a realm of dreaming
ecstasy. Her e th e singer s lose coherence an d it is left t o th e orchestr a t o
vent thei r feelings (Ex . 46). The sam e theme, no w sun g by both parties,
intrudes into th e cabalett a ('Oh, qua l soave brivido') thu s totally upset -
ting the usual formal emphasis—a wonderfully effective wa y of depicting
two people swept off their feet. And is it significant that the violin shivers
that mar k th e buoyan t cabalett a melod y ar e th e sam e a s thos e tha t
punctuated Ulrica's welcomin g o f Beelzebub?
Like al l Verdi's work s o f consolidatio n U n bailo i n maschera evince s a
notable progress in sheer musical technique. In the prelude we find violin
harmonics use d for th e firs t time . Th e part y musi c o f th e las t ac t i s far
200 • V E R D I
Ex. 4 6
more elegan t tha n an y tha t th e compose r ha d writte n s o far ; and i n

general the score achieves a formal equilibrium no t t o be regained unti l
Aida.
If Riccardo's fat e i s a natural consequence o f his own temperament ,
that whic h pursue s the her o an d heroin e o f Laforza de l destino (1862 ,
revised 1869 ) comes from without. Its dramatic premise is what might b e
called th e milliont h chance . Huma n being s ar e not consistent ; they d o
not regularl y adhere t o th e cod e tha t the y profess . Fo r a Spanis h no -
bleman o f th e eighteent h centur y th e pollutio n o f his family's honou r
through a misallianc e i s a si n beyon d al l possibilitie s o f forgiveness .
When Leonor a d e Varga s decide s t o elop e wit h th e handsom e Do n
Alvaro of whose origin s nothing is known, sh e is aware that in theory at
least he r fathe r i s bound t o cas t her off . But sh e relies on illogica l good
will an d commonsense to come t o he r aid. As her maid Curra put s it in
the origina l play , her fathe r wil l a t first run complainin g t o th e mayo r
about the stain on his family's escutcheon; he will have search parties out
Towards Grand Opera • 261
for the m throughou t th e length an d breadth o f Spain; but h e wil l soo n

calm down . An d by the tim e Leonor a has presented him with a grand-
child h e wil l b e onl y to o gla d t o welcom e th e fugitive s home . A s for
Leonora's tw o brothers , Carlo s and Alfonso, the y will soo n be boastin g
about thei r rich brother-in-law who give s them expensiv e presents and
pays off their debts. But that is not how i t happens. The lover s are caught
in the ac t of eloping. Alvar o throw s awa y his pistol, whic h accidentall y
fires, wounding Leonora's father fatally: and he dies cursing his daughter.
She and Alvaro become separated. But Fate hounds them, figuratively, to
the end s o f the eart h i n th e for m o f the avengin g brothers . No t eve n
in the arms of the Church ca n Alvaro avoid his destiny, which is to cause
the death of the entire Calatrava family, including Leonora. At the end he
goes mad and hurls himself from a precipice shrieking curses on mankind .
Rivas' dram a is a vast canva s of variegated humanity. Alvaro , Leonora,
Alfonso mov e i n spiritua l isolatio n i n a worl d o f muleteers , soldiers ,
peasants, gipsie s an d monk s whos e down-to-eart h normalit y make s a
vivid contras t with thei r ow n obsessiv e behaviour. Inevitabl y the oper -
atic version i s subject t o theatrica l economy . Carlo s the soldier , Alfonso
the studen t and his friend Pered a ha d to be amalgamated into the single
figure o f Carlo , wh o thu s take s o n a Protean characte r for whic h th e
baritone voice is eminently suited. By the same token three of the smaller
roles—the gipsy girl Preziosilla, the muleteer Trabuco an d the lay priest
Fra Melitone—ar e expande d sufficientl y t o establis h themselve s musi -
cally an d dramatically . I n orde r t o fil l ou t th e backgroun d stil l furthe r
Verdi devised an encampment scen e on the lines of Schiller's Wallensteins
Lager and even borrowed the punning sermon o f Schiller's comic mon k
to put int o the mout h of Fra Melitone. In all this he moved far beyond
the scope of Rivas' drama, rounding his lesser characters in the manner of
a Shakespearea n chronicle play ; an d just a s Rivas an d Shakespear e dis -
tinguish between th e nobles and the people by making the first talk verse
and the second prose, so Verdi diversifies his musical language according
to the status , real or pretended, o r of his characters. Preziosilla, whethe r
drumming u p recruit s fo r th e wa r i n Spai n ('A l suo n de l tamburo') ,
telling fortune s at Velletri ('Venit e all'indovina'), jollying th e homesic k
recruits o r leadin g th e assemble d soldier y i n a Rat-a-pla n chorus , i s
always a woman o f the people. Trabuco, a tetchy comedian i n the tavern
in Hornachuelos , take s on a curiously Jewish characte r when he turn s
202 VERDI
pedlar at Velletri. His 'A buon mercato ' i s much in the idiom o f Isacco's
'Stringhe e fern' from Rossini's Lagazza ladra. Fra Melitone i s conceived
wholly i n comi c terms ; but the y are a long wa y from those o f conven-
tional oper a buffa . Hi s interventions i n th e due t between Leonor a an d
the Fathe r Superior hav e a n almos t Haydnesqu e wit, a s does hi s scene
with th e poo r o f the paris h in Ac t I V (se e Ex. 3b) ; while th e punnin g
sermon (Toh, toh! PofFare i l mondo!') offer s a splendid example oftha t
declaimed melody, free, varied, but neve r formless, that Verdi will later
put into the mouth o f Falstaff. Th e Padr e Guardiano has all the authority
of a high churc h dignitary . Do n Carl o alter s his character according t o
whom h e happens to be addressing. As Pereda he is all high spirits , with
just a hin t o f th e clove n hoo f i n th e fina l episod e o f hi s ballata ('So n
Pereda, son ricco di onore'). As with so many Verdian baritones his is the
pivotal ari a which determine s the outcom e o f the drama. The cantabil e
'Urna fatale ' ha s such breadt h an d nobilit y a s to mak e u s believe tha t
Carlo's bette r nature will win th e day . But unlik e his great namesake in
Emani he lets personal feelings run away with him. 'Egli è salvo', in 186 9
Verdi's las t remainin g sol o cabaletta , suggest s a bloodhound ho t o n th e
trail of his victim. At the star t of his following scene with Alvar o he has
no difficult y i n adjustin g th e mas k of kindly concern .
But i t i s th e tw o lovers , Leonor a an d Alvaro , wh o dominat e th e
canvas; and it is with them that the thre e recurring motifs are associated.
Two belong to Leonora: the motto them e that symbolises the Fate of the
title (Ex . 473) , an d a n expansiv e gestur e denotin g religiou s aspiratio n
Ex. 4 7
(Ex. 4yb) . The first with it s Beethovenian driv e develops and generates
new ideas ; the second remains unaltered at every appearance. Both for m
the pillar s on whic h th e prelud e o f 186 2 an d th e overtur e o f 186 9 ar e
supported. Ex . 47 3 furnishe s th e themati c basi s fo r th e scen e o f th e
accidental murder.
Alvaro's theme make s use o f those overlapping fourths tha t so ofte n
carry overtone s o f piety (h e ha s after al l described his love a s 'pure an d
holy') (Ex . 48).
Ex. 48
Both character s develop durin g th e action , thei r musi c becomin g

more inwar d unde r the growing weigh t o f their memories. Eve n at the
beginning Leonor a i s a more comple x an d imaginativ e person than he r
namesake in U trovatore. The openin g scene finds her in a state of growing
indecision. He r ari a ('M e pellegrin a e d orfana' ) t o word s originall y in -
tended fo r Cordelia i n th e unwritte n R e Lear is a three-part desig n that
oscillates between majo r an d minor ; it s line is full o f convulsive accents
and tormented contours . Eloquent use is made of a solo cello, no longe r
as a concertato instrument but a s part of the orchestra l fabric , springin g
into prominence only at certain moments. With the arrival of Alvaro her
state of mind becomes desperate . She loves him, sh e is weeping tear s of
joy—but coul d the y no t pu t of f their elopemen t til l tomorrow ? Her e
the widely arching phrases of 1862 were replaced in 186 9 with an almost
naturalistic declamatio n whic h graduall y falter s int o incoherence . No t
until Alvaro is about to leave her foreve r doe s she regain the will to act.
By the second scene of Act II Leonora has taken on a certain grandeur
in her resolv e to escap e fro m th e world. Firs t we hea r the pursuing Ex.
47a, then her aria ('Madre , pietosa Vergine') of which Ex. 4yb forms th e
climax an d majo r ke y resolution , th e distan t chantin g o f th e monk s
adding t o it s spaciousness . In th e cours e o f he r due t wit h th e Padr e
204 • V E R D I
Guardiano sh e gradually attains a mood o f calm, disturbe d onl y b y th e

desperate eagerness—much enhance d in the 186 9 version—with whic h
she beg s t o b e allowe d t o liv e ou t he r lif e a s a hermit . I n th e fina l
ensemble o f the ac t ('L a Vergin e degl i Angeli' ) Leonor a seem s to hav e
become absorbe d into th e tranqui l fait h o f th e Church . Bu t a s the las t
cadence dies away an ominous figur e i n th e bas s reminds us that she has
not escape d her fate .
A whole ac t passes before we mee t he r again . He r ari a ('Pace , pace ,
mió Dio'), scored with th e utmos t delicacy , is one o f the inspiration s of
the opera : a long ternar y movement suc h as Verdi will emplo y agai n in
Don Carlos where th e singe r summons u p remembranc e o f things past.
Here, however , ther e ar e no change s o f tempo; a steady undulation o f
harp accompaniment hold s the melodic discours e on a single thread. It is
sung beneath the shadow of Ex. 4.73., which precedes it and obtrudes into
the centra l episode . Bu t t o al l the doubt s an d fear s tha t i t arouse s th e
opening phras e seems to suppl y a consoling answer (se e Ex. 493) . Then
just a s the musi c appears about t o subsid e into a calm i f somewhat pa -
thetic coda , sound s o f intrusio n ar e hear d an d Leonor a wit h risin g
screams of'maledizione!' retreat s terrified int o he r cave.
One o f the stronges t reason s for preferring the revise d denouemen t
despite it s violation o f th e dramati c premise i s tha t i n 186 2 Leonora' s
stature becomes diminished : a brief momen t o f lovers' re-unio n ove r a
typical throbbing dominan t pedal, and a somewhat commonplac e deat h
scene ('Ved i destin ! i o muoio' ) whic h swell s an d fades . I n 186 9 Verd i
reverts t o th e realis m of the revise d Act I . Leonora staggers in mortall y
wounded t o a n orchestra l moti f o f unparalleled brutality , mor e darin g
than anything he or anyone else would write for years to come (Ex . 49b).
Thereafter sh e melts into th e etherea l atmosphere o f the final terzetto ,
('Non imprecare ; umiliati') ; th e las t strin g tremolandos ar e her apothe -
osis.
Alvaro's characte r traces a similar trajectory . Hi s due t wit h Leonor a
('Ah per sempre') is designed to reveal all those qualities that the play only
makes clear through the conversation of others. Youthful ardour propels
the openin g allegr o i n whic h Ex . 4 8 make s it s firs t appearanc e a s an
episode. 'Pront i destrieri ' i s ful l o f grac e an d tenderness , a n idealise d
version o f the Duk e o f Mantua's ' E i l sol dell'anima', whic h open s ou t
like a flower where Alvar o mentions th e sun , th e go d o f his ancestors.
Ex. 4 9
265
266 • VERD I
But fatalistic gloom descend s upon him in the face of Leonora's persistent
irresolution, t o be instantly dispelled when finall y she makes up her mind
to elope . Th e Alvar o who m w e mee t a t th e beginnin g o f Ac t II I i s
already changed . A prelude wit h concertant e clarine t i n th e for m o f a
meditation o n Ex . 48 recalls what ha s clearly become a distant memory ,
since th e them e i s slow t o tak e shape. Ther e follow s a scena in whic h
Alvaro describes—no t perhap s a s clearl y a s the averag e listene r migh t
wish—his 'life and miracles'. The so n of the Spanish Viceroy of Peru and
an Inc a princess , h e ha s come t o Spai n t o plea d for hi s father's releas e
from priso n t o whic h h e ha d bee n condemne d afte r a n unsuccessfu l
rebellion. Then , with two obliqu e references to Ex. 48, Alvaro slips, as it
were, sideways into hi s aria (' O tu che in seno agli angeli') in which th e
tonality declare s itsel f onl y a t th e firs t cadence . Th e ari a itsel f ranges
through a succession of different idea s in which th e rising sixth, whethe r
soh to mi or doh t o la, remains a constant. It bears the same connotatio n
of romanti c lov e a s in Emani an d a s such provides a link betwee n th e
language of Leonora and Alvaro. But there is nothing here of the white-
hot passion s of the earlie r opera. 'O tu ch e in seno agli angeli' perfectly
illustrates Wordsworth's 'emotio n recollected in tranquillity'. Here Verd i
explores th e 'inward ' aspect s o f Romanticism—perhap s al l th e mor e
easily fo r havin g segregate d th e extraver t elemen t int o th e scene s o f
everyday life .
In th e duet s Verdi followe d th e contemporar y patter n o f a series of
alternating solos with th e voices joining onl y i n the final cabaletta. Tha t
for th e lover s in Act I ('Seguirti fin agli ultimi') was criticised at the tim e
for it s resemblance t o Donizetti' s 'I I suon dell'arp e angeliche ' fro m Po-
liuto. But the swiftl y movin g bass gives it an urgency beyond the reach of
Donizetti's simpl e toni c an d dominan t harmonies . Fo r Verd i th e for m
with it s built-in repetition s remained until the 1870 5 the perfect vehicle
for lover s wh o outsta y their ow n safety . Her e th e repetitions , fa r from
easing the actio n t o a halt, serv e to increas e the dramati c tension .
Leonora's due t wit h Padr e Guardian o i s unique i n Verd i i n tha t th e
singers stan d in n o persona l relationshi p wit h on e another . Th e Fathe r
Superior i s Leonora's confesso r and nothing else. Its brief movements—
some o f them n o mor e tha n a few phrases—succeed o r mel t int o on e
another withou t an y of the usua l sense of urgency an d are eve n inter -
spersed wit h snatche s o f recitative ; ye t a sur e sens e o f directio n i s
maintained. I n th e fina l cabalett a ('Sull'alb a i l pied'al T eremo' ) bot h

singers have different themes .
Of the great duets between Carl o and Alvaro, 'Solenn e in quest'ora',
rendered famou s o n dis c by generation s of tenor s an d baritones , i s es-
sentially a minor-major romanz a for two voice s and at the sam e time an
action piece , i n whic h th e wounde d Alvar o gives his comrade the fata l
locket. By contrast 'Voi ch e si larghe cure', ofte n regrettabl y omitted, is
remarkable fo r it s rang e o f styl e a s wel l a s expression . I t begin s a s a
'parlante' i n Verdi' s mos t up-to-dat e sophisticate d vein , flexibl e an d
lightly scored. The suavit y is blown apar t with th e revelatio n tha t Carl o
knows his fellow officer's identity. Tension grows with the cut and thrust
of the dialogu e until Alvaro learns that Leonora is still alive. 'Yes', Carl o
replies, 'but soon she will die'; and while his own line is so encrusted with
chromaticisms that two writer s have described i t a s Verdi's most darin g
flight t o date , Alvar o react s with a lyrica l effusio n reminiscen t o f th e
composer's early heroes. 'No, d'un imen il vincolo' recall s Foresto's 'Ella
in pote r de l bárbaro'—harmonically mor e sensitive , but wit h th e sam e
broad articulatio n and accompanimen t o f string triplets . I t i s as though
Alvaro ha s momentaril y becom e a poetica l Zamoro . Suc h i s hi s ab -
sorption in a vision of a happy future that it takes him some time to realise
the malignant force o f Carlo's 'Stolto! fra noi dischiudesi'—for like most
Italian baritone s Carl o i s a sneerin g rathe r tha n a barking villain . Th e
incredulous boiling u p o f Alvaro's fur y tha t follows explodes into a ca-
baletta, 'Morte! ov'io non cada' , which Verdi cut short in 186 9 and for a
good reason. In the 186 2 version it resulted in a duel in which Carl o was
to aE appearance mortally wounded. I n the play he does indeed die at that
point; and it is left t o the younger brother, Alfonso, to take up the trail of
vengeance. In the opera there is no Alfonso; and Carlo mus t live to fight
another day . Originall y Alvar o cam e t o th e footlight s fo r a gran d ari a
('Qual sangue sparsi'). The andante , like so many numbers in the opera, is
in minor-majo r form . It s openin g i s declaime d ove r a n elaborat e ac -
companiment o f unusual , almos t independen t musica l interes t an d i t
finishes with a prayer ('Miserere di me'). Trumpets sound; and, following
a well-worn formula, Alvaro leads his men t o battle in a stirring cabaletta
('S'incontri l a morte') endin g wit h on e o f those hig h C s which Tam -
berlick wa s s o prou d o f havin g introduce d int o 'D i quell a pira' . B y
comparison wit h earlie r cabalettas , however , i t i s a mer e rump : on e
208 • VERD I
statement an d a coda wit h a tiny episod e i n whic h th e boler o rhyth m

ceases and Alvaro declares that should he be spared, he will end his life i n
a monastery .
Seven year s later Verdi decide d tha t i t was better t o sho w th e com -
batants being separated ; at least Carl o woul d no t hav e to explai n to th e
audience his presence in th e las t act .
The final encounter ('Co l sangue sol cancellasi') opens with a brusque
'parlante' with Carlo in the ascendant, and the vocal phrases draped asym-
metrically over th e orchestra l theme with propulsiv e effect . Th e pit h o f
the due t howeve r reside s in th e andant e ('Le minaccce , i fieri accenti')
based on an oboe melod y first heard in the overture (an d prelude). Here
for th e first and only time (i n 1869 but no t i n 1862 ) Carlo take s over th e
rising sixth fro m Alvar o as he hurl s his propitiatory phrases in hi s teeth .
The eb b an d flo w o f Alvaro' s resolutio n no t t o figh t make s thi s a
movement o f rare excitement. At last he gives way and in the shortest of
allegros the two retire for a duel. It remains to mention th e little duettino
between Meliton e an d the Father Superior ('Del mondo i disinganni') in
which each preserves his own character—th e Father's music austere with
modal inflexions , the lay-brother's per t an d good-humoured .
What coul d be called crowd scenes in Laforza de l destino are many and
varied. That i n the inn at Hornachuelos may appear somewhat episodic,
but ever y incident i s relevant to th e drama . Even Preziosilla's 'E bella la
guerra', lik e Carlo' s ballata , incorporate s into its final episode he r pen -
etration of'Pereda's' imposture. In the great ensemble ('Su noi prostrati e
supplici') a company o f pilgrims passing by cause s all present to fal l o n
their knees with the result that Leonora, disguised as a boy, can make her
escape withou t bein g recognise d b y he r brother . Base d o n a simpl e
melody lik e a popula r hymn , i t i s th e opera' s neares t approac h t o a
concertato with the voice of Leonora standing out in relief. The scene of
Leonora's 'induction ' is wonderfully solemn an d strong, suggestin g per-
haps the church militant rather than the otherworldly piet y of an ancient
order. 'L a Vergin e degl i Angeli ' onc e mor e suggest s a popular hymn ,
transfigured, however , b y a tranquil sweetness.
The encampmen t scen e is a kaleidoscope of tiny vignette s unique i n
Italian oper a o f th e time . Carousin g soldiers , vivandières, impoverishe d
peasants, homesick recruits—all are planted with a characteristic musical
idea. There is a tarantella richer in tunes and more inventively scored than
that of Les vêpres siciliennes and a rataplan chorus to bring down the curtain.
No singl e number i n Laforza de l destino has come in for more abuse than
this harmless piece o f frippery—an ingeniou s essa y i n voca l instrumen -
tation an d onomatopoeia. I t seems to cal l in questio n th e seriousnes s of
the encampmen t scene; they are all just playing at soldiers. Likewise on e
hears much condemnation o f Preziosilla as one who like s to send young
men t o thei r death . Bu t thi s i s an anachronisti c view. I n a n ag e whe n
fighting wa s done mostl y b y regular s an d war s were fe w th e traditio n
persisted that a soldier's lif e wa s pleasant enough an d tha t you coul d b e
sure of survival if you were brave. (Phrases like 'Bella vita militar', 'Quel
plaisir d'être soldat' ca n be found in man y a nineteenth-century opera. )
Preziosilla is a cheerful hoyden, first cousin to Donizetti's Marie. She too,
it may be remembered, leads a rataplan chorus; but without th e excuse of
Preziosilla, whose purpose is to rescue a lay-brother fro m being beaten up
by the infuriated soldiery. Certainly Verdi's gypsy girl is intended to be on
the sid e of kindliness, humour an d sanity.
Yet i t i s possible t o fee l tha t th e artisti c problem ha s not bee n full y
solved. Tha t th e 186 9 versio n improve s musicall y o n th e origina l i s
undeniable. Th e gran d duets of Acts I and I I are given stronge r defini -
tion. Melitone's scene with the poor gains in charm and fluency. Some of
the mos t memorabl e passage s ar e lat e additions—th e overture , tha t
magnificent and far from formless 'trailer'; Alvaro's brief soliloquy before
the firs t o f th e quarre l duets ; th e 'ronda ' fo r th e daw n patro l wit h it s
haunting Borodin-like introduction. Then , too, by changing one note of
'Povere madri' Verdi gives it something o f the flavour of a Russian folk -
melody, a s though th e experience s absorbe d i n St . Petersbur g i n 186 2
were bein g worked ou t seve n years later. But by altering th e placing of
the encampmen t scen e Verdi blunte d it s dramatic point. A s a prelude,
and therefor e a backgroun d t o th e gran d due t o f Ac t III , i t i s mos t
effective; occurrin g afterwards , i t lead s nowhere . Likewis e th e 186 9
ending ca n b e see n a s a compromise— a concessio n t o th e religiou s
susceptibilities o f nineteenth-centur y audiences . Certainl y th e origina l
denouement, wit h its rising storm, its chanting of terrified monks and its
demented hero , worked ou t i n a series of mounting sequences is one o f
Verdi's most powerful conceptions. The new conclusion presents Alvaro
as a kind of Job; it s musical coherence i s guaranteed by the derivatio n o f
the terzetto's main theme from th e cadence of Ex. 493. And surely there
27O • VERD I
is n o har m i n a shaf t o f huma n warmt h t o penetrat e a dram a whic h

threatens to become a theorem.
Despite th e fluenc y o f its musical discourse, compare d t o U n bailo in
maschera, Laforza de l destino is a sprawling affair. Yet, given its thesis, it ca n
hardly be anything else. The greate r the variety of its episodes the mor e
powerful appear s the han d o f fat e i n achievin g it s purpose . T o Verd i
himself it was an opera of ideas; and h e withheld i t when possible fro m
managements whic h h e though t incapabl e o f doin g i t justice . Sig -
nificantly thi s wa s th e wor k whic h launche d th e Verd i renaissanc e in
Germany in the 19205 ; and it was with an unforgettable production o f it
that Frit z Busch ende d hi s caree r a s music directo r a t Glyndebourne .
When properl y performe d i t reveal s an epi c qualit y whic h ca n hardl y
have been los t on th e compose r o f Boris Godunov.
Don Carlos i s Verdi's mos t ambitiou s essa y i n gran d opera . I n th e
entirely unhistorical tragedy of Carlos, Infant e of Spain and champion o f
the oppressed , an d hi s ill-starre d lov e fo r hi s youn g stepmothe r h e
confronted fo r the firs t tim e a drama by Schiller in all its complexity an d
richness of characterisation. No othe r work cost him so much trouble in
the effor t t o reduc e it to a convenient length . T o thi s day managements
differ a s to th e idea l form in whic h i t shoul d be given : whethe r i n th e
four-act versio n of 188 4 or th e scissors-and-past e amalgam of 1886 , an d
whether eithe r shoul d includ e an y o f th e musi c cu t befor e th e firs t
performance o f 1867 . Here three item s stand out. Th e firs t i s a twelve-
minute choral introduction to Act I set in the forest of Fontainebleau and
portraying a group o f woodcutters and their wives impoverished b y th e
war an d tormente d b y th e winte r cold . T o sound s o f th e roya l hun t
Elisabeth d e Valois appears in thei r midst, presents a golden chai n to a n
old woman and promises better times to come. Stark , grim, thematicall y
well developed, it makes for a stronger start to the opera than the offstag e
fanfare tha t we generall y hear , as well a s furnishing a good reaso n wh y
Elisabeth shoul d sacrific e he r persona l happines s to th e welfar e of he r
people. I n Act IV there is a duet for Carlos and his father with chorus of
grandees lamentin g th e deat h o f Rodrigue, th e Infante' s boso m frien d
and the King' s confidant , its main them e late r adapted for the 'Lachry -
mosa' o f the Requiem . It s sense is already recouped i n th e revisio n o f
1884; but i t is such a beautiful piec e of music that modern performances
frequently reinstat e it. O f les s account, an d therefore rarely revived, i s a
Towards Grand Opera • 2JI
duet fro m th e sam e act for Elisabeth and th e Princes s Eboli, her unsuc -
cessful riva l fo r th e lov e o f Carlos .
The origina l Ac t I has nothing t o d o wit h Schiller ; i t seem s to hav e
been base d o n Philippe II , Ro i d'Espagne, a play by Eugène Cormon , i n
the prologue to which Don Carlo s pays a secret visit to Paris disguised as a
student i n orde r t o catc h a glimps e o f hi s bride-to-be. A s in Le s vêpres
siciliennes Verd i take s advantage o f th e narrowe r timbr e o f th e Frenc h
voice to create a tenor of a different sort . Carlos is neither a ranter nor a n
open-hearted lyri c poet like Alvaro; he is more controlle d and inward in
his expression, with a morbid sensibilit y which become s mor e apparent
as the oper a proceeds. Fo r th e presen t he is all boyish happiness , having
seen Elisabeth and found her to his liking. Love at first sight is the burden
of hi s 'cavatine' . 'J e l'a i vue ' breathe s a seren e contentmen t wit h n o
emotional gushings .
Ex. 5 0
Elegance and lightness mark the opening of his scene with Elisabeth, who
at first has no idea who he is. Only when he produces a miniature of him-
self does she recognise her betrothed. The cabalett a ('De quels transports
poignants et doux') ha s the comple x articulatio n of Meyerbeerian mel -
ody togethe r with a spontaneous lifting o f the heart:
Ex. 5 1
It i s also a courtl y melody ; an d th e emotiona l clima x i s reserved fo r a

moment o f ecstatic declamation in a remote ke y ('Boi s dépouillés') afte r
which both singer s return decorously to Ex. 51 . Neither ar e prepared to
let their feeling s ru n awa y with them .
272 • VERD I
But thei r dream is soon shattered by the new s that the price of peace
will be Elisabeth's hand in marriage not t o Carlos but t o his father. I n an
oasis of quiet within th e inexorabl e tram p of a march rhythm Elisabeth
gives her consent , whereupon th e gratitud e o f the peopl e rises like in -
cense in a crescendo o f overlapping phrases that bear witness to Verdi' s
admiration for the openin g scen e of Norma. The marc h resumes , the
disconsolate cr y o f th e lover s formin g a descant . Th e stag e gradually
empties, leaving only a lamenting Carlos .
Long befor e Verd i mad e hi s revisio n o f 1884 , i t ha d becom e th e
custom to omit the Fontainebleau act. Yet no sooner had the opera been
re-fashioned withou t i t tha n peopl e bega n t o clamou r fo r it s return .
True, Verdi found a place for the cavatin e near the start of the ne w act;
and h e rewrot e i t i n suc h a way a s to reflec t th e altere d moo d o f th e
singer, enrichin g th e precedin g scen a with man y a reminiscence o f th e
excised duet ; bu t thes e mea n very littl e i f the y recal l musi c tha t ha s
not bee n hear d before. Moreover th e late r scenes between Carlo s and
Elisabeth gain vastly in their effect if we have witnessed the destruction of
their idyll. Hence n o doub t Verdi' s agreement to th e restoration of the
Fontainebleau act in th e editio n o f 1886 .
The secon d duet of the lovers (the first in the 188 4 version) is in a very
different vein. Month s hav e passed ; ye t Carlo s i s unabl e t o reconcil e
himself to the loss of his fiancée. The musi c throughout is governed by a
pattern o f structure precisely attuned t o th e psycholog y o f the partici -
pants. Bot h ar e move d b y feeling s tha t the y ar e tryin g t o restrain : th e
result is a succession of mainly irregular phrases in which the sam e idea is
repeated then followe d by a much longer on e where th e emotio n spill s
over. Wherea s i n th e correspondin g scen e in Schille r Carlos' s impetu -
osity reveal s itself at th e outse t an d i s overcome i n th e cours e o f th e
dialogue, her e h e progresses from th e desolat e unaccompanied 'Je viens
solliciter de la Reine une grâce' through a brief oasis of delirious calm, to
the cabaletta 'Que sous mes pieds se déchire la terre'. To his outburst in C
minor Elisabeth responds with a no less emphatic E flat minor ('E h bien
frappez don c votre père'); and when Carlos has rushed out in horror she
brings the duet to a radiant conclusion in E flat major with a single phrase
('Sur nous le Seigneur a veillé').
Between thi s and th e fina l scen e for Carlo s an d Elisabet h much has
happened: Eboli' s discover y o f thei r love , he r adulter y with Philippe ,
remorse an d banishment ; Carlos' s defianc e o f hi s father an d imprison -

ment an d subsequent release as a result of Rodrigue's self-sacrifice. H e is
about t o se t fort h fo r Flander s t o figh t fo r th e oppressed ; Elisabet h has
come t o th e monaster y t o wis h hi m Godspeed . Her e sh e is in th e as -
cendant fro m th e start ; an d jus t a s th e Fontaineblea u due t ha d bee n
preceded b y a n ari a for Carlos , s o their fina l encounter i s prefaced b y a
grand aria for Elisabeth—a huge ternary design in the course of which she
surveys wit h th e ai d o f musica l reminiscence s he r lif e o f sufferin g an d
blighted hopes . Th e lon g prelud e surround s her with th e gloo m o f the
monastery; yet amid all the doubt, amountin g a t times to despair, she can
still achieve what the music tells us to be an affirmation o f faith (Ex . 52b),
a radian t major-ke y repl y t o he r openin g apostroph e t o th e spiri t o f
Charles V ('To i qu i su s le néant') (Ex . 523) .
Ex. 5 2
In thi s ari a Elisabet h reache s her ful l spiritua l stature ; and i f her ari a o f
consolation t o the Princess Aremberg, dismisse d by Philippe, i n Act II—a
minor-major strophi c romance—is just too shor t to draw applause for all
but th e fines t singers , i t i s a poor Elisabet h wh o fail s t o ge t a n ovatio n
here.
The 'scèn e e t duo ' tha t follows wa s re-though t mor e tha n once .
Where Carlos talk s of a fair drea m of love tha t faded before a vision o f a
land lai d wast e b y fire , Verd i originall y too k hi s cu e fro m th e wor d
'incendie' t o produce a n ingenious patter n o f spreading sonorotities. I n
1884 h e remove d thi s musica l imag e altogether , replacin g i t wit h a
reminiscence o f the due t i n Ac t I I (th e 'bea u rêve' ) whic h almos t im -
mediately sink s beneath a wave o f brutal triplets. Th e nex t passage gave
274 ' V E R D I
him even mor e trouble . Elisabeth , who ha s now take n on the mantle of
Rodrigue, rallie s Carlos' s spirit s wit h a rousin g marziale ('Oui , viola ,
1'heroisme'); proudly he embraces he r a s a son without trembling . Onl y
then doe s a tide of infinite sadnes s rise in both o f them ('Lorsqu e tout est
fini') to be quelled b y the thought tha t they may meet in a better world .
In 187 2 Verdi remove d th e marziale, possibly findin g it , a s many critics
have done, ou t of keeping with Elisabeth's regal character. Realising tha t
its sequel would be ineffective withou t i t and unable to think of anything
better, h e reinstate d th e marzial e with improve d scoring . Th e final ca-
baletta ('Au revoir dan s un monde') is calm and poised, all passion spent;
and once agai n it is too lon g for the singers' safety. Fo r in the meantim e
Philippe, th e Gran d Inquisito r and their officer s hav e surprised them. I n
1867 a ritua l tria l followe d wit h Carlo s thre e time s accuse d an d thre e
times condemne d i n a fine blaze of orchestra l sonority. B y 188 4 Verd i
found this otiose—he had already managed a similar scene much better in
Aida—and preferre d t o mov e swiftl y toward s th e fina l curtai n wher e
Carlos fighting for his life retreats towards the monastery, the Monk step s
forward an d cover s him wit h hi s cloak and all present fall o n thei r knees
in terror at what they believe to be the apparition o f Charles V. There is
one furthe r change . I n 1867 , afte r th e di n o f the trial , the conclusio n o f
the oper a had been hushed , almost dreamlike. In the revision it is blared
out fortissimo.
Two othe r duets are of central importance to the opera and both wer e
incorporated a t Verdi's own insistence. The first is between Philipp e an d
Rodrigue in Act II and is nothing less than a political argument about the
value o f freedom . Hardl y a natura l subjec t for a n opera , i t gav e Verd i
more trouble than any other single number. Originally h e conceived it as
chain o f lyrical idea s permeated b y th e march-lik e rhythm s o f Frenc h
grand opera . Bu t even befor e th e premièr e h e ha d doubt s abou t th e
moment nea r th e en d wher e th e Kin g propose s t o confid e hi s private
troubles t o Rodrigue ; an d h e decide d t o cu t th e King' s confessio n by
several bar s o f dialogue . I n 187 2 h e re-wrot e par t o f the due t i n free r
style, loosening u p the four-square phrase-structure and re-designing th e
end entirely . Unfortunatel y Ghislanzoni' s Italia n text t o whic h th e re -
vision wa s made contain s reference s to Schiller' s pla y which make s n o
sense in the context o f the opera. Finall y in 1883- 4 Verdi composed th e
duet ane w a s what h e calle d a 'dramatic dialogue' t o line s by Du Lóel e
which a t the composer' s instanc e kept much close r to Schiller . Al l sense

of the closed period has now gone ; th e phrases extend themselve s freely,
reflecting ever y nuance of the tex t with occasiona l excursions into star k
brutality. Th e due t i s crowned b y a tight, almos t motivicall y organise d
cabaletta ('A h quell e aurore') by way of counterpoise t o th e freedo m of
what ha s gone before ; and twic e befor e th e fal l o f the curtai n Philipp e
gives hi s siniste r warnin g agains t th e Inquisitor . Tha t th e definitiv e
version surpasses the other thre e is beyond question . If it does not always
make the effec t i t deserves, the reason is that it comes at the en d of a very
long act, most of which is written in a simpler and less demanding style. It
is Otello in th e contex t o f Do n Carlos.
Wholly successfu l fro m th e star t was the due t betwee n Philipp e an d
the Gran d Inquisitor—again a dramatic dialogue, bu t i n one movemen t
only and carried o n a single flight of inspiration. The argumen t is no les s
intellectual than in the previous duet; but her e the Inquisito r dominate s
throughout, no w wit h a slow crescend o o f anger, no w wheedlin g wit h
false suavity, now parrying Philippe's words with a chill indifference. Th e
orchestral theme from which the piece starts and to which it returns aptly
conveys the Inquisitor' s all-embracing authorit y with it s serpentine coils
and gloom y bas s resonance—th e onl y passag e in whic h Verd i use s th e
contra-bassoon. Wel l may Philippe exclai m that the prid e of kings must
always yield t o tha t of the Church .
Philippe remains the most strongly drawn portrait in the opera; and his
grand aria ('Elle ne m'aime pas') sets the first tableau of Act IV on a plane
from whic h i t never descends . Th e musi c is of one int o whos e sou l th e
iron ha s entered bu t wh o retain s sufficient vulnerabl e humanity to hol d
our sympathy. Formally it achieves the perfec t integratio n o f 'scena' an d
'aria' through the placing ofthat recurring phrase that sums up the whole
of Philippe's sadnes s (Ex. 53). Philippe's is also the commandin g voic e in
the 'scène et quatuor' that follows his duet with the Inquisitor. The scène
was altere d i n 188 4 t o allo w Elisabet h to repl y les s submissively t o he r
husband's accusations ; while th e quarte t ('Maudi t soi s l e soupço n in -
fâme') wa s shortened an d tightened , withou t howeve r th e sacrific e o f
one o f thos e transfigurin g phrases that Verd i sometime s bring s t o th e
tensest o f situations . Th e onl y differenc e i s tha t i n 186 7 i t wa s sun g
by Philippe : i n th e revisio n i t wa s give n t o th e cello s wit h subdue d
declamation b y Ebol i an d Philippe ; a t th e sam e tim e it s ape x wa s
2JÓ • VERD I
Ex.53
lowered b y a ton e i s such a wa y a s to heighte n it s consolator y effec t

(Ex. 54) .
In a letter to Facci o about a revival of Do n Carlos Verdi regretted tha t
the part s o f Eboli an d Rodrigu e ha d stoo d ou t sinc e bot h wer e dra -
matically marginal. This i s rather hard on Eboli. True , her Vei l song in
Act I I wit h it s Spanish rhythm an d 'cant e hondo ' cadenza s is no mor e
than decorative ; an d he r gallan t exchange s wit h Rodrigu e a mer e
backcloth t o th e seriou s business that follows; tru e also , he r resolv e t o
liberate Carlos at the end of Act IV, scene i is irrelevant since by the time
that she has carried it out by raising a 'sommossa' (which became shorter
with each revision) Carlos had already been set at liberty. None the less in
her gran d aria (' O do n fata l e t détesté' ) a vain, rather shallow character
is nobl y redeemed . Beginnin g i n remorsefu l agitation, i t end s i n he -
roic resolve . Th e stil l centr e ('Adie u Reine') , poised between tw o 6/ 4
chords a semitone apart , explores th e velvet y sonority o f the contralt o
range as Verdi had never done before; while th e final movement i s a fine
example of the 'cabaletta surrogate'—a handful o f phrases culminating in
Ex. 5 4
277
2y8 • V E R D I
a melodi c swee p of fou r an d a half bars with a n acceleratin g harmonic

rhythm.
One proble m whic h neithe r Verdi nor hi s librettists ever solved was
that o f he r adulter y wit h Philippe . Undoubtedl y the y ha d lande d
themselves in a difficulty b y making Philippe genuinely in love with his
young wife . Schiller' s monarc h make s n o suc h claim ; therefor e i t i s
natural that he should look elsewhere for female attention , an d why no t
to Eboli ? Scorne d by th e Infant e an d determined t o b e revenge d upo n
her (a s she thinks) hypocritical mistress, she yields to Philip' s importu -
nities an d make s us e o f he r positio n t o stea l th e Queen' s jewel-box
containing the portrai t of Carlos. But i f all this were mad e clea r t o th e
audience Philippe would forfei t muc h o f the sympath y his aria has won
him. Verdi's first solution was to have Eboli make her confession in tw o
stages. She admits her unrequite d love for Carlos and i n the cours e of a
somewhat constraine d duet Elisabet h pardons her. The n sh e mention s
her adulter y but leave s th e occasio n conveniently vague so that the au -
dience ca n imagine that i t occurred before Philippe' s marriag e to Elisa -
beth. A t thi s Elisabeth leaves i n horro r an d i t i s left t o th e Comt e d e
Lerme t o pronounc e Eboli' s sentence—exile o r th e veil . But sinc e th e
two prim a donnas disliked one anothe r even mor e heartil y than is nor -
mally th e case , th e due t wa s droppe d a t a n earl y stag e an d wit h i t al l
mention o f adultery. Now i t i s the knowledg e tha t Eboli love d Carlo s
that cause s Elisabeth' s horrifie d retreat—whic h doe s he r n o credi t
whatever. In the revision of 1884 Elisabeth forgives the milder confessio n
in a n almos t offhan d manner . Th e second , delivere d b y Eboli wit h a n
almost veristic hysteria , elicits a response of stern dignity. I t i s now th e
Queen hersel f who take s bac k Eboli' s cros s and offer s he r th e choic e
between exil e and the veil. She has understood the implication of Eboli's
words even if the audienc e has not.
Rodrigue, both i n play and opera, is an anachronism, an idealist of the
'enlightenment', who woul d hardly have lasted a day at Philippe's court,
and at the same time a Pylades to Carlos's Orestes. His opening duet with
Carlos wa s progressivel y reduced . Originall y i t containe d a sol o fo r
Rodrigue himsel f in whic h h e describe d th e suffering s o f the Nether -
lands, but this was dropped before the première. In 1867 it was still a two -
movement due t with an intervening scena in which Carlos confessed his
love fo r hi s stepmother. Bu t i n 188 4 th e lyrica l first movement ('Mo n
compagnon, mon ami, mon frère') was removed and with it the charmin g
touch whereb y Rodrigue , abou t t o be greete d affectionatel y b y Carlos ,
quickly addresse s him wit h frigid politeness and is answered i n the sam e
manner; onl y when th e attendan t monk ha s left d o the friends embrace.
But th e scen e that remains is far from formless, falling as it does into tw o
large paragraphs , th e firs t endin g wit h Carlos' s confession , th e secon d
with Rodrigue' s word o f comfort. Thei r voices join in a cabaletta whic h
has left mos t commentators les s than enthusiastic; but it s main theme wil l
function a s a reminiscenc e moti f i n late r scenes . I t i s th e musi c o f
c omrades-in-arms :
Ex.55
As a componen t i n a variegate d ensembl e Rodrigu e neve r fail s i n hi s

effect; o n hi s own h e i s much les s interesting. Hi s strophi c romanc e i n
Act I I ('L'Infan t Carlos , notr e espérance' ) i s no mor e tha n a vocal plum
for a 'Cavalierbaryton' . Likewis e th e tw o movement s o f hi s final aria
('C'est mon jour suprême') are bland and heroic in the stately manner of
the Pari s Opéra bu t somewha t monochrome . Betwee n the m however ,
where Rodrigu e fall s wounded , ther e i s a ver y strikin g parlante wit h
cornets elegia c i n thirds , a n accacciatur a sob o n bassoo n an d a deat h
figure on the timpani. Needless to say, Ex. 5 5 does not fai l to put in a last,
subdued appearance.
Of th e smalle r ensembles , beside s the quarte t mentione d above , th e
Act II I terzett o i s outstanding—pur e musica l gold minte d a s so ofte n
from th e conflictin g emotions o f the participants . The openin g move -
ment, for Carlos and Eboli alone, is densely packed with lyrical ideas that
open ou t into on e another. The clima x ('A h vous aimez la Reine!') co -
incides wit h Rodrigue' s entranc e s o as to spar k off th e secon d move -
ment, i n the course of which Carlos' s voice rises in pathetic dismay over
28O • V E R D I
the tens e exchanges of the othe r two . Th e strett a uses to fine effec t th e
unison o f negative emotion , wit h Ebol i showin g al l the malignit y o f a
female lago .
The 'grand ' scenes and those tha t evoke a n ambience ar e more vari -
able, the secon d markedl y superior to th e first. Particularly impressive is
the way in which Verd i 'plants' the monastery of St. Juste: a prelude fo r
four horn s i n uniso n (Ex . 56) , th e distan t voice s o f monk s chantin g
prayers fo r th e sou l o f Charle s V , a n ol d mon k kneelin g besid e th e
Emperor's tom b (th e Emperor himsel f or his ghost?). The them e o f the
prelude furnishe s a four-not e patter n (x ) whic h encapsulate s the iro n
authority o f Church an d State that hangs over th e opera ; i t will conse-
quently reappear in various guises at different point s of the action: in th e
major ke y during Elisabeth's duet with Carlos , where sh e tells him tha t
she know s he r dut y an d intend s t o abid e b y it ; i n th e Ac t II I terzett o
where i t i s associated with Eboli' s fur y o n discoverin g tha t Carlo s i s in
love with he r royal mistress; again in the majo r ke y for the rejoicing s of
the crow d a t the prospect of an auto-da-fé; i n its original mode wher e a
repentant Eboli curses her own beauty; and finally hinted at in Elisabeth's
grand aria of Act V. Not s o much a leitmotif, but rather a thematic matrix
and an important elemen t in the opera's 'tinta', it can be linked to similar
four-note group s i n Philippe' s ari a an d hi s due t wit h th e Gran d In -
quisitor.
Ex.56
The monk s oscillat e betwee n majo r an d minor commo n chords ; whil e

their imperia l brother , a sonorous bass o profondo, speak s the idio m o f
Fiesco with short but pregnant utterances of such intensity as to generat e
a long melodic postlude . No les s masterly is the conclusio n o f the scen e
with Philippe , Elisabet h an d thei r suit e enterin g th e cloiste r t o a cere-
monial march which, a s they kneel before the Emperor's tomb , dwindle s
into th e chantin g o f th e monks . Carlo s crie s ou t i n pain . Agai n th e
Monk's voice is heard; Rodrigue exhorts his friend to take heart; and the
scene end s with a triumphant thundering ou t o f Ex. 55.
The Fontaineblea u forest , Carlos' s prison cell, the gardens outside the
monastery ar e al l conjure d u p wit h a fe w def t strokes , th e women' s
chorus in th e las t ('Sou s ces bois au feuillage immense' ) being especiall y
charming. The finale of the Fontainebleau act is neatly constructed over a
march wit h tw o theme s i n mino r an d majo r respectively ; th e firs t re -
flecting the apprehension of Carlos and Elisabeth, the second the people's
joy a t th e prospec t o f peace . Th e 'sommossa ' tha t end s Ac t I V i s no t
especially remarkabl e apart fro m th e splendi d curtai n provide d b y th e
sudden appearance of the Inquisito r (' A genoux!... A genoux!').
The architectura l pinnacle o f th e scor e is , of course , th e auto-da-f é
scene, compromised , unfortunately , at the outse t by an opening choru s
('Ce jour heureu x es t plein d'allégresse' ) base d o n a particularly brash
variant o f Ex . 5 6 (x ) whic h touche s o f harmoni c sophisticatio n d o
nothing t o improve . Th e shor t 'marc h t o th e stake ' wit h it s muffle d
scoring, minatory trombon e unison s an d consolator y cell o tun e late r
taken up by the Heavenly Voic e adds contrasting threads to the tapestry;
but i t i s all externa l wit h n o depth ; an d ther e i s a mor e tha n usuall y
disagreeable march for the stag e band t o follow . Only with th e entr y of
the Flemis h deputies and the resultin g 'pezzo concertato' does the scen e
regain th e musica l level o f it s predecessor. Thei r melod y ('L a dernièr e
heure a-t-elle déjà sonné?') with its restless Meyerbeerian bass has warmth
and dignity ; an d th e varie d reaction s o f thei r audienc e ar e precisel y
portrayed. Philippe seem s to shake an angry fist, the monks to pronounc e
an anathema, Carlos, th e populac e and the femal e principal s to plead for
mercy. A s the voice s al l join, th e heightene d emotio n i s expresse d i n
rapidly changin g harmonies. No t on e o f Verdi's longest concertati , it is
certainly on e o f his most concentrated .
The quarre l between Carlo s an d his father, brough t forwar d from an
earlier scene of the play, may be explained by Verdi's long cherished idea
of including a scene that would correspond to that in Le Prophète in which
at th e momen t o f hi s coronatio n Jea n denie s hi s ow n mothe r i n th e
presence o f the populac e o f Munster ('one o f those scene s which dra w
tears from th e eyes... '4). Posa's apparent betrayal of his friend, followed
4
See above LCC, p. 158 .
282 • VERD I
by a crestfalle n recurrenc e o f Ex . 55 , wa s th e neares t tha t coul d b e

managed. How muc h store the composer set by this passage may be seen
from his letters to Mazzucato, who conducte d the first performance at La
Scala, Milan. It would hav e made a fine 'curtain' had not consideration s
of musical architecture required a reprise of the openin g themes .
The balle t 'L a Peregrina ' i s the onl y on e o f Verdi's t o contai n a nar-
rative: the stor y of a fisherman who discover s a cave where al l the finest
gems of the ocean are gathered; the finest of them all however i s required
by King Philippe whose page interrupts the proceedings t o carry out his
master's orders . Th e musi c is brilliantly score d an d a t time s witty; th e
action passages are apt, especially those that feature a solo violin, which is
treated wit h a flexibility worthy o f Tchaikovsky. Bu t som e o f the ideas
are disappointingl y commonplace; no r ar e there an y of those gems like
the Danc e o f Summer tha t lights u p th e 'Fou r Seasons ' fro m Le s vêpres
siciliennes; whic h i s n o doub t why , alon g wit h tha t of Jérusalem, 'L a
Peregrina' remain s the leas t performed o f Verdi's ballet scores.
Its omission , however , pose d ye t anothe r proble m fo r th e revision .
The origina l Ac t II I starte d wit h a scène-à-fair e i n th e Spanis h style,
where t o the background of an offstage choru s Elisabeth persuades Eboli
to take her place in the evening's entertainment. Accordingly Eboli takes
the roya l mask , mantilla and necklac e and declare s that she will 'intox -
icate thé prince with love'. For the Queen herself has a part in the ballet;
she is 'La Peregrina' who appear s in a final tableau mounted o n a golden
chariot and receiving the homag e o f all the dancers . Eboli ha s no doub t
that Carlos , who m sh e believe s t o b e i n lov e wit h he r anyway , wil l
become still more besotted when he sees her thus gorgeously attired. But
once th e balle t i s removed th e scen e lose s it s point . Therefor e Verd i
replaced it in 188 4 with th e delicately woven prelud e based on Ex. 5 1 in
its revised form that we kno w today . But h e als o instructed Ricordi t o
restore th e origina l scene in it s place should th e balle t b e given . Man y
performances o f toda y includ e bot h prelud e an d scène-à-faire , whil e
omitting the ballet. Eboli's words then suggest that Carlos will love her in
mistake fo r the Queen . Tha t h e actuall y does so is no par t of her plan.
Eboli, i t seems, is destined t o b e misunderstood .
The bes t of Don Carlo s remains unsurpassed by Verdi or anyone else;
and for many people today it remains their favourite in the canon. It is the
most wid e rangin g of all in th e emotion s explore d an d in it s wealth o f
sharply draw n characters . I t i s certainl y no t hi s mos t perfect . Certai n

problems remain unsolved no matte r which version is performed. Many
Germans criticis e th e endin g a s an insul t t o Schiller ; an d eve n Verd i
himself had his doubts about the ambiguit y of the Monk-Emperor. But
Du Locle' s answe r is surely conclusive. Firstly Schiller's pla y makes no
claim to historical truth; then if the monk is to be a monk like any other,
the firs t scen e b y th e monaster y o f St . Juste lose s all its grandeu r an d
significance sinc e its purpose i s to prepar e th e fina l curtai n a s originally
planned. An d wh o woul d wis h t o sacrific e a characte r as ric h i n mys -
terious resonance as the Monk-Emperor ?
When aske d by Ferdinan d Hiller which o f the tw o operas , Aida an d
Don Carlos, Verdi himsel f preferre d h e replied : 'I n Do n Carlos ther e i s
perhaps a passage here or a piece there which surpasse s anything in Aida;
but i n Aida there' s mor e bit e an d (i f you'll forgiv e th e word ) mor e
theatricality.'5 Fift y year s ago suc h a statement woul d hav e seeme d ob -
vious. For the liberal Westerner o f today history has somewhat devalue d
Aida wit h its swaggerin g parade s and war-lik e sentiments , its implici t
acceptance of the close d society; while th e struggl e of youthful idealis m
against th e tyrann y o f th e ol d tha t inform s Do n Carlos find s a muc h
readier response. Yet onc e it s dramatic premise can be accepted , Aida is
certainly th e mor e perfec t oper a o f th e two . Her e al l the problem s o f
length and proportion which had eluded Verdi in his two previous works
are triumphantly resolved. All the panoply of grand opera is there but i t
never weighs the opera down. It has been said that Aida is the only grand
opera (i n the Meyerbeeria n sense ) from whic h i t i s impossible to cu t a
single note .
The plo t i s classicall y simpl e an d even familiar : a tal e o f lov e an d
patriotism, wit h a heroine tor n between allegianc e to he r fathe r an d t o
her lover . Th e musica l forms are more symmetrica l than in Do n Carlos
with a n almost mathematical use of repetition. Fo r the first time since /
due Fosean Verd i return s t o labellin g themes , a s distinct fro m themati c
reminiscence: wistful an d vaguely yearning for Aida (Ex . 573), proud and
stately fo r he r riva l Amneri s (Ex . syb) , an d ster n wit h a tendenc y t o
contrapuntal proliferation for the priest s of Isis (Ex . 57c). The prelude , a
5 Letter to F . Hiller (unpublished), 7.1.1884 , in the archive s of the Ne w Yor k Philharmonic

Society.
284 • V E R D I
Ex. 5 7
finely spu n tone-poem, is compounded fro m (a ) and (c) ; (b) first appears
in the Act I terzetto, as does a fourth motif representing Amneris'jealous
fury (Ex . 5yd) .
Inevitably th e leadin g figure s o f Aida inclin e t o th e generic . The y
merge with th e background oftha t public , formal life o f which the y are
part. Radames appears to u s as patriot in his recitative and as lover in his
aria 'Celest e Aida'—a typica l instance of Verdian three-limbed melod y
fashioned int o a Frenc h ternar y design . Bu t a s yet ther e i s no conflic t
between th e tw o roles . Th e love r ca n expres s himsel f i n term s o f th e
purest classica l poetry. Likewis e h e an d Amneri s ca n tak e par t i n th e
battle hymn ('Su ! del Nilo')—a far more acceptable piece of public music
than anything in the auto-da-fé scene, with a genuinely vigorous bass and
no contrapunta l trimmings—withou t an y los s o f character . Th e fina l
words, 'Ritorn a vincitor!' , first declaimed b y Amneris, the n echoe d by
the chorus , an d finall y take n u p b y Aid a (not e th e mathematica l pro -
cedure by threes ) makes for the smoothes t o f transitions t o Aida' s ow n
solo—a nucleu s o f brie f contraste d movement s i n whic h he r inne r
conflict i s laid bare . I t end s with a prayer o f heartfel t simplicity. Tw o
Ex. 5 8
ritual scenes stan d out i n which Radame s an d th e hig h pries t Ramphi s

have prid e o f place . Th e firs t i s concerne d wit h th e consecratio n o f
Radames a s captain of the Egyptia n armies . Three time s a soprano sol o
(Ex. 59 ) i s answere d b y a solem n mal e chorus . A danc e o f priestesse s
follows; lik e th e sopran o solo , i t i s in Verdi' s ow n Egyptia n styl e wit h
flattened supertonic. Th e ensembl e tha t ends the scene ('Nume, custode
e vindice') is led by Ramphis the n Radames to a strain that anticipates the
solemnity o f the 'Or o supplex ' o f the Requiem . Th e them e develops ,
puts out contrapunta l shoots and is finally yoked with Ex. 5 9 in a series of
dynamic contrasts . It is curious that Verdi's first truly successful expres -
sion o f religious aw e should relat e to th e worshi p o f Isis.
In th e scen e o f Radames ' trial , th e iro n rul e o f three—a symbo l o f
officialdom o r even th e Gree k 'ananke'—i s asserte d in al l its relentless
authority. Ther e i s a triple invocatio n t o th e Gods . Radames ' nam e is
called thre e times . Thre e charge s ar e lai d agains t him, eac h se t ou t i n
Dantesque tercets. There are three reaction s to his silence: Ramfis ' 'Egl i
tace', th e priests ' 'Traditor! ' an d Amneris' despairin g 'Ah , pietà , egl i è
innocente!' The tria l gains in sinister force from being conducted beneath
the stag e lik e a medieva l 'Vehmgericht' . A s Radame s i s le d awa y t o
immurement, th e franti c reproache s of Amneris break o n th e retreatin g
priests like waves on a rocky shore .
Ex. 5 9
286 • VERD I
The architectura l pinnacle of Aida is of course the Triumph scene . If it

moves us less than the more intimate moments, i t should be remembere d
that public music in nineteenth-centur y opera is rarely very compellin g
unless nationalisticall y inspired . Wher e thi s scen e score s immeasurabl y
over it s counterpart i n Do n Carlos is in the fac t tha t the element s belon g
together an d follow each other naturally . The final cadence of the grand
chorus tha t bega n wit h 'Glori a all'Egitto ' unmistakabl y prepares u s for
the trumpe t march—on e o f those piece s that instantly take root i n th e
memory du e t o th e inspired use of just a few notes. Th e marc h in tur n
discharges th e balle t like an arrow fro m a bow—a kaleidoscope of bril-
liantly scored themes each preserving the exotic flavour which L'Africaine
had brough t int o vogue . A shar p ear will detec t th e poin t a t which i n
1880 Verd i adde d tw o fres h ideas , mor e piquan t an d les s straightfor -
wardly melodic than the others; so by means of a reprise with the opening
theme place d at the end he was able to make the ballet more than twice
its original length . S o much i s mere pageantry . Drama return s with th e
appearance o f Amonasro, not , a s some maintain , a villain but a man o f
infinite cunnin g whose characte r i s limned i n th e cours e o f tw o con -
trasted themes, th e first formidable with th e suggestio n o f savagery hel d
in chec k (Ex . 6oa), the secon d falsel y placatory , as the singe r pleads for
a clemenc y o f whic h h e intend s t o tak e ful l advantag e (Ex. 6ob) . Th e
more idealisti c side o f hi s nature wil l b e reveale d i n th e followin g act
(Ex. 6oc).
Ex. 6ob forms the basis of the central concertato, the populace evidently
taking the honeyed progressions at their face value. As in Don Carlos there
is a tu g o f war, th e priest s countering with a deman d fo r severity . Th e
ensemble proceeds through a wide tonal orbit, s o creating a sense of scale
quite ou t o f proportion t o its length. Once more th e sequel to th e con -
certato is not a stretta but a varied reprise of the opening music of the scene
here concentrate d into thre e and a half minutes. 'Glori a all'Egitto' is fol-
lowed b y two variation s each sounding like a new idea . After a brief bu t
telling exchange between Amonasr o an d his daughter, all three tune s are
vertically combined wit h a n ease that Meyerbeer might hav e envied. Th e
opening strai n of the trumpe t marc h brings down th e curtain .
If the secon d scen e o f Act I I is the opera' s climax in term s o f shee r
sound, its poetic hear t is the entir e third act, which Verdi had wished t o
have printed without subdivision s of any sort. From the garish brightness
Ex. 6 0
of a high holida y we ar e transported t o th e magic of a subtropical night.

The tapestr y of pulsating strings, the circling flute motif, the distant chant
of the priests all form the backcloth to Aida's desolate romanza ('O patria
mia, ma i pi ù t i rivedró!') . Eac h o f it s strophes i s preceded b y a n obo e
melody wit h moda l inflexion s tha t seem s t o hav e straye d i n fro m th e
288 • VERD I
Ex. 6l
world o f Massenet and Godard (Ex . 61). Through textua l repetition and
an ambiguous tonal scheme (F major alternating with th e false tonic of A
minor) i t merge s int o th e surroundin g materia l muc h a s an 'English '
garden is made to melt into the landscape that stretches beyond it. But the
romanza i s remarkabl e i n othe r way s a s well. Her e i s a ne w kin d o f
strophic variatio n in which th e secon d verse no longe r retain s the pro -
portions o f th e firs t (i t is three bar s shorter). Th e sam e i s true, bu t i n
reverse, o f th e firs t movemen t o f Aida' s due t wit h Radame s ('L à tr a
foreste vergini'). Here to o i s the same idiom, th e same ambiguity of key
conveying seductiveness rather than nostalagia. Also in this act we can see
the fruit s o f Verdi' s experiment s i n hi s song s wit h th e eleven-syllabl e
metre without caesur a as a means of melodic self-renewal . The romanz a
is one example ; the duet-movemen t fo r Aida and Amonasro ('Rivedra i
le foreste imbalsamate') is another. Her e th e unusua l cut o f the openin g
phrase generates a chain of ideas each more captivatin g tha n th e last , as
Amonasro trie s t o re-awake n hi s daughter' s longin g fo r home . Hi s
subsequent outburst ('Su, dunque sorgete') makes its effect als o through a
calculated blend of metres but more especiall y through a n ever widening
circle o f key s reachin g it s clima x i n th e taun t 'De i Faraon i t u se i la
schiava!' Rapi d harmoni c movemen t give s way to complet e harmoni c
stasis. Th e repeate d A flats of the violin s with thei r ofF-the-bea t throb -
bings lie like an iron bar over the prostrate Aida. The gloo m i s lightened
by Amonasro's 'Pens a ch e un popólo ' (Ex . 6oc)—a transfiguring phrase
in the tradition of Macbeth's 'Come angeli d'ira'—only to settle again as
Aida reflect s ho w dearl y her fatherlan d ha s cost her. Regularit y o f pace
returns with the appearance of Radames. For the last time Verdi employs
a cabaletta for runaway lovers ('Si, fuggiam d a queste mura'); but i t is not
they who dela y too long ; i t is Amonasro who waste s valuable time wit h
his reassurance s to Radame s tha t h e i s no t t o blam e fo r betrayin g hi s
country's secrets . Where onc e a n elaborate ensembl e woul d hav e bee n
needed, no w Radames' 'Sacerdote, io resto a te' is sufficient t o conclude
an ac t which i s a masterly blend o f formality and freedom .
If Aida is the heroine, Amneris is the more interesting character. In her
the seed s of rebellion ar e present fro m th e start ; and her musi c gain s in
power fro m he r constant vigilance in keeping her feelings under control .
At firs t sh e i s all graciousness; bu t fro m th e momen t sh e suspect s Ra -
dames of loving someone els e Ex. 5yd begins to rampage in the orchestra.
In the terzett o of Act I she is like a repressed Eboli in the terzett o in Don
Carlos; but thi s time it is the sopran o Aida whose voice soars melodically
above the muttered soliloquies of Radames an d Amneris. A s usual in the
later oper a th e desig n i s pithier an d the craftsmanshi p more skilled; also
the interna l contrast gains tension fro m its faster tempo .
The first scene of Act II belongs mainly to Amneris. At first we see her
framed withi n he r regal surroundings. Femal e attendants sing a chorus of
two quatrains ; she replies in a third (' O vieni , vieni, amor mio') like the
refrain t o a minor-majo r couplet . Th e patter n i s twic e repeated , th e
second tim e i n shortene d for m an d precede d b y a danc e o f Mooris h
slave-boys; and since musical ideas are comprehended no t simultaneously
but dow n a perspective of time, th e effec t i s one o f balanced symmetry .
The subsequen t duet (T u l a sorte delTarmi') proceeds i n a musical prose
densely packe d wit h lyrica l motif s tha t sometime s burgeo n int o ful l
periods. Her e Ex . 57 3 for th e firs t an d onl y tim e reache s its fullest ex -
tension ('Amore , amore , gaudio , tormento') . Withi n thi s framework ,
half free, half formal, ever y emotional nuanc e is reflected, from Amneris'
false suavit y to Aida's wildly fluctuatin g moods . Bu t with th e betrayal of
her secre t th e musi c moves int o a more orthodo x due t cantabile , since
the respectiv e attitude s ar e no w fixed—Amneri s fumin g wit h jealou s
rage, Aida abjectly humble. A t the first performance in Cair o th e scene
ended wit h a cabaletta modelled loosel y o n th e battl e hym n o f the re -
turning army . For Milan i n 187 2 Verdi devise d the mor e varie d schem e
that w e kno w today , finishin g with a reprise o f Ex. 5 8 with harmoni c
enhancement. I f only, Ponchiell i wrot e t o Giuli o Ricordi , h e himsel f
2ÇO • V E R D I
could have thought o f such an ending for his duet between Barnab a and
Enzo!
The star t o f Ac t I V find s Amneri s an d Radame s lik e figure s i n a
classical tragedy, poised and irremovable i n their respectiv e positions. So
a fundamentally Rossinian pattern with cantabile and cabaletta is not ou t
of place . Th e openin g i s simple an d star k wit h siniste r colouring fro m
trumpet an d bas s clarinet ; bu t soo n emotio n break s the ic y surfac e i n
Amneris' sweepin g cantilen a ('Moriré!.. . ah! tu dei vivere') , in Ra-
dames' apostroph e t o Aid a ('Gl i Dei l'adducan o salv a all e patri e mura')
and his reply to Amneris in the cabaletta ('E la morte u n ben supremo') .
But Amneris ' them e ('Ch i t i salva , sciagurato' ) alread y betray s tha t all
engulfing despai r tha t wil l remai n wit h he r t o th e end . Throughout ,
however, sh e hold s ou r sympath y withou t sacrificin g a tith e o f he r
dignity. Indeed many an Amneris has been known t o steal the show fro m
her rival on the basis of her brief intervention nea r the beginning o f Act
III ('l o pregheró') wher e unconsciously she betrays the vulnerable youn g
girl beneath th e trapping s of a princess.
The fina l scen e has something o f th e characte r of a n epilogue , a s it
moves fro m a cold, almos t numb openin g t o a n idyllic clos e through a
succession o f lyrica l idea s eac h simple r an d mor e diaphanousl y score d
than the last . The lovers ' farewell t o lif e (' O terra , addio') is a miracle of
imagination i n whic h th e unbroke n eleven-syllabl e metr e i s extende d
over wid e melodi c arches:
Ex. 6 2
The melod y i s restated in the for m o f the mos t repetitive cabalett a with
only a brie f 'cutaway ' t o th e templ e musi c an d Amneris ' prayer .
Moreover o f the melody's five limbs three ar e identical. No t eve n Bel -
lini, who never failed to work a good tune for all that it was worth, risked
stating a single phrase twelve times . Yet di d ever oper a en d more mag -
ically than this ?
For Verdi Aida was the final word on grand opera . No t howeve r fo r
his contemporaries. Indee d i t remaine d th e prevailin g form o f opera i n
Italy throughout the iSyo s and much of the '8os. Yet of the various grand
operas b y Marchetti , Gomes , Ponchiell i an d Catalan i onl y L a gioconda
survives. The age d Rossini wa s surely right when he observed i n a letter
to Tit o Ricord i ' . . . may my colleague s forgiv e m e fo r saying so, but
Verdi is the onl y ma n capabl e of writing gran d operas' .
6
Letter from Rossini t o Tito Ricordi, 18.4.1868 , L. Rognoni, Rossini (Parma, 1956), pp. 264—5 .
C H A P T E R S E V E N T E E N
The Final Masterpieces
F ROM AIDA T O OTELLO I S A HUGE STEP , EVE N I F CERTAI N PAGE S O F

the Requiem and the revised Simon Boccanegra have prepared us for
it. The intervenin g years had seen a gradual change of taste among Italian
audiences. Wagne r wa s no longe r a stranger, thoug h hi s mature work s
had ye t t o b e appreciated . Lohengrin ha d becom e a n honorar y Italia n
opera. The refor m of the conservatories in 187 0 was now bearing frui t i n
a reviva l of interest in instrumenta l music under the leadershi p of Mar-
tucci an d Sgambati , s o that even i n oper a a more symphoni c approac h
was expected . Act s proceede d fro m beginnin g t o en d withou t inter -
ruption, unles s there was a change of scene. The ideal s preached by Boito
in the i86o s in vague, rhapsodic fashion wer e no w beginnin g fitfull y t o
be realised , partly under hi s own guidance , no t a s composer o r propa -
gandist, but rathe r as poet.
Much ha s been sai d i n recen t year s about th e harmfu l effec t o f hi s
sophistication o n th e simple , direc t visio n o f Verdi . Th e trut h i s that
Boito understoo d composers ' requirement s bette r tha n an y librettis t
since Felice Romani; which is why he helped many of them to their most
successful work (Ponchielli' s Lagioconda is an obvious instance). He ha d a
sure instinct not onl y for the pacing of a music drama but als o for a stage
picture. His idea it was to insert a chorus of Cypriots paying homage t o
Desdemona i n Ac t I I o f Otello thoug h ther e i s no preceden t fo r i t i n
Shakespeare. 'At this fateful moment' , he wrote to Verdi, referring to the
'green-eyed monster' speech,
292
The Final Masterpieces • 29 3
it wil l b e lik e a pure, swee t apotheosi s of songs and flower s encirclin g th e

beautiful figur e of Desdemona. Throughou t the scen e it is desirable that the
chorus an d Desdemon a remai n frame d withi n th e arc h o f th e centra l ap -
erture ... The momen t Desdemon a pronounce s th e nam e o f Cassi o th e
memory o f the chorus which stil l haunts Othello's soul ceases and the drama
1
resumes it s inexorable course .
To Boit o mus t go the credi t o f clearing Verdi's mind o n th e subjec t of

the Ac t II I curtai n (se e p. 129) . Hi s intellectual subtlety was a continual
source o f stimulu s t o th e olde r composer , fo r whic h hi s preciosity o f
language was a small price to pay.
To expec t Verdi i n his seventies to writ e i n th e styl e of Macbeth o r U
trovatore is like expecting the Beethoven o f the 1820 5 to write in the style
of hi s septet. Ye t alongsid e thos e Germanophile s fo r who m Otello and
Fij/sf<j/f constitute Verdi's patent of respectability, there have always been
those fo r who m hi s las t tw o opera s represen t a fals e trail : th e write r
Antonio Fogazzar o in Verdi's own time, Bruno Barilli a generation later,
even Stravinsky for whom 'Falstaff, i f not Wagner' s bes t work, certainl y
isn't Verdi's' 2 (late r however h e wa s to chang e hi s mind). There exist s
also a middle view , hel d by , amongs t others , th e lat e Gabriel e Baldini ,
which accept s Fabtaffbut rate s Otello fa r belo w Macbeth a s a musica l
realisation o f Shakespeare . Th e rea l reason , on e suspects , i s that Otello
demands fa r more o f it s audience tha n an y o f Verdi's previou s operas .
Also it is a difficult wor k t o place. Written at a time when 'gran d opera'
was stil l th e norm , thoug h younge r composer s suc h a s Catalan i an d
Puccini were tryin g to escape from it , Otello employs all the resources of
the genre except the ballet. The scor e calls for four bassoons, three flutes,
two cornets as well as trumpets, two harps , a cornamusa, two mandolines ,
two guitars and a boys' chorus. The bras s bass is for the first time specified
as a bass trombone . Onl y th e us e o f trombone s wit h valve s instead o f
slides harks back to a n earlier time and renders certain effects, notabl y in
the storm , impossibl e to achieve with moder n instruments . Bu t o f rou -
tine grandiosity—o f th e pageantr y an d procession s o f Aida an d Do n
Carlos—there is not a trace. Everything is directed towards the realisation
of the drama.
1
MCVB, pp. 51-7.
2
J.B. Janin, Poétique musicale d e I. Stravinsky (Paris , 1945) , pp . 93—4 .
294 ' V E R D I
Though the range of harmony is extraordinarily wide, the music bears

little relatio n t o wha t wa s being writte n a t the time . Ther e are no inti-
mations of'verismo' , n o Wagnerian echoes , except i n part of the love-
duet where the use of a similar metre set to a similar rhythm recalls that of
Lohengrin (thoug h Verd i is more successfu l tha n the Wagne r o f 184 8 i n
avoiding excessiv e regularity) . Likewis e th e moda l inflexion s o f th e
Willow Son g ow e somethin g t o th e exampl e o f Frenchme n suc h as
Massenet, Lalo and Godard. But where ca n one find a precedent for the
chord o f piled-u p third s tha t open s th e oper a (Ex . 63 ) an d o f whic h
variants recur later in the storm and in the bonfire chorus? To cal l Ex. 63
a dominant eleventh is surely to miss the point, since it nowhere resolves ,
and is thus a good dea l harder to analys e harmonically tha n the openin g
Ex. 6 3
The Final Masterpieces • 295
of Tristan un d Isolde. I n hi s prefac e t o th e oper a Boit o stresse d th e

importance o f lago' s firs t mentio n o f th e wor d 'jealousy ' i n bringing
about th e chang e i n th e Moor' s character . Accordingl y Verd i under -
lines the moment wit h a grinding successio n of parallel common chord s
(Ex. 64).
Ex. 64
Be i t noted , however , tha t n o matte r ho w bol d th e progressio n a t

certain key-points o f the drama , the basi c idiom i s markedly consonant .
Chains o f suspensions and appoggiatur e resolvin g o n on e anothe r a s in
the prelud e t o Di e Meistersinger o r th e Prologu e t o Meßstofele wer e no t
for Verdi . Hi s chief complain t abou t Mascagni' s L'amico Fritz an d Bru-
neau's L a rêve was of their pointles s use of dissonance for th e mildes t o f
situations—in effec t tha t th e extrem e medicin e o f the dramati c consti -
tution wa s becoming it s daily bread. Characteristically he draws together
the jumble o f heterogeneous, ofte n dissonan t motif s tha t mak e u p th e
storm in a plain, A minor melody of thirty-two bars placed, as in Rigoletto,
at the clima x ('Di o fulgor déli a bufera') .
Precisely becaus e h e use s it s o sparingly, Verd i i s able t o extrac t ful l
sweetness fro m Romanti c harmon y withou t ris k o f cloying . Th e de -
scending ninths of the four muted cellos preceding the love duet, Des -
demona's meltin g cadenc e where sh e first makes her ill-time d ple a o n
behalf of Cassio, th e orchestra l motif o f the kis s (Ex . 65) attain a radiant
sublimity throug h mean s whic h i n lesse r hand s woul d resul t i n mer e
mawkishness.
Never has that Verdian device of a 6/4 chor d i n a remote ke y (x) been
used t o suc h super b effect . Indee d i t is through a n extensio n o f certai n
procedures lon g familia r a s fingerprints o f hi s idio m tha t Verd i ofte n
2Ç6 • V E R D I
Ex. 6 5
Ex. 6 6
seems to reach towards the future. I n lago's dream a succession of typical

seventh inversio n chord s give s a foretaste o f Debussya n impressionis m
(Ex. 66).
Elsewhere the reach is backward as well as forward to those classics on
which Verd i had been educate d and in which h e ha d begun t o sho w a
new, creativ e interest. The centra l section of the handkerchief terzetto
('Essa t'awinc e co n vagh i rai' ) take s Domenico Scarlatt i as its point o f
departure. Ther e i s a touch o f eighteenth-century grac e abou t th e in -
troduction to the duet in Act III ('Dio ti giocondi, o sposo') out of which
the fearfu l iron y o f Otell o wil l emerg e wit h al l the greate r intensity .
Otello is a summing up of a lifetime's experience in more ways than one .
It is strictly contemporary to the '8os in that it was conceived fro m th e

start in terms of whole act s that proceed fro m beginnin g to en d withou t
interruption. Ther e wa s no questio n o f welding existin g joins a s in th e
revision of Simon Boaanegra. The dram a no longer jolts from situatio n to
situation bu t move s b y smoot h transitio n fro m on e even t t o th e next .
The affra y cause d b y Cassio' s drunkennes s i s followed b y a stretc h o f
thirty-nine bars during which th e tension relaxe s and the mood change s
to one o f tranquil happines s in preparation for the love duet . Two idea s
are used, the firs t a parlante, the secon d purely instrumental and followed
by the passage for muted cellos mentioned above . Both rise and fall over a
tonic peda l inducin g a sens e o f languorou s repose . Inevitabl y th e ai m
towards continuit y i s reflected in th e for m o f th e aria s an d ensembles .
Where onc e Otello might hav e been given a two-movement cavatina for
his entrance, a mere handfu l o f phrases starting from C shar p major to a
powerful cadenc e i n E plant s hi s triump h wit h al l th e finalit y o f th e
Alphorn them e i n th e final e o f Brahms's Firs t Symphony . Unlik e th e
drinking son g i n Macbeth, lago' s 'InnafFi a 1'ugola! ' i s no t a stati c piec e
embedded i n a scene o f action; rathe r it carrie s the actio n withi n itself .
For thi s purpose Verd i use s a type of bar-form wit h refrai n alread y ad -
umbrated in U n bailo in maschera and Laforza de l destino, in which ther e is
room fo r Cassio's stammering , hi s growing intoxication , lago' s aside s to
Roderigo an d the amuse d reactions of the crowd , an d always from th e
steady developmen t o f on e ide a int o another , th e recurrenc e o f th e
refrain 'Ch i all'esca ha morso' giving unity to the design. A similar form is
used fo r th e Willo w Song , wher e w e ar e never allowe d t o forge t tha t
Desdemona i s preparing for bed. Th e duettin o fo r lag o and Cassi o that
begins Act I I offer s a n exampl e of a melody whic h realise d its full shape
only a t its second repetitio n (compare 'Qui d su m miser' fro m th e Re -
quiem). The n b y a masterstrok e th e triple t figur e tha t punctuate s th e
orchestral texture i s transformed into a brutal gesture in preparation fo r
lago's Cred o o f evil . This , hi s onl y soliloquy , take s the for m o f a de -
claimed melod y tha t could b e sai d to originat e i n Fr a Melitone's comi c
sermon. Buil t o n tw o instrumenta l themes , on e a savage unison o n th e
full orchestra, the other dancing with echoes of Liszt's Mephisto, i t is one
of the mos t powerfu l expressions of negative emotio n i n al l music. Fo r
Otello's monologue ('Dio ! mi potevi scagliar') , as it moves from spiritual
prostration through poignant regret to an uncontrollable outburst of fury,
2Ç8 • VERD I
Verdi uses a variant of the minor-major romanz a so transformed that th e

listener is aware not o f the form but onl y o f the emotiona l grap h that it
traces. A close examination of the love duet will discover traces of the old
tri-partite duet , thoug h mos t listener s will b e happ y to hea r a 'string of
exquisite tunes which meande r through one unlikely key after another in
the most unexpected bu t unchallengeably logical manner'. 3 The extrem e
freedom o f Otello's duet with lago in Act II is wound u p with a disguised
cabaletta ('Si, per ciel marmóreo giuro!' ) More obviou s echoes of the past
can be hear d i n Otello's 'Ora e per sempr e addio' , lik e a broken recol -
lection o f Renato's 'Dunqu e Tont a d i tutt i so l una', an d lago' s three -
limbed ' E un idr a fosca livida' reminding u s of King Philip's confidences
to Posa . Bu t i n genera l th e ol d foundations remain burie d beneat h th e
ebb an d flo w o f a powerful and infinitely various music drama.
The character s are rounded as never before. lago is Protean, suiting his
personality t o whomeve r h e addresses ; mockin g wit h Roderigo , re -
spectful and insinuating with Otello, brutal with Emilia. Otello's music is
that of a man who ha s passed the zenith of youth; his love-duet proceed s
in a glo w o f tranqui l recollection . A fe w significan t phrase s here an d
there ar e sufficien t t o plan t Cassio' s attractiv e candour . Ye t Verdi' s
greatest feat is surely to have sustained interest in the passiv e Desdemon a
by lavishing upon her a never-ending strea m of lyrical poetry, whether in
the quarte t ('Damm i l a dolce e liet a parola') , th e harrowin g due t fro m
Act II I or the entir e fourt h act.
Yet for all that it remains a singer's opera, Otello shows a rare orchestral
imagination, whethe r i n th e textboo k passag e for mute d doubl e basse s
where Otell o enter s Desdemona's bedroom , th e prelud e t o Ac t I V for
cor anglai s solo, woodwind an d horns, th e transitio n t o th e pezzo con -
certato with its Wagnerian voicing of wind an d strings, the horn pedal at
the star t of'Dio! mi potevi scagliar', the expertl y varied harp-writing i n
the love duet, or the pretty blend of popular and orchestral instruments in
the serenad e t o Desdemona . I n tw o passage s w e ca n sens e a consciou s
putting fort h o f strength . Th e openin g stor m i s a concentrate d si x
minutes of musical turbulence packed with theme s and gestures of every
kind of rhythmic cut . Among its special effects is the novel use of a cluster
of organ peda l notes tha t creates a feeling of tension without impingin g
3
HVFO, p . 440.
on th e listener' s consciousness . The pezzo concertato i n Ac t II I (' A ter -

ra!... si... nel livido fango') i s the most massiv e that Verdi eve r wrote ,
with n o les s tha n fiv e constituen t ideas , three o f them associate d wit h
Desdemona. Tha t stati c ensembles o f this kin d wer e becomin g anach -
ronistic Verdi himself was well aware; and just as he had given motion t o
the Ac t II quartet, turning i t into an action piece for lago and Emilia, so
he sought t o galvanis e the concertat o throug h th e intriguin g o f lago. ' I
would grou p the chorus close together,' he wrote t o Ricordi in 1889 , 'in
isolation an d ver y distant , s o tha t lag o ca n dominat e an d hol d th e at -
tention wit h hi s movements, hi s actions, his infamous word s t o Otell o
and Roderig o withou t bein g disturbe d b y th e muffle d di n o f th e or -
chestra.'4 But in practice this generally proves impossible. For the French
version, therefore, Verdi re-wrote the entire ensemble in a reduced form,
thinning ou t th e textur e s o that lag o ca n be clearl y seen and heard. H e
did no t howeve r reinstat e thi s versio n i n subsequen t Italia n editions o f
the score . Nor, onc e heard, is it difficult t o see why. Th e musi c suffers a
loss o f motiv e powe r jus t whe n i t need s t o pres s o n toward s it s first
climax. The freezin g of the drama is a trivial price to pay for the towerin g
magnificence o f the ensembl e a s Verdi first wrote it .
The balle t is as distinguished a s one woul d expec t from th e ma n wh o
had already composed Falstajf, thoug h it weakens rather than strengthens
the drama and is never performed in context. The openin g 'danse turque'
is an amusing piece of orientalism à la française using augmented intervals
within a minor tonality . It s major-key complemen t i s a 'danse arabe' i n
the for m o f a stead y crescend o culminatin g i n a quotatio n o f th e
Muezzin's Cal l from Félicie n David's L e Désert, which ha d s o impressed
Verdi i n 1845 . Th e 'dans e grecque ' i s limpid an d gracious , a musica l
evocation o f Keats's Grecian Urn ; whil e fo r the Venetia n dance s Verdi
returns to a popular idiom, vigorou s an d brilliantly scored but withou t a
trace o f vulgarity. Altogethe r a worthy, i f untimely tribut e t o th e am -
bassador of La Serenissima.
The titl e role represent s one o f the suprem e challenge s of the teno r
repertoire. No t tha t it need s the barnstormin g tita n tha t certai n singers
make of it, and no teno r par t of Verdi's is encrusted with mor e nuances.
It is not onl y in outburst s such as 'Esultate' that Otello makes an impact.
4
AGV, IV, pp. 371-2.
JOO • V E R D I
Toye is not fa r wrong i n saying of the passage beginning ' E t u . .. come

sei pallida! ' fro m hi s fina l solo , 'I n thi s phras e hal f sung , hal f sobbed ,
without accompanimen t o f any kind, lie s th e kerne l o f the entir e trag -
edy.'5
Ex. 6 7
Verdi declared more tha n once during the composition o f Fabtaffthat

he wa s writing i t for his own amusement , as a way o f passing the time .
This i s sometimes regarde d as the disclaime r of a man too ol d to be tie d
down t o deadline s and wh o wa s afrai d h e migh t no t liv e t o finis h hi s
work. I t i s true tha t fo r on e o f Verdi's upbringin g a n oper a withou t a
public to enjo y it is a contradiction in terms and that he was never above
making concessions to a n outstanding performer (witnes s the lat e addi -
tion t o Act II, scene 2 of an extended sol o for the Quickly of Giuseppina
Pasqua). Yet ther e is a sense in which Fahtaff touche s a plane of musical
idealism throug h a n independenc e o f thos e factor s whic h ha d condi -
5
TGC, p. 426.
tioned th e outpu t of every composer for the theatre . Unlike Otello it is

not s o much a singers' oper a a s one o f ensemble, o f give an d tak e be -
tween voice s and instruments . The gran d vocal gesture occurs only b y
way of parody as in Ford's monologue o r where the wives read aloud the
flowery conclusion of FalstafFs letter. The singers are expected to pick up
the melodi c thread s from each other an d quickly pas s the m on . O f th e
four wome n al l excep t Me g Pag e coul d b e accounte d principals ; ye t
Verdi hurl s them al l onto th e stag e at onc e i n air y conversation . Th e
qualities that he require s for his artists are purity of tone an d that com -
bined accuracy of verbal and musical attack known a s 'accento'. IfFahtaff
finds little favour amongst the groundlings, it has scarcely more appeal for
the sta r singer. It i s an opera for th e connoisseur .
In drawin g up th e librett o Boit o define d the opera' s term s o f refer-
ence. Hi s aim , h e said , was to 'squeez e al l the juice fro m tha t Shake -
spearean orang e withou t lettin g an y o f th e useles s pip s fal l int o th e
glass... It is very very difficult an d it must seem very very easy.' H e was
aware that the Falstaf f of Th e Merry Wives o f Windsor lacke d the panach e
of Prince Hal' s drinking companion; so he padded him out with suitable
passages from the chronicl e plays with th e sam e skill with which he had
recouped par t of the omitte d Venetia n act of Otello. I n declarin g to his
friend Bellaigu e tha t 'L'éclatant e farc e d e Shakespear e a été reconduit e
par l e miracl e de s son s à s a clair e sourc e Tuscan e d e Se r Giovann i
Fiorentino,'7 Boit o wa s clearly alluding to what ha d been hi s aim from
the start ; for the librett o i s full o f Tuscan words and phrases. The refrai n
of th e lov e duettin o i n Ac t I ('Boce a baciat a non perd e ventura , Anz i
rinnova com e fa la luna') is lifted directl y from Boccaccio, where it has a
different, mor e ribal d significance . It wa s als o Boito' s ide a tha t ther e
should be n o gran d duet for Fenton an d Nannett a (se e p. 136) .
Boito ha d alread y infecte d Verd i wit h hi s love o f conundrum s an d
ingenious word-play, wit h the result that in Falstaffmusic an d text reflec t
each othe r i n subtl e an d unexpecte d ways . I n it s openin g bar s Falstaff
appears t o plung e mor e immediatel y int o th e actio n tha n an y o f it s
predecessors wit h a thrustin g accen t of f th e mai n beat . Examin e th e
music more closely and you will find that the entire scene with Dr Caius
6
MCVB, pp.153-5.
7C. Bellaigue , 'A . Boito: Lettres e t Souvenirs' , i n Revue de s deux Mondes lxxxviii/4 8 (Pari s
1918), p. 906.
302 • V E R D I
Ex. 6 8
forms a built-in overture with the first subject (Ex. 68a) portraying Caius'
anger, th e secon d FalstafF s lordl y phleg m (Ex . 68b).
Overtures generally draw to a full cadence at the end of the exposition ,
but the y do no t finis h there . Accordingl y 'No n è finito! ' Caiu s cries at
that point. But the genuine finality of his 'I'll never be drunk again while
I live but i n honest, civil and godly company' is marked by Bardolph and
Pistol wit h a prolonge d 'Amen ' i n two-par t counterpoint . I t i s als o
possible that the expansiv e phrase that embodies FalstafF s maxi m 'ruba r
con garbo e a tempo' is meant to serve as an illustration of'tempo rubato'.
Thereafter th e musica l organisatio n o f Falstajf i s very difficul t t o
classify. I n genera l i t continue s that progress toward s a seamless conti-
nuity that can be observe d throughou t Verdi' s career , no t throug h an y
predetermined form s bu t rathe r through way s that aris e from th e dra -
matic situation . The periodi c melod y i s not banished—indee d th e tw o
most obvious example s of it, th e women' s E major quarte t in Act I and
Ex. 69
FalstafFs 'Quand'er o paggio ' wer e regularl y encore d i n Verdi' s day .

Fenton's sonett o an d Nannetta's 'Su l fil d'un sofrí o etesio ' ar e variants of
aria forms that Verdi had used before: the 'tempo di minuetto' that bursts
on th e audienc e wit h miraculou s freshnes s jus t whe n th e importan t
business of the scor e might be thought t o be over is as strict in its ternary
design a s any movemen t fro m th e eighteent h century ; whil e th e fina l
fugue i s in every respect—a fugue. I n three case s motivai development i s
used an d i n eac h th e moti f derive s fro m a voca l phrase . I n FalstafF s
'Honour' speech i n Act I the phras e of the centra l section , 'Pu ô 1'onor e
riempirvi l a pancia?' (Ex 6ca), is transformed into a pattern which draw s
the musical design together an d rounds it off with a superb, blaring tutti.
The sam e structural importance i s given to the phrase 'Dalle due alle tre'
in FalstafFs duet with Mistress Quickly (Ex . opb); while th e figure of'T e
lo cornefico' (Ex . 6cc) not only links Ford's solo with the preceding duet ,
but provides th e unifying element o f the monologue itsel f buzzing about
like a n angr y was p betwee n th e soloist' s swellin g phrases . Elsewher e
Verdi's method s ar e mor e elusive . Theme s wil l b e state d the n broke n
into sequence s then transforme d into ne w ideas ; what first appears as an
episode will tur n into a main subject; the en d of one period wil l chang e
into th e beginnin g o f another . A n apparentl y inconsequen t transitio n
whose only purpose seems to be to give an appropriate outline to a verbal
phrase wil l b e foun d t o b e rivete d t o wha t ha s gone befor e b y som e
linking figur e tha t develop s throug h it , ofte n i n a n inne r part . Th e
binding agen t ma y b e a figur e o f tw o note s a s in th e scen e i n whic h
Bardolph an d Pisto l tel l For d o f FalstafF s design s upo n hi s wife . Th e
texture may thin down almost to vanishing point, as at the start of Act II,
scene 2 , where Alic e i s laying he r trap , o r i n th e firs t scen e o f Act III,
where sh e is giving instruction s for th e masquerad e in Windso r Forest .
Yet thoug h th e materia l i s on pape r ofte n th e meres t smal l chang e o f
3O4 • V E R D I
academic figuration , th e effec t i s sparkingly alive . Wagner' s celebrate d

remark abou t Beethove n come s t o mind—tha t h e coul d creat e whol e
worlds ou t o f nothing .
Indeed ou t o f the variou s influence s whic h imping e upo n th e scor e
musicians fro m Charle s Stanfor d t o Massim o Mil a hav e recognise d
Beethoven a s among th e mos t prominent , especiall y the Beethove n o f
the 'Pastoral ' symphony , th e violi n sonata s an d th e strin g quartets .
Mendelssohn an d Weber can be glimpse d i n th e fair y musi c of Act III,
Delibes' Coppélia, transfigure d b y delicac y an d th e subtles t of develop-
ment, i n the rough an d tumble preceding the concertato of Act II, and,
more remotely , Do n Jose' s Flowe r Son g i n Fenton' s sonetto , thoug h
without an y echoes of the Parisian salon. As for the en d of Act I, with its
tenor solo rising above a vocal mêlée of conflicting rhythms, it is not hard
to fin d a preceden t i n th e ensembl e tha t conclude s Ac t I o f Di e Mei-
stersinger, whos e Italia n premièr e i n 188 9 a t L a Scala , Milan , Verd i i s
unlikely t o hav e missed. Reminiscence s o f Verdi's ow n pas t ar e there ,
too, bu t i n small doses. The ritua l drubbin g o f Falstaff in Act III follows
the time-honoure d tripl e pattern with a theme derive d partl y fro m th e
Hostias and partly from th e Ingemisc o of the Requiem; and it concludes
with wha t i s almost a quotation fro m th e judgement scen e towards th e
end o f the 186 7 version o f Do n Carlos
The harmoni c styl e of Falstaff K a s fresh an d limpi d a s Mediterranea n
sunlight bu t i t i s far from naive . Th e familia r sevent h inversion s ar e i n
evidence, so too the elliptical progressions. Nor i s Verdi afraid of modern
procedures wher e th e occasion requires. The openin g o f Ford's mono -
logue (' E sogno ? o realtà' ) draw s o n th e dreamlik e association s of th e
whole-tone scale. The twelve chords underlining the chimes of midnight
are a tour d e forc e o f ingenuity an d hav e inspired a t least on e moder n
composer t o a set of variations. Does al l this indicate a drying up o f the
melodic well, as some have suggested? The answe r is rather that in Falstaff
the entir e textur e i s pervaded b y melody , muc h o f it instinc t with th e
implications o f physical gestur e and nuances of verbal intonation. 'Re -
verenza!' say s Mistres s Quickl y a s sh e greet s Falstaff ; an d th e musica l
phrase ha s a dee p curtse y buil t int o it . 'Alic e è mia! ' crie s Falstaf f tri -
umphantly; an d th e ful l orchestr a respond s wit h a melodi c snatc h o f
belly-laugh. Then , too , the melodic units vary widely in length. FalstafF s
Ex. 7 0
'Quand'ero paggio' last s a mere thirty seconds. The readin g of FalstafF s

letter by contras t forms a huge paragrap h of forty-four bars. Beginnin g
with th e co r anglai s solo befor e 'Fulgid a Alice' , i t gather s strength an d
continuity as it proceeds, finishing in a n outrageous bloom o f romantic
harmony followed b y a burst of merry laughter (Ex. 70).
3OÓ • V E R D I
Yet th e mos t astonishing feat o f Falstaff i s surely this: that while muc h
of the score stands the clichés of Romanticism o n their head, the third act
can ente r th e worl d o f 'faerie' withou t a hint o f caricature. The poetr y
that Shakespeare cannot resist bestowing o n hi s 'moonshine revellers' i s
far surpasse d b y Verdi's . Wit h Nannetta' s 'Ninfe ! Elfi ' w e see m t o b e
back in th e Romantic dawn o f the 1820 5 and '30 5 with Berlioz ' Queen
Mab, th e fairie s o f Mendelssohn's Midsumme r Night' s Drea m overtur e
and Weber' s Oberem, al l compose d b y youn g men : ye t th e Verd i o f
Falstaff seem s younger tha n any o f them .
The balanc e betwee n fantas y an d comedy , th e transitio n fro m on e
plane t o th e othe r an d back , wa s no t achieve d a s easily as the finishe d
result migh t lea d us to expect . The en d o f scene i o f the thir d act was
written afte r th e première, th e thematic organisation being changed and
the rhythmi c desig n varie d an d improved . A stil l mor e substantia l al-
teration wa s mad e i n th e ensembl e tha t end s Ac t II . I t wa s th e ol d
problem o f the pezzo concertato: how to develop the music satisfactorily
without allowin g the dram a to freez e and the audience' s attentio n to
wander. Averse to mere cuts as the most brutal type of surgery, Verdi re-
wrote si x bars and removed sixteen . But th e earlie r version exists in th e
first printed vocal scores; and althoug h th e relevan t pages were a s usual
torn ou t o f the autograph , it is possible to reconstruc t th e scorin g quite
plausibly; and indeed bot h scenes have been give n i n their original form
in Americ a in an edition b y James Hepokoski.
Has the character of Falstaff a tragic dimension? Some would say that is
has and would poin t t o th e monologu e a t the star t of Act II I ('Mond o
ladro! mond o rubaldo!' ) fo r confirmatio n (an d i s ther e no t a virtua l
quotation o f Klingsor's motif before the words 'ch e giornataccia ñera'?)
(Ex. 71) . But t o most of us FalstafFs ill-humour is as funny as his roguery;
it is the FalstafFo f King Henry IV who see s 'lime in the sack' as a symbol of
the age' s depravity . Besides , hi s moo d i s short-lived; a glas s o f mulle d
wine 'mixed with the waters of the Thames'—and here he hums a snatch
which migh t hav e come fro m a n English glee—is enough t o restore his
spirits. The char m of Verdi's Falstaf f lies in his boundless effrontery . T o
Boito h e wa s on e o f nature' s incorrigibl e subversives . I n th e prefac e
to Mefistofele h e is coupled with Goethe's demon as one who say s 'no!' to
everything. Th e lin k betwee n 'So n l o spirit o ch e nega ' an d 'L'onore !
Ladri!' i s thus explained.
Ex. 7 1
It is easier to fin d a n element of tragedy in Ford, whose sufferings a s a

self-imagined cuckold might be presumed genuine enough—except that
they are never designed to appear other tha n totally ridiculous: his play-
acting as 'Signor Fontana' , th e ferociou s pantomime i n th e monologu e
('Prima li accoppio e poi li colgó'), the overturnin g o f the household i n
his search of the guilty pair even to the extent of searching in drawers. If a
certain passage for horns in the monologu e recall s the loneliness of King
Philip, an d the final phrase ('Laudata sempre sia in fondo del mió cor la
gelosia') th e heartbrea k o f Otello, i t i s onl y b y wa y o f parody . I t i s as
though th e greates t outrage tha t ca n befal l a husband has given For d a
mighty sens e o f self-importance ; indee d w e coul d eve n imagin e tha t
Ford welcomes such a discovery as the opportunity fo r getting the mora l
ascendancy over a wife wh o i s so much clevere r than he. True , ther e is
room her e for a more seriou s interpretation, as in any play by Chekhov ;
and Charles Stanford could not understan d why the first-night audience
found Ford' s plight s o amusing. Bu t surely if Verdi an d Boit o ha d in -
tended a tragi c impersonation , the y woul d no t hav e chose n Italy' s
leading comic baritone , Antoni o Pini-Corsi , to creat e the role .
If we loo k fo r tha t element o f seriousness, the lacrimae rerum withou t
which n o wor k o f ar t ca n achiev e sublimity , w e shal l fin d i t mor e
plausibly in the music of the lovers. In setting their lyrical encounters to a
fast temp o Verd i give s them a sense of transience, o f moments o f hap -
piness snatche d fro m 'devourin g time ' i n th e las t scen e i n Windso r
Forest—in th e sonetto , Nannetta' s solo , an d th e minuet— a sens e o f
autumnal melanchol y persist s along wit h th e pranking. I t i s here tha t
Verdi joins hands with th e Mozar t o f Le nozze d i Figaro.
The wor k o f a composer's eightiet h year might b e expected t o dra w
on pas t achievements . What i s astonishing about Fahtaffis tha t i t look s
forward a s wel l a s back . Alfred o Casell a describe d i t a s th e poin t o f
departure fo r moder n Italia n music; and toda y i t appear s far less date d
3O8 • V E R D I
than th e veristi c work s whic h wer e t o remai n i n fashio n fo r th e nex t

twenty years . To hav e inaugurated a new wa y of musical thinking a t so
advanced a n ag e i s no mea n feat . Verd i himsel f pu t th e matte r neatl y
when h e wrot e t o Giuli o Ricord i abou t hi s failure t o appreciat e Ma -
scagni's L'Amico Fritz. 'But', he finishe d apologetically , 'I' m just an old
Q
fogey [coifmo] ; well , old , certainly; perhap s not suc h a fogey as all that.'
8
AGV, IV, pp. 426-7.
C H A P T E R E I G H T E E N
Miscellaneous Operatic Compositions
T
HE PRACTIC E O F WRITING EXTR A NUMBER S FO R INSERTION INTO
one's ow n an d othe r people' s score s has a history tha t goes back
into th e eighteent h century . Unprotecte d b y copyright , opera s onc e
performed passe d out o f thei r composers ' hand s t o b e a t th e merc y o f
anyone who chose to perform them. The leading parts would be adapted
to th e mean s of the ne w singer s partly by transposition, partl y by 'pun-
tatura'—i.e. b y raisin g o r lowerin g th e pitc h o f th e lin e withou t dis -
turbing the harmony. But it would also happen that a singer might decide
that this or tha t aria did not d o justice to hi s or her qualitie s and woul d
insist on substituting one that did. Many singers carried about with the m
a collectio n o f 'ari e d i baule' (suitcas e arias ) eac h suitabl e t o a differen t
stock situation which the y would inser t a t will int o an y opera i n whic h
they too k part . The mor e intelligent woul d appl y to the origina l com -
poser for something new ; or , i f he were unavailable , to anothe r o f high
repute. Man y o f Mozart' s so-calle d concer t aria s wer e writte n a t th e
request o f individua l singer s fo r insertio n int o th e opera s o f hi s con -
temporaries. For the revival of his own Figaro in 178 9 he chose to provide
two substitut e arias fo r Susanna , rathe r tha n hav e th e origina l number s
performed b y a singer unabl e to d o them justice. Eve n when the copy -
right laws of 1840 onwards combine d wit h Ricordi's practice of printing
complete voca l scores to make the substitution of arias increasingly rare,
the custom took a long time to die out. In his last years Pacini continue d
to provide ne w aria s on request for his one endurin g opera , Saffb. Verdi ,
309
3IO • VERDI
though oppose d to the practice on principle, wa s obliged t o submit to it

in hi s youth. I n most of his substitute-arias he i s careful t o preserv e th e
'tinta' o f the oper a fo r which the y wer e destined ; an d severa l of the m
show a degree of melodic craftsmanship tha t equals or even surpasses that
of the original number. But they fit thei r context less easily; nor d o they
add anything to th e wor k a s a whole .
Verdi's earlies t know n operati c numbe r i s th e ari a co n pertichini fo r
tenor 'I o l a vidi', tex t fro m Giusepp e Persiani's // solitario ed Elodia. It s
pre-Rossinian for m suggest s that it was written as an exercise for Lavigna
rather than for insertion into a performance of that opera. Likewis e the
duet fo r Leonora an d Cuniza t o b e foun d in a n appendix to th e auto -
graph of Oberto, 'Pria che scende sull'indegno', was probably cut from th e
original score before publication (indee d I take it to be the on e referre d
to in a letter from Verdi to Massini written in 1838) . But the cavatina for
Cuniza an d th e due t fo r he r an d Riccardo , als o i n th e appendix , ar e
undoubtedly late r additions . Th e origina l Cuniza , Mar y Shaw , wa s a
deep contralt o an d one whos e inexperienc e mad e a n opening cavatin a
inadvisable. Accordingl y whe n Luigi a Abbadi a undertoo k th e rol e i n
Turin a few weeks after th e Milan première she inserted an 'aria di baule'
by Mercadante and omitted th e origina l duet. Fo r the 184 0 revival at La
Scala which too k plac e under his own supervisio n Verdi wrote fo r he r
the cavatina 'D'innocenza i cari inganni', of no distinction whatever. The
duet 'A h Riccardo , a mi a ragione ' i s musically more impressiv e than
what i t replaces , havin g thre e full y extende d movement s wher e th e
original had only two and a transition. But Cuniza's aria at the start of Act
II contain s a reminiscence o f th e latte r which i s lost i f the ne w due t is
used. For Naples in 184 1 Verdi wrote a brief two-movement duet for the
first encounter betwee n Leonor a an d he r fathe r ('Dov e com , o scia -
gurata?') i n whic h Oberto' s openin g word s ar e neatl y illustrate d b y a
cursive figure in the orchestra; the cabaletta ('Vieni, pietosa è il ciel') has
an agreeabl e lilt, Bellinia n rathe r tha n Verdian . Th e musi c o f a ne w
chorus for Cuniza's attendants ('Sorge un canto') is found only in a poor
piano transcription.
In Nabucco i t seem s tha t th e lo w rang e o f Fenena' s romanz a ('O h
dischiuso è il firmamento' ) pose d a problem. Fo r a revival in the autumn
of 184 2 Verdi provided a 'puntatura' for Giuseppina Zecchin i in whic h
Miscellaneous Operatic Compositions - 3 11
the melodi c lin e i s raise d i n certai n phrase s b y a third . Later , fo r th e

Venetian premièr e o n 2 6 Decembe r 184 2 h e woul d writ e a n entirel y
new romanz a t o th e sam e word s fo r th e sopran o Almerind a Granchi .
Very much in the broad 'Risorgimentale' style, it suggests a sketch for the
famous choru s 'O Signore, dal tetto natio' fro m / Lombardi and is hardly
appropriate to the praye r of a young princes s about to be put to death .
The origina l cabalett a o f Oronte' s cavatin a i n / Lombardi ('Com e
poteva u n angelo' ) i s slow an d soulful , rathe r lik e thos e o f Bellini's L a
straniera. For a revival at the Senigalli a fair with th e teno r Antoni o Pogg i
Verdi provided a fleeter, pithier alternative in the rhythm o f Donizetti' s
'O luce di quest'anima'. Both appea r in the printed score , so giving th e
singer a choice; though th e fact that at one point Verdi recommended th e
former t o Mari o t o sin g i n / du e Foscari suggest s tha t h e considere d i t
superseded. Nowaday s eithe r ma y be heard . I f the origina l i s less livel y
than its successor, it fits the characte r of the singe r muc h better .
It wa s at Rossini's reques t tha t Verdi wrote a new gran d ari a fo r th e
Russian tenor Nicola Ivanof f to sing at the end of Act II ofEmani instea d
of th e due t wit h Silva . Havin g arrive d a t Suva' s castl e alon e an d i n
disguise h e i s unaccountabl y joine d b y a bod y o f hi s follower s an d
proposes t o lea d the m agains t the Kin g o f Spain— a disregar d fo r th e
dramatic proprieties tha t was all too commo n a t the time . Th e andant e
'Odi i l voto, O grand e Iddio' is a fine piece o f writing, bot h heroi c and
tender. Th e cabalett a 'Sprezzo la vita' is unusually spacious both i n form
and tona l layou t but altogethe r o f coarser fibre . No r wa s this th e onl y
compromise tha t Verd i wa s induce d t o mak e t o ensur e th e opera' s
continued success . Ernani ideall y demand s fou r principa l singers ; th e
Teatro la Fenice had no principal bass on their roster. Consequently Silva
was designed as a comprimario role . Sta r basses such as Derivis preferred
to essay the part of Don Carlos , makin g the transpositions and 'puntature'
necessary to bring it within thei r range. Marini had a better solution. He
tacked o n t o th e cantabil e 'Infelice , e tu o credevi ' a cabaletta of a ne w
cavatina that Verdi had written for him to sing in a revival of Oberto given
in Barcelona in 184 1 ('Infin che un brando vindice'). As both Oberto and
Silva ar e old men ben t o n vengeance , th e additio n i s not inappropriat e
but it s effec t i n performanc e i s awkward sinc e it implie s an exi t whic h
does not tak e place; it is also rather vigorous for Suva's character—indeed
312 • V E R D I
the codett a reappear s note fo r not e i n Nabucco' s cabalett a o f regaine d

strength ('Cadran , cadrann o i perfidi') . Th e cabaletta , bein g Marini' s
property, doe s not figur e i n an y vocal score before Boosey's o f 1851 .
At th e reques t o f Princ e Poniatowsk i Verd i reluctantl y agree d t o
compose a new cabalett a for Mario to sin g in I due Foscari in place of th e
fierce 'Odio solo ed odio atroce' with its vocal syncopations and rapping
trumpets. ('Mak e it a powerful one', Verdi had written to Piave, 'because
we're writin g fo r Roppa.') 1 Mari o howeve r wa s a gentle , sensitiv e
singer who stil l cultivated the falsett o range. Accordingly in 'Si, lo sentó,
Iddio mi chiama' Verdi takes him up to high F in little bursts of fioritura.
The resul t i s one o f th e leas t Verdia n pieces o f music eve r writte n b y
Verdi.
Nothing beyon d th e tex t exist s o f th e cavatin a ('Potre i lascia r i l
margine') written fo r Sofia Loew e to sing in a revival of Giovanna A'Arco
in 1845 . The sam e was true unti l recently of another solo ('Sventurato !
alia mi a vita' ) composed—agai n a t Rossini' s instance—fo r Ivanof F as a
replacement for the romanza 'Chi non avrebbe il misero' in the last act of
Attila. Fortunately the manuscrip t has since reappeared in the Library of
Congress. I n mood , pac e (andant e 3/4 ) an d desig n (mino r t o toni c
major) i t points forward to MacdufFs 'Ah , la paterna mano'; but i t is laid
out mor e spaciousl y and with a more comple x articulation of the major
section tha t requires verbal repetition. Th e final phrase takes the singe r
up t o a hig h B flat , comin g t o res t o n a n A fla t delivere d ove r th e
fortissimo poundings of a full orchestr a (together with a drum roll), then
sinking ove r thre e bar s to a hushed close. The effec t i s so unusual as to
suggest that it was designed to exploit the individual qualities of IvanofFs
voice, which Verdi had had the opportunity o f hearing since he wrote for
him th e gran d ari a fo r Emani: a piercing Sla v timbre capabl e of pene-
trating th e thickes t of orchestral texture s an d a perfect 'mess a d i voce'.
Another romanz a intende d fo r th e sam e contex t ha s survive d sinc e
Napoleone Moriani, for whom it was written, decided most unusually to
sell i t t o a publisher. 'O h dolore ! e d i o vivea ' adapt s the Attila tinta—
strong, bow-shape d melodi c line s wit h carefull y grade d pinnacles—t o
the means of the 'tenor of the beautiful death'. The scoring is refined and
subtle, the harp adding a delicate bloom a t the lines beginning 'A h beato
1
LCC, p. 426.
Miscellaneous Operatic Compositions • 31 3
fui i n quell'amore'. But thi s too i s heard to best advantage in the concert
hall.
From the tim e of Macbeth onward s Verdi began to demand that in his
contracts with the various theatres Ricordi should make it a condition o f
hire that the music of his operas should not be tampered with in any way.
Nothing wa s to be omitted apar t from th e ballet, nothing transposed . By
the sam e toke n h e cease d t o writ e substitut e aria s t o sui t individua l
singers. Whe n Teres a D e Giuli-Borsi' s husban d asked for a n ari a wit h
which to replace 'Caro nome' in Rigoletto Verdi humorously replied that
the onl y plac e for another ari a for Gild a would b e i n th e Duke' s bed -
room—and the n i t woul d hav e t o b e a duet . Howeve r h e di d subse -
quently make one exception to his rule. In 186 3 the Paris Opéra revived
Les vêpres siciliennes with a new tenor , Villaret, for whom Verdi wrote 'O
toi qu e j'ai chérie' , a splendid specime n o f th e minor-majo r romanc e
with a Traviata-like sprea d of strings in the centra l part and in the major -
key denouement on e of those sweeping, lyrica l cadential phrases that we
find i n th e revise d Macbeth an d Do n Carlos. What i s missing, however, i s
that sens e o f emotiona l twilight , tha t uncertaint y tha t pervade s th e
original ' O jour d e peine' , an d whic h suit s it s o admirably t o Henri' s
character an d situation.
This i s perhaps als o th e plac e i n whic h t o mentio n tw o overture s
unpublished durin g th e composer' s life . Th e firs t i s a Sinfoní a i n D , a
manuscript scor e o f which i s preserved in th e Scal a Museu m i n Milan .
True, the handwriting is not instantl y identifiable as Verdi's; but i n form
and style this is very much the kind of work tha t one would expect fro m
the apprentic e composer whethe r a t Busseto or Milan. Ther e is a short
introduction, a Mannheim rocke t for a first theme an d a second subjec t
dominated b y perk y Rossinia n triplets ; n o crescendo , however , an d a
reprise of the second subject group only, in conformity with Verdi's usual
practice. The scorin g is heavy with som e particularly busy writing fo r a
second clarinet . Th e musica l personality is still unformed, th e melodi c
ideas bein g th e meres t small-chang e o f th e 18305 . I n a wor d ther e i s
nothing her e t o meri t a revival.
Of very different calibr e is the overture to Aida, which Verdi wrote for
the Milan première an d then withdrew afte r hearin g it in rehearsal. Th e
conductor's score however remaine d in the possession of Ricordi. It was
examined i n 191 2 b y a group o f musician s including Toscanin i wit h a
314 • V E R D I
view t o performance ; but i n th e en d i t was decided t o respec t Verdi's

wishes an d retur n i t t o th e shelves . Howeve r Toscanin i mus t i n th e
meantime hav e made hi s own cop y since in 194 2 he wa s able to giv e a
performance o f it i n America, a recording o f which ha s for some years
been availabl e on pirat e disc. It begins wit h th e prelud e as we kno w it,
which breaks off towards the end into an allegro compounde d of'Num i
pietà' (Ex . 58 ) and th e fou r themati c labiés (Ex. 57 ) in variou s permu-
tations an d combinations . A s a n orchestra l piec e i n it s ow n righ t i t i s
highly entertainin g and ha s moments o f real imagination; but a s an in -
troduction t o a dram a a s straightforwar d a s tha t o f Aida i t i s fa r to o
complex. Th e existin g prelude could not b e bettered .
C H A P T E R N I N E T E E N
Chamber Compositions
I F TH E MAJORIT Y O F VERD I S CHAMBE R WORK S AR E O F MARGINA L

interest only, th e fault lie s not s o much in his lack of aptitude for the
medium a s in th e musica l tradition o f his time an d place. I n Italy , since
the beginnin g o f th e century , only oper a wa s considered t o hav e an y
importance. Th e fe w remainin g practitioner s o f instrumenta l musi c
pursued thei r activit y abroad—Cherubin i i n France , Boccherin i i n
Spain, Clement i i n England . Th e las t descendan t o f th e grea t violi n
school o f Corelli an d Tartin i was Niccolô Paganin i whose ar t was of a
very differen t kind : taut, memorable theme s extended wit h a maximum
of technica l displa y and a minimum o f musical thought. Liszt , hi s pia-
nistic counterpart, wh o ha d no such melodic fertility , mad e far more o f
Paganini's themes than Paganini himself.
By th e 1830 5 instrumenta l musi c i n Ital y was represente d b y a hos t
of virtuosi of every conceivable instrument, th e summi t o f whose am -
bition wa s to pla y intricate variations on 'L e Carnava l de Venise' . Fo r
their occasiona l appearance s i n a theatr e orchestr a composer s wer e
careful t o provide them with showy solos in an act prelude. The quartet ,
quintet, trio or duo sonata was virtually unknown i n nineteenth-centur y
Italy befor e th e cultura l initiative of Abramo Basevi in Florenc e i n th e
18505.
Likewise fo r a long tim e pian o musi c meant flori d transcription s of
opera. Baro n Ertmann , husban d o f the amateu r pianist t o who m Bee-
thoven dedicate d his Sonata op. 101 , complained tha t in al l the tim e h e
315
3IÓ • VERD I
had spent in Milan he had not found a single pianist able or willing to play
a Beethoven sonata . Indeed the only 'home' music of any vitality was the
'arietta' or 'romanza' for voice and piano, which varied in character from
the miniatur e operati c scen a t o th e popula r o r pseudo-folkson g wit h
dialect words . Suc h piece s wer e highl y fashionabl e i n Verdi' s youth .
Usually they were published in groups of six with picturesque titles such
as 'Nuits à Pausilippe' or 'Soirées de Vienne' (Schubert's publishers were
not alone in counting on the snob value of a French title). But one would
search them i n vain for the qualitie s of a Schubert Lied , if only becaus e
there wa s n o classica l traditio n o f pianis m t o nouris h th e accompani -
ments, whic h merel y reproduc e th e mos t elementar y o f orchestra l
thrummings. No r wa s ther e a n Italia n Goeth e o r Hein e t o initiat e a
school o f lyrical poetry which coul d suggest to the musician a multitude
of shades of feeling. The seriou s texts are mostly conventional, buil t u p
on those weary clichés that only in the context o f an opera are capable of
a certai n grandeur . Thwarte d lov e i s still th e favourit e theme ; an d th e
strongest stylistic influence i s that of Bellini, whos e 'Ariette ' of 182 9 are
among the least unworthy specimen s of the genre. As always, Donizetti' s
range i s wider, hi s Neapolitan song s havin g a particular charm. T o th e
same category belong Rossini' s 'Soirée s Musicales', which hav e a polish
and refinemen t al l their own .
It was with a collection of'Se i Romanze', published in 183 8 by Cant i
in Milan, that Verdi first came before the public; an d it is clear from thei r
nature that he was determined t o present himself as a composer o f tragic
operas in posse. In the first, 'Non t'accostare all'urna', by Vittorelli, a lover
warns his faithless sweetheart no t t o approac h his funeral ur n wit h floral
tributes bu t t o le t hi s bruised spiri t res t i n peace . Menacin g dominan t
minor ninths over a left-hand tremolando suggestiv e o f rolling drum s (a
device repeated in no. 4) introduce th e brooding C minor voca l theme .
The first paragraph proceeds with a certain repetitive emphasi s to its final
cadence, onl y t o chang e directio n a t the las t moment . Th e voic e the n
breaks into a kind of declamatory recitative ('Empia! Empia!'). The voca l
line become s irregula r an d convulsive ; th e accompanimen t throb s an d
sighs i n th e approve d tragi c manner . Fo r th e repris e Verd i set s th e las t
two line s onl y o f th e thir d strophe , havin g use d th e firs t tw o fo r a n
extension o f th e centra l episode . S o wha t wa s expande d i n th e firs t
statement reappear s compresse d i n th e secon d an d enhance d b y mor e
Chamber Compositions • 31 7
powerful harmonies—a technique tha t Verdi was regularly to apply in his

operas. Th e secon d romanza , 'More , Elisa , lo stanc o poeta' , i s a mor e
modest affair— a simple , strophi c settin g i n slo w 6/ 8 o f a dying poet' s
farewell t o hi s beloved; i n th e mino r ke y a s before but wit h a caressing
excursion int o th e relativ e majo r (wit h increase d motio n i n th e ac -
companiment) fro m whic h i t seems reluctant to return. In contrast to its
predecessor, i t finishe s wit h a slightly unconvincing tierce d e Picardie. I n
Vittorelli's 'I n solitari a stanza ' i t i s the love d on e tha t i s dying—a fac t
which evidentl y merits the more restrained wistfulness o f the major key .
Much abou t i t pre-echoes th e mor e conventiona l feature s o f the earl y
operas—the triplet-base d accompaniment , th e regula r phrase-length s
with thei r us e o f doubl e dots , th e predictabl e cadences . Bu t not e th e
unusual desig n i n sixteen - rathe r tha n eight-ba r paragraphs ; als o tha t
the secon d is identical wit h th e first only u p to its mid-point; thereafte r
the music takes on greater urgency with an anticipation of'Tacea la notte'
from U trovatore.
Ex. 7 2
With Angiolini' s 'Nell'orro r d i notte oscura ' we ar e back with th e de -

serted lover who i n the stil l watches of the night broods on his betrayal:
four doubl e strophes, the first two in the minor, th e second in the toni c
major, without , it must be said, the slightest textual justification. But th e
piano par t i s more varie d tha n i n mos t o f th e se t an d suggest s an ac -
quaintance with Schubert' s 'De r Neugierige' (Verdi' s brook flows in an
entirely pianistic manner). Eminently operatic , however, ar e the accents
on the semiquavers that set the words 'Di colei che lo tradia'. Already we
seem to be hearing Don Carl o belabourin g Silv a in Emani. Schubertian
associations are all too read y to hand in 'Perduta h o la pace', a translation
by Balestr a o f 'Gretche n a m Spinnrade' . Whil e makin g n o attemp t t o
imitate th e turnin g o f th e spinnin g wheel , Verd i follow s Schuber t i n
designing the piece as a rondo—the only possible solution. The D mino r
3l8 • V E R D I
opening catche s th e moo d o f th e poe m an d th e episode s contai n in -

ventive touches, but th e piece ends in a repetitive abundance of F major
which no t eve n th e unexpecte d modulatio n o n th e wor d 'bacio ' ca n
redeem. Ther e i s more interes t in th e las t o f the set , 'Deh , pietoso , o h
Addolorata', agai n a translation from Goeth e b y Balestra . I n th e large -
scale ternar y design , Verd i i s depictin g Gretchen' s distractio n i n th e
language whic h come s naturall y t o him . Th e openin g ten-ba r melod y
leads into an ordered chaos of ideas similar to those in which the madness
of Nabucc o wil l b e expressed , eve n dow n t o th e pleadin g phrase s in
thirds. Alas, the final section is a typical major key release at total variance
with th e tex t an d with th e fata l suggestio n o f a cabaletta about it . Verd i
the artis t had a long way to go; yet considering his inexperience (h e had
not ye t produce d a single opera) his first se t of romances augure d well .
Clearly his visit to Milan in the late summer of 1838 had not been wasted.
The followin g yea r th e sam e fir m publishe d a Notturno a 3 vod fo r
soprano, tenor , bass , pian o an d concertant e flute . Her e th e worl d o f
Rossini's Soirées Musicales i s suffuse d wit h romanti c pathos : th e silve r
moon, the cal m sea, the gentle nigh t breezes, the nightingale singin g to
his mate, who replies with sweet affection—so unlik e the poet's beloved .
A gentl y swaying accompaniment, a bland progress of the thre e voices ,
mostly in close harmony, convey the soothing nocturnal atmosphere; the
flute i s th e nightingal e wit h a show y introductio n o f fourtee n bars .
Formally it is one of those indeterminate pieces which proceed mainly by
repeated phrase s withou t a long-rang e reprise ; excep t tha t th e fina l
melodic ide a is an enhanced variant of the opening—a n inspire d touc h
that more tha n redeems the crud e parallel fifths between teno r an d bass
which mak e the initia l phrase look lik e the work o f an amateur.
Two mor e song s belong t o th e year of Oberto. 'L'esule', t o words by
Solera, is nothing less than a full-length scena ed aria, the sol o part marked
merely 'canto' , though th e tessitura seems to indicate baritone o r mezzo
soprano. Agai n th e scen e i s nocturna l wit h a 'bianc a luna' ; an d
throughout th e 'scena' the accompaniment ripples pianistically; but from
the cantabil e onward s th e soun d i s strictl y orchestra l wit h imaginar y
string figuratio n an d wind doublings . Th e exil e remember s th e happ y
hours spen t beneat h hi s native sk y to a slow melod y movin g betwee n
D mino r an d F major i n whic h w e ca n discern fain t trace s of the Ri-
sorgimentale lament s o f Nabucco an d / Lombardi wit h thei r decasyllabic
meter. Finally the singer longs for death, which will leave his spirit free t o
fly back to th e land he loves, a sentiment which finds expression in th e
brashest of Verdian cabalettas. Les s pretentious and mor e sympatheti c is
Luigi Balestra's 'La seduzione', his story of an Italian Fanny Robin. Her e
all i s simpl e patho s wit h a touc h o f unforce d dram a i n th e A mino r
episode where th e gir l dies in giving birth .
Between thes e and the next set of published 'romanze ' Fran k Walker
unearthed a n Italia n settin g o f Goethe' s 'Erste r Verlust ' 'Ch i i be i d i
m'adduce ancora', translation presumably by Balestra. It was written fo r
the Marchesa Sofia De ' Medici evidently o n th e cres t of popularity that
followed the première ofNabucco. Beginnin g in simple E minor 6/8 , this
regret fo r th e innocen t sorrow s o f childhoo d develop s int o a highl y
operatic climax in the majo r wit h agonize d syncopations, repeated hig h
Bs and a cadenza. Alfredo's 'D i quelTamor' is intimated in the strain of'O
i bei di chi mi ritorna' just as Azucena's 'Giorni poveri vivea' is hinted at
in th e openin g phrase . An agreeabl e piece, despit e a disproportio n o f
means to ends.
Of mor e consequenc e i s the romanz a o f 184 3 'Cup o è il sepolcro e
mutolo', Verdi's contribution to an album belonging t o Count Ludovic o
Belgioioso, a n amateu r tenor , brothe r o f Pompeo Belgioioso , wh o a t
Rossini's reques t undertook th e bass role in the first performance of the
composer's Stabat Mater a t Bologna. Amon g it s pages are autograph s by
Rossini, Mercadante , Donizett i (extract s from thirtee n o f hi s operas),
Pacini, Perucchin i an d Meyerbee r ( a quotation fro m Beethoven' s
String Quarte t op . 1 8 no . 6!) . Th e poem , though t t o b e b y Andre a
Maffei, dwell s o n th e lonely, forbiddin g silence of the grave , where n o
nightingale sings , wher e th e rose s o f friendshi p neve r penetrat e an d
the wido w an d orphan lamen t i n vain; but onl y ther e ca n the trouble d
heart o f ma n fin d th e peac e tha t i t long s for . A descendin g phras e i n
F mino r set s th e prevailin g moo d o f fea r an d desolation . Th e voic e
proceeds i n a solem n declamat o wit h minima l accompaniment , the n
shades of f into recitative , returnin g t o regularit y a t th e mentio n o f th e
loved one s lef t behind, th e pian o providin g a stead y tramp beneat h a
pattern of repeated semiquavers that turn to rippling sextuplets where the
music moves into A flat major for the final two quatrain s of consolation.
The melody , simpl e an d dignified , evolve s i n thre e phase s bound to -
gether b y a kind o f musical enjambement. Her e an d ther e a well-place d
32O • V E R D I
modulation will highlight the verbal sense; and it may not be far-fetche d
to discern a hint of the Macbeth 'tinta ' at the line 'in fosco vel nasconde.'
The si x romanz e o f 184 5 ar e very differen t fro m thos e o f seve n
years earlier . The y ar e lighter , mor e popular , a t th e sam e tim e mor e
mondaine—in a word, mor e Donizettian, alternating grave and gay. Yet
the forme r sho w a longer melodi c spa n tha n th e song s o f 183 8 whil e
being entirel y fre e fro m thei r operati c pretensions. Th e form s to o ar e
freer an d follo w mor e strictl y the sens e o f th e poetry . Maffei' s 'I I tra-
monto', a kin d o f Abendempfindung i n whic h th e settin g su n induce s
thoughts o f mortality, is a spacious binary structure whose secon d par -
agraph introduces a new idea just when we expect a reprise of the open-
ing. To begi n with the accompaniment is admirably pianistic even if the
spread chord s in th e righ t han d occasionally obstruct the triple t move -
ment in the left ; bu t soo n orchestral habits of thought asser t themselves,
until a t the word s 'a l desi o d i quell'aure o sentiero ' w e ca n hear in ou r
mind's ear the entry of the harp. Maggioni's 'La zingara' in conventional
bolero rhyth m an d modifie d rond o for m i s a light-hearte d piec e fo r
soprano leggiero of no great distinction; but the moment where the gipsy
girl think s o f an uncertai n futur e i s appropriately matched by a sudden
turn into the minor key, reverting to the major when sh e returns to th e
joys o f th e moment . Th e third , 'A d un a Stella' , wit h poetr y agai n by
Maffei i s the ge m o f the set , its melody showin g that little touc h o f the
unexpected whic h occur s all too rarel y in Verdi's salon pieces (Ex. 73).
The poe m i s nebulous enough—a n od e t o th e evenin g sta r a s th e
refuge o f a careworn spirit; but Verdi weaves it into a spacious three-part
design with a particularly well-developed central episode. Better known ,
though far less substantial, 'Lo spazzacamino' figures in the programme of
many a soprano recital. More mudlar k than the chimney-sweep o f Hans
Andersen's tales , the singe r chirrups his or he r wa y through thre e me -
lodically differen t verse s in 2/4 , eac h followe d b y th e sam e waltz-lik e
refrain. 'I I mistero', word s b y Romani , offer s anothe r fin e exampl e o f
Verdi's growing melodic craftsmanship : a freely extended binar y struc-
ture with carefully judged high points and vivid word painting where the
singer compare s his mood t o a lake, calm on th e surfac e bu t i n turmoi l
below. Th e final 'Brindisi' exist s in two versions , that of the autograp h
and that of the printed edition, the difference howeve r being confined to
the first melodic phrase and its recurrence at the end. The second with its
Ex. 7 3
contrasts o f dynamic , it s momentar y mino r inflexion , i s s o manifestly

superior t o th e first as to pu t i t ou t o f court. Fo r th e res t it present s an
amiable successio n o f idea s as conventional a s the sentiment s the y ac -
company.
Two year s late r Lucc a publishe d a singl e romanz a t o word s b y
Maggioni which Verdi probably composed during his visit to London in
the summe r o f 1847 , wher e Maggion i wa s resident poe t a t th e Roya l
Italian Opera . 'I I poveretto' concern s a soldier crippled in the servic e of
his countr y an d constraine d t o be g fro m passers-by . The settin g is dis -
tinguished fro m Verdi' s earlie r seriou s romanz e b y a shor t expressiv e
piano preamble ful l o f wistful suspensions . Though hardly up to the best
of the 184 5 set, 'II poveretto' has a curious history. I n 185 8 Rigoletto was
given in French at the Théâtre de la Monnaie in Brussels. The Maddalena
insisted o n havin g a n ari a t o herself ; accordingl y Verdi' s Frenc h pub -
lisher, Escudier, adapted the musi c of 'II poveretto' t o a French text , i n
which Maddalena begs her brother t o spare the Duke's lif e ('Prend s pitié
de s a jeunesse'). H e eve n ha d i t publishe d i n thi s for m a s a separat e
'Mélodie'. Neithe r h e no r Verd i coul d hav e foreseen that th e 'newl y
322 • V E R D I
discovered ari a for Maddalena' would on e day prove a red herring to be

drawn acros s the path of Verdian scholars.
In 184 9 Léo n Escudie r advertise d a romanc e b y Verd i entitle d
'L'abandonnée' t o word s b y L.M.E . o f which ther e i s no mentio n i n
standard Verdian literature. It took Frank Walker to run a copy to earth ,
to identif y th e initial s as standing for Léon and Marie Escudier and th e
figure on the cover as Giuseppina Strepponi, with whom Verdi was now
living. Apar t fro m noticin g certai n anticipation s o f L a traviata Walke r
made no great claims for it as music; and indeed a glance at the vocal line
would suggest that it was intended as an exercise for Giuseppina's singing
pupils. The rang e extend s over tw o octave s and a third fro m lo w A t o
high C ; th e phrase s are full o f the standar d technical devices—roulades,
staccato an d legato, note piahettate, turns and portamenti ove r wide in -
tervals. Ther e i s nothing t o sugges t that th e compose r too k th e aban -
doned lady' s plight very seriously.
The birt h o f a son to the Triestine tenor Giovann i Sever i called forth
a tribut e fro m Verd i i n th e for m o f a Barcarola 'Fiorelli n eh e sorg e
appena'—a pleasant trifle of nineteen bars in AI-A2-B-A3 form in which,
characteristically, th e clima x first introduced in A 2 i s heightened i n AJ .
Never publishe d in th e composer' s lifetime , it i s printed i n facsimil e i n
Giuseppe Steffani' s boo k Verdi e Trieste o f 1951 .
Of even less consequence is 'La preghiera del poeta', apparently jotted
down afte r a n agreeable walk with th e Neapolita n poet Nicol a Sol e i n
the autumn of 1858. At the time Verdi had seriously considered setting a
libretto by Sole based on a subject by Byron; while Sol e for his part was
eager that Verdi should set one o f his 'Canti'. But the poet died in 185 9
and al l tha t wa s lef t o f thei r collaboratio n wer e thes e sixtee n bar s o f
dignified commonplac e fo r bas s an d piano , harmonise d b y Verd i i n
spread chord s tha t presumably take thei r cu e fro m th e word s 'fed e e d
arpa'. One featur e alone is of interest; the text is in eleven-syllable verse,
from no w o n Verdi's favourite metr e fo r solo song .
Though it too was never published in Verdi's lifetime, 'II brigidino' is
of very différent quality . It appears to have been written during intervals
between session s of the Italia n Parliament in 186 1 and given as a present
to th e daughte r o f his fellow deput y Piroli. Clearly , however , i t mus t
have enjoyed a few private performances amongst Verdi's friends; other-
wise Ferrarini, director o f the Parma Conservatoire, woul d hardl y have
asked fo r a cop y fo r a forthcomin g concert . Finall y i t wa s performe d

publicly by the soprano Isabell a Gianetti-Galli in Parma in 1863 . Why i t
should hav e been -withhel d from publicatio n i s a mystery.
The poe m b y th e patrio t Francesc o Dall'Ongaro i s in th e for m o f a
Tuscan stornello. The singe r is a peasant girl whose lover has brought he r
from Sien a a brigidino (a local 'sweet' or 'pudding'). To it s colours of red
and white she has added a sprig o f verbena, so forming th e Italia n 'tri-
colore', whos e virtue s sh e extol s i n th e res t o f th e poem . Th e tw o
strophes o f si x lines apiec e o f hendecasyllabic vers e ar e a s far from op -
eratic 'versi lirici' as can be imagined; an d Verdi sets them in an intimate
conversational style , each pair ending i n a particularly gracefu l cadence .
Gone ar e the measure d triplets an d the tau t double dots . I f there i s any
operatic compariso n her e i t i s with th e openin g scen e o f L a forza de l
destino, already on th e stocks .
Ex.74
But wha t astonishe s chiefl y i s th e tota l master y o f keyboar d style .

There is not a trace here of orchestral figuration. For the first time Verdi
avails himsel f o f th e nuance s afforde d b y th e horizonta l dispositio n o f
324 • VERD I
chords wit h intervenin g chromati c passin g notes, an d o f th e delicat e

effect produce d by subsuming the fundamental note before it is sounded.
Had he proceeded further alon g that path how much richer the treasury
of Italian song might hav e been.
Verdi's las t song was occasioned by sadder circumstances—the stroke
that laid Piave low fo r eight years and brought his family t o the point o f
destitution. Verdi's own contribution to the Album-Piave took the form
of another Stornello ('Tu dici che non m'ami') this time a genuine piece
of folk-poetry such as we find in Wolf's Italia n Song Book. Th e singe r
snaps he r finger s a t th e ma n wh o ha s ceased to lov e her . Sh e to o i s as
inconstant a s the wind—everyone' s mistres s including her own . I t i s a
brisk, splendidl y economica l littl e piec e i n whic h th e hendecasyllabi c
verse is handled with rare flexibility and aplomb. Less specifically pianistic
than that of'II brigidino' th e accompaniment is witty and pointed wit h
that vigorous movement of the bass and inner parts that marks so much of
Verdi's later music. As early as 1868 the style ofFahtaffis already in sight.
In general , then , th e romanz e follow muc h th e sam e line o f devel-
opment a s the operatic arias, acquiring over the years greater flexibility of
rhythm an d structure, more variet y and subtlety of expression. It coul d
even be said that Verdi's technique for handling eleven-syllable vene in
his operas was forged i n th e late r songs.
The instrumenta l categor y consist s of tw o curiositie s and on e mino r

masterpiece. I n 186 5 unde r th e tid e of'Gioi e e sospiri' Cant i brough t
out a n albu m o f pian o piece s b y fashionabl e composers o f th e tim e
(Arditi, Cagnoni , Pedrott i an d others) . Doubdes s a s a kindl y gestur e
towards his first publisher, Verdi contributed a 'Romanza senza parole' as
the last item: a Bellini-ish melody of twenty-four bars with a twelve-bar
coda and much tinkling at the top of the keyboard. There is so little here
of Verdi's matur e style as to mak e one wonde r whethe r h e had merely
exhumed one of the compositions of his youth. Evidently the publication
sold badly ; for toda y th e onl y cop y know n t o hav e survived is in th e
Library of the Milan Conservatory .
Far more intriguing, and of indubitable authenticity, is a little 'Valzer'
for 'cembalo ' discovered by the composer Nino Rota and the producer
Luchino Visconti and included by them in the film 'II Gattopardo'. Th e
autograph is printed i n facsimil e i n the Discoteca together with a n article
by Gioacchino Lanza Tommasi, who somewhat arbitrarily ascribes it to the

year 18 59. It is a pleasant little trifle, a main melody of sixteen bars with tw o
episodes-—having somethingofthe'slancio'ofthepartymusic in Latraviata.
For whom o r what purpos e it was composed remain s to be discovered .
The Quarte t i n E minor o f 187 3 is unique in quite a different way . It
was three years before he considered publishing it at all. To all appearance
he set very little store by it musically ('I don't know whether i t is good o r
bad, only tha t it is quartet').1 Curiously i t is precisely this claim, modest
enough i t woul d seem , tha t today' s hig h priest s of chamber musi c are
disposed to contest ; indeed Verd i himself has fuelled thei r argument by
welcoming th e pla n t o perfor m th e quarte t i n Londo n wit h twent y
players t o a part 'sinc e ther e ar e certai n passage s whic h requir e a fulle r
sonority than a mere quarte t can furnish'. 2 Clearl y those refinements of
texture characteristic of the great nineteenth-century quartet-writer s find
no plac e i n Verdi' s work ; bu t t o disparag e i t o n tha t accoun t i s like
finding fault with the piano pieces of Schubert for not exploitin g the ful l
range o f pian o sonorit y i n th e manne r o f Chopi n an d Liszt . A mor e
vulnerable featur e i s the absenc e of a closely worked symphoni c argu -
ment i n miniatur e suc h a s redeems th e somewha t awkwardl y writte n
quartets o f Brahms. Verdi wa s first and foremos t a lyrical composer t o
whom th e wide r dimension s o f themati c developmen t wer e foreign ;
which i s not t o sa y that his quartet lacks either counterpoin t o r motivic
working; rathe r tha t i t neve r feel s th e weigh t o f it s classica l heritage .
Therein lies its appeal—it is a work which knows its own limitations, and
is conten t t o explor e th e implication s o f it s ow n material . Ha d Verd i
gone abou t hi s task in a spirit o f greater reverence h e migh t hav e pro -
duced the equivalent of a symphony by Rubinstein: instead he has given
us something like a symphony by Borodin .
One criticis m the quarte t (unlike the Requiem) ha s fortunately been
spared: namely tha t of being a n opera in disguise ; which i s not t o den y
that certain thematic affinities wit h the operas exist. The opening subjec t
of the first movement i s clearly derived fro m on e o f the principal motifs
of Aida (Ex . 75a). Other than that , if the openin g twenty-six-ba r para -
graph ha s a model , i t i s more probabl y th e beginnin g o f Mozart' s G
'AVI, pp. 156-8.

2
Ibid., p. 199—201 .
T1 • J
326 • VERD I
minor quintet . A second germinatin g moti f appears on th e cell o a t th e

eleventh bar (Ex. 75!)) to undergo several transformations in the course of
the movement . First , it serves to launch the transitio n with a succession
of imitative entries; then it re-appears as a pounding background to a new
theme, lyrica l but modulatin g (Ex . 7$c). S o through working s o f pre -
vious material , a s well a s some fre e figuration , to th e Mendelssohnia n
second subjec t (Ex . 75d) . A fina l ide a combine s simplicit y with a hu -
morous insistenc e worthy o f Beethoven (Ex . 75e).
Ex. 7 5
Anticipating Brahms' s symphon y i n th e sam e key , Verd i begin s th e

development with a restatement of his first subject in its original tonality,
though wit h a characteristic elaboration o f the accompaniment . There-
after Ex. 753 and b proliferate into closely worked counterpoint, unti l the
stream o f sound broaden s ou t int o a series of sequences alternatin g Ex .
753 on cell o an d viola . Polythemati c ye t strongl y developed , a shifting
kaleidoscope o f ideas , thi s movemen t mor e tha n an y othe r wor k o f
Verdi's allow s a glimpse of the Falstaffto come .
The second movement is the most obviously original. The for m is one
that is especially associated with Brahms : ternary, with a central episod e
that wanders freely through a variety of keys. But there is nothing here of
Brahms's inwar d discourse ; rathe r th e quirky , non-slo w movement s o f

Beethoven's middl e year s come t o mind. Not e the coynes s with whic h
the mazurka-lik e mai n them e hesitate s to revea l its tonality.
Ex. 7 6
Two idea s stand out in the central section: a theme in plain crotchets and
minims state d first in th e mino r the n varie d an d transforme d into th e
major; an d a patter n o f rappin g semiquavers . Betwee n the m occur s a
short, modified reprise of Ex. 76 in the remote key of G flat, giving to the
movement th e suggestion of a rondo. A coda of twenty-nine bar s gathers
up th e separate threads.
The thir d movemen t recall s th e Macbeth balle t music— a whirlin g
prestissimo with th e qualit y of a Danse Infernale. The trio , however, i s a
delicate serenad e sun g by cello , the n first violi n ove r th e othe r string s
pizzicati. The finale , marke d 'scherzo-fuga' , i s a tour d e force o f coun -
terpoint—a light-hearte d Gross e Fuge. Th e subjec t (Ex . 773) i s bizarre,
the tonality remaining unstable up till the fourth bar; the counter subjec t
(Ex. 7yb ) i s nondescript. Ye t th e variet y that Verd i distil s fro m bot h i s
astonishing.
Ex. 7 7
All the scholastic devices are there—canon, stretta, pedal-point—as well

as much tha t owe s nothin g t o precedent . Sometime s th e textur e i s rich
and full , a t others a mere wisp o f sound. A s in al l vital music, logic an d
328 • V E R DI
surprise combine. Somewher e beyon d th e mid-point a short figure first

on viola, then cello prepares for a statement of the subject in inversion. A
false exposition follow s in which both forms of the subject are combined
and the n broke n dow n int o spirallin g sequence s i n contrar y motion ,
once agai n recallin g Beethoven . Th e thre e repeate d note s o f Ex. jjb
then yiel d a successio n o f powerfu l unisons . A hig h tril l usher s i n a
shortened version of Ex. yya, now in E major. The fuga l textur e remains
to th e en d but nourishe d no w b y suave harmonies an d cadences in th e
composer's ripest manner.
That this was the mos t difficul t movemen t t o perform Verdi himsel f
was wel l aware . 'I f durin g th e rehearsal' , h e tol d Giuli o Ricordi , 'y° u
hear a passage which sounds rather messy, tell them that though they may
be playing it well they are interpreting it badly. Everything should emerge
clearly and precisely, even in the most complex counterpoint; an d that is
achieved by playing very lightly and staccato so that the subject stands out
whether straigh t or inverted.' 3
If not o n the level of the greatest classical quartets, Verdi's is a fine and
original contribution to the repertoire, in which only the occasional lapse
into frieze-like figuration betrays the writer of operatic accompaniments.
3
AGV, IV, p. 22.
C H A P T E R T W E N T Y
Choral and Religious Works
A LL ITALIA N COMPOSERS OF TH E NINETEENT H CENTURY HAD A T

SOME tim e t o writ e religiou s music , whethe r a s par t o f thei r
training or for performance by their local community. But by the time of
Verdi's yout h th e grea t liturgica l tradition s o f th e seventeent h an d
eighteenth centurie s had long since declined. Masses consisted mostly of
arid counterpoint in the choruses and operatic brilliance or sentimentality
in th e arias . Even thos e o f Donizetti an d Bellin i barel y rise above thi s
level. Solem n beginning s to o ofte n declin e into sugar y ends.
Of Verdi's earl y church musi c only on e piec e has survived1 and that
because th e singe r fo r whom i t wa s written too k car e to kee p a copy .
What surprise s about the Tantum Ergo o f 183 6 for tenor an d orchestr a is
its academic correctness. The man who would perpetrate many a crudity
on the stage of La Scala or La Fenice has not pu t a fifth ou t o f place. True
there i s little trace here o f devotional spirit . The openin g andant e has a
gavotte-like rhyth m embellished here and there with semiquaver triplets
in Rossini' s manner ; th e allegr o suggest s an inhibited bravura aria. No -
where i s the futur e compose r o f the Requiem in evidence .
More i n tun e wit h Verdi' s persona l conviction s i s th e wa r hym n
'Suona la tromba' of 1848 for three-part men' s choru s and orchestra. Yet
1The duet s for Good Frida y entitled Gesù mon once ascribed to Verdi are now know n t o be
the work o f Bellini. See D. Srivender , 'The Composer o f Gesù mon' , AIVS newsletter no . 2,
Dec. 1976 , pp. 6-7.
329
33O • V E R D I
it is good neithe r as music nor for the purpose for which i t was intended.
Clearly Verdi had aimed at an Italian Marseillaise with somethin g o f the
same roug h freedo m o f design; bu t h e neve r achieve s the spontaneou s
combustion o f Rouget D e Lisle' s hymn, i n whic h al l the idea s coher e
without th e need for repetition. One reaso n for this is that whereas all the
phrase lengths of the Frenc h anthem ar e regular, 'Suon a la tromba' starts
with a phrase of five bars which gives it a 'list' which i s never corrected .
For wan t o f a counter-weigh t th e variou s strain s fai l t o buttres s on e
another. A s usual Verdi is not a t a loss for a powerful concluding phrase ,
but i t comes too late. N o wonde r th e Italian troops preferre d Novaro's
'Fratelli d'ltalia ' wit h it s elementar y conjugatio n o f a singl e rhythmi c
motif. Thi s i s at least music to marc h to .
And indeed , ennoble d a s Italy' s nationa l anthem , 'Fratell i d'ltalia '
turns u p agai n in Verdi' s nex t chora l piece, th e Inno delle nazioni com -
posed for London's Great Exhibition o f 1862. Boito's text is a lesser Ode
to Joy wit h specifi c reference s t o th e participatin g nations—England ,
France and Italy. An orchestral introduction present s two of the principal
themes, whic h ar e taken up i n due cours e by the chorus . Th e first ('In
questo d i giocondo' ) faintl y pre-figure s Amneris ; th e second , sun g by
men only , th e priest s of Isis . I n a long scena a tenor bar d welcomes th e
hordes that are flocking to the new temple of peace, recollects the horrors
of war wit h th e ai d o f a few graphi c orchestra l figure s an d i n a nobl e
phrase ('M a d i ogg i u n sofFi o d i seren a dea'), perhap s the mos t distin -
guished momen t o f the score , prepares for th e centrepiece , th e chora l
hymn 'Signe r che sulla terra' with rippling harp accompaniment. Again
there are pre-echoes of Aida in the unexpected progression at the en d of
the thir d phras e (x):
Ex. 7 8
Choral an d Religious Works • 33 1
A parad e o f nationa l anthem s follows , choru s representin g England ,

orchestra France, and th e teno r solois t Italy. It goes without sayin g that
the Marseillaise , o n accoun t o f it s length, i s merely toppe d an d tailed ,
though it s first phrase is allowed t o generat e a fugato. There follow s a
bizarre attempt to combin e al l three melodies. 'Go d Save the Queen ' is
forced int o 4/ 4 time , whil e th e othe r tw o underg o varietie s o f Pro -
crustean treatment. There i s a final, full-blooded restatemen t of Ex. 78, a
dying echo of'God Sav e the Queen' that suggests an acquaintance with
Beethoven's Battle Symphony, an d a noisy coda. A hymn o f nations in this
manner is an ingenious idea—and it was Verdi's own—but it founders on
the incompatibilit y o f th e thre e anthems ; whil e th e nationall y neutra l
idiom o f the intervening material, with no dramatic context t o set it off ,
falls to o ofte n int o well-mannere d dullness . The onl y meri t o f the Inno
delle nazioni is to have served as a preliminary exercise for the Act I I finale
of Aida.
In choosin g t o se t the 'Libér a me' a s his contribution t o th e Rossin i
Requiem Verd i declared a particular fondness for that prayer dating fro m
his organ-playing days . It is also possible that he alread y had in mind t o
complete th e Requiem o n his own a t some future date , since two o f the
most importan t moment s ar e recalled in th e cours e o f the prayer—th e
'Requiem aeternam ' an d the 'Die s irae'. I n th e contex t o f the Rossin i
mass ther e coul d b e n o questio n o f a musica l reminiscenc e sinc e th e
original setting s b y Buzzol a an d Bazzin i respectivel y woul d b e quit e
different. I n fac t th e 'Libér a me' o f the composit e Mass and that o f th e
Manzoni Requie m ar e essentiall y the same . Suc h discrepancie s as exist
are due partly to the greater range and power o f Teresa Stolz, the soloist
of 1874 , a s compared t o tha t o f Antonina Frie d fo r whom th e origina l
version was written, and partly to those improvements that were the fruit
of five years reflection. The Dies Irae shows how a strong idea of 1869 has
flowered int o a n overwhelming on e i n 187 4 (Ex . 79).
The Requie m stand s wit h Beethoven' s Missa Solemnis an d th e lat e
Haydn masses at the summit of nineteenth-century liturgica l music. No t
that there is much competition. Th e ag e of Romanticism wa s the age of
the individual , fo r who m religio n i s a private matter ; it s most charac -
teristic product is Fauré's Requiem of 1888 and the Masses ofBruckner—
an intimate communication between one man and his God. Collective re -
ligious sentiment was more ofte n channelle d int o nationalism—logically
Ex. 7 9
332
since th e natio n i s merely th e individua l wri t large . A mor e genuinel y

religious spirit informs the secula r music of Smetana o r Musorgsky than
all the masses and oratorios of their contemporaries; and how preferable is
Dvorak's folksy 'Jubilate ' to hi s consciously classica l Stabat Mater. Men -
delssohn's Si. Paul and Elijah ar e not free from a certain spiritual passivity;
even less so such fashionable works a s Gounod's Redemption an d Mors e t
Vita. B y the en d o f the centur y religiosit y rathe r tha n religion ha d be -
come th e orde r o f the day.
The declin e o f religious music in Ital y has already been noted . I t was
France tha t provide d th e venu e fo r Cherubim' s austerel y impressiv e
Masses. Where there was no story to tell, no confrontations of character,
no moment s o f dramatic suspense , it seems that composer s wrote wit h
less commitment. Donizetti's Requiem in memory o f Bellini draws upon th e
same idiom that served him in his operas. Rossini's Stabat Mater and Petite
Messe Solonnelle ar e als o couche d i n a n essentiall y operati c language ,
refined an d uplifte d b y tha t natura l tast e an d musicianshi p tha t neve r
deserted hi m an d als o by a resurgence o f creative energy tha t everyon e
had believe d t o b e extinct . Bot h work s revea l a n essentiall y pre-Ro-
mantic outlook , i n thei r forma l characte r a s well a s in thei r spiritua l
optimism an d in their acceptance of the mortal conditio n a s a temporary
stage (one thinks of those innocent teno r marches, the Cujus animam and
the Domine Deus). 'Allegr o cristiano ' i s for onc e i n Rossin i no t a joke.
But fo r a conception suc h as Verdi's, onl y on e mode l coul d serve : th e
334 ' V E R D I
Grande Messe des Morts. I n 186 9 Berlioz too ha d died, a year after Rossini;
if Verdi knew hi s Grande Messe of 183 7 (an d there i s no proo f tha t h e
did), i t mus t surel y have bee n nea r th e surfac e o f hi s min d whe n h e
composed th e original 'Libér a me'.
The questio n 'which is Verdi's supreme masterpiece?' is as difficult t o
answer as in th e cas e o f any great artist. But i f it be change d t o 'whic h
work show s hi s genius at its most concentrated? ' the n th e answe r must
surely be the Requiem. Into it he poured all the purely musical resources
that he had developed in the cours e of twenty-six operas , and which h e
could her e exploi t t o th e ful l withou t havin g t o tak e into accoun t th e
special données which a stage action inevitably imposes. Like Beethoven
he deepl y admire d th e chora l works o f Handel ; bu t ther e i s a limit t o
what an operatic chorus is able to memorise for performance in a theatre.
Only in a work such as the Requiem was it possible to attain that choral
dimension tha t sets Handel's oratorio s apart from his operas in scal e and
variety of musical thought.
Yet any compariso n wit h Hande l mus t be wit h Messiah rathe r tha n
with th e dramati c oratorios if only to refute th e familia r charge, first laid
by Bülow , tha t th e Requie m i s an oper a i n ecclesiastica l garb. I n bot h
works th e fou r soloist s are depersonalised , though on e o r anothe r may
represent at one remove a figure in the text, like the tenor who utter s the
prophecy of Isaiah o r th e sopran o who suggest s a vision o f St. Michael .
Nothing i n the Requiem is more operati c than 'Why do the nations' o r
'The trumpet shall sound'. The trut h is that from the Renaissance to the
early nineteent h centur y fe w composer s hav e mad e a consciou s dis -
tinction betwee n sacre d and secular styles. Handel drew upon a chamber
duet for 'For unto us a child is born'. It is as well for Bach's reputation for
piety tha t h e neve r wrote a n opera ; bu t h e fille d his Christmas Oratorio
with aria s an d duet s tor n unaltere d fro m secula r cantata s (how man y
admirers of'Schafe könne n sicher weiden' realise that it was intended to
celebrate the birthday of a German princeling?). Nobody complains that
the Benedictus o f Beethoven's Missa Solemnis quarrie s the sam e vein as
the slow movement of his Quartet opu s 127, or that the violin solo is too
emotional fo r a religious work. I t ma y still be argue d tha t certain mo -
ments i n Verdi' s composition , b y th e forc e an d vividnes s of thei r ex -
pression, violat e the proprieties in the way that the occasional incursion
of a slow walt z rhyth m int o Brahms's Requiem doe s not . Thi s merel y
serves to illustrate Verdi's isolation i n a world in which a vital tradition of

religious musi c no longe r obtained .
The orchestr a i s that whic h h e ha d use d fo r Do n Carlos wit h fou r
bassoons and four trumpets, 2 three flutes and an ophicleide for the brass
bass. Modes t b y compariso n wit h th e monste r force s o f Wagne r an d
Bruckner, i t provides the compose r wit h al l the grandeu r o f sound that
he needed .
Indeed the manner i n which Verdi manages to establish a vast sense of
scale within the first ten minutes is worth considering . Lik e Das Rheingold
the Requiem opens in utter quietness. Fro m a line of muted cello s only
just within th e threshol d o f audibility ther e evolve s a large paragraph of
twenty-seven bar s for chorus and muted strings in which thre e motifs are
prominent (Ex . 8oa , b an d c).
Ex. 8 0
The effec t i s beautifully describe d by Ildebrando Pizzetti in his preface t o

the published facsimile: ' . .. In that Requiem aeterna m murmured by an
invisible crow d ove r th e slo w swayin g o f a fe w simpl e chord s yo u
straightaway sens e th e fea r an d sadnes s of a vas t multitud e befor e th e
mystery of death. In the change that follows into the "et lux perpetuam"
the melod y spread s its wings u p t o a n F sharp before falling bac k upo n
itself and coming t o rest on a n E more than an octave below, yo u hea r a
sigh fo r consolatio n an d eterna l peace . Yo u se e firs t a shadow, the n a
general radiance. In the darkness are human beings bowed dow n by fea r
and sorrow, an d in the light they reach out their arms towards Heaven t o
2
In Paris the secon d pai r of trumpets were in fac t cornets-à-pistons .
336 • V E R D I
invoke merc y and forgiveness. Far from being merel y lyrical the musi c
portrays sadness and hope.' 3
Here a brief digression is in order on the subject of motivic analysis, to
which of all Verdi's compositions the Requiem should most readily lend
itself. Ye t onc e agai n th e primac y o f th e voca l perio d renders thi s a s
difficult a s in th e operas . It is possible to regar d Ex. 8 0 (a), (b) an d (c ) as
germinating cell s to whic h everythin g i n th e scor e is related. But sinc e
one i s a n arpeggio , th e secon d par t o f a diatoni c an d th e thir d o f a
chromatic scale , thi s i s no t very illuminating , a s betwee n the m the y
account for every conceivable melodic variant. Not unti l (a) flowers into
(d) d o w e fin d a n important patter n i n th e tota l design— a descendin g
arpeggio based on tw o triad s usually linked as a seventh. This will recur
throughout th e Requiem and always at points of high relief. At the same
time (c ) can be sai d to for m th e paradig m for a number o f short melodi c
ideas that proceed by conjunct motion an d then fal l back on themselves.
Equally ther e ar e many melodi c idea s in th e Requie m tha t cannot sig -
nificantly b e relate d t o eithe r figur e ye t whos e existenc e i n n o wa y
impairs the unit y of the whole . Onc e again for a unifying principle it is
difficult t o go beyond th e Basevia n tinta.
A brief episod e in F major ('Te decet hymnus') allow s the choru s to
show its paces in flights of imitative a cappella counterpoint , while at th e
same time setting the reprise of Ex. 80 (shorn of its first five bars) in a new
perspective. Alread y the backclot h has been withdrawn , hintin g a t vast
interior spaces . But it is in the Kyrie, the major-key complement t o what
has gone before, that the ful l dimension s of the edific e begi n t o disclose
themselves. First there i s an increase of motion in th e orchestra . Over a
descending patter n o f cell o an d bassoon , clearl y derived fro m (b) , th e
four soloist s successively launch their rocket s (Ex . 81).
The sens e of a continually widenin g vist a is conveyed partl y by th e
contrary motion between voic e an d orchestra, partly by an adroit com -
bination o f pitch and tonality i n the soloists ' entrie s (not e the emphati c
dominant cadenc e in tha t of the tenor , a sure device fo r enhancing th e
height o f an upward phrase). A further stag e is reached at bar ninety-si x
where the orchestral movement breaks into semiquavers. By now soloists
and choru s ar e o n equa l terms ; bu t an y hin t o f a forma l concertait) i s
3
I. Pizzetti , Preface t o published facsimile o f th e Requiem (Milan , 1941) .
Ex. 8 1
dispelled by Verdi's master y in re-shaping hi s material, dissolving it int o

ever ne w an d unexpecte d combinations . Bu t thi s is no exercis e i n he -
donistic sonority. Behind the harmonic shiftings , with their varying pace,
the orchestr a afte r a while establishe s a two-bar tramp; the musi c thrusts
forward int o D minor urge d by 'fatal' rat-tat-at-at-at s from the timpani.
At th e clima x th e musi c break s off ; a fe w spezzat i chords follo w lik e
faltering questions , answere d i n tur n b y a melting, bu t no t cloyin g ca -
dence in A major. A coda re-assumes the previous material in much th e
same sense , doub t an d anxiet y bein g quelle d b y a still riche r cadentia l
phrase. A harmoni c epigra m (F- B flat-E-A) , typica l o f th e matur e
works, brings the movement t o its hushed close. Upon thi s the 'Dies Irae'
bursts wit h a volcani c forc e intensifie d b y th e tona l no n sequitu r ( A
major—G minor) . Thi s i s the longes t an d mos t elaborat e o f the seve n
pieces tha t mak e u p th e Requiem . Th e unusua l cu t o f th e verse s i n
rhymed ottonario tercets is reflected in many of the movements, whethe r
as simple three-fold repetition , variant s of bar-form or in procedures less
easily classified. The principa l section is conceived a s an unearthly storm:
four tutt i thunderclaps , late r separate d by powerfu l blow s o n th e bas s
drum, th e ski n tightene d s o a s to giv e a hard, dr y soun d (th e Shake -
spearean 'crac k of doom'?); rapid scales in contrary motion: peremptor y
calls to attention on the brass, and a chromatic chora l line collapsing into
those slow triplets that Verdi will use again for the real storm in Otello. An
answering phras e i n D mino r ('Solve t saeclu m in favilla' ) hint s a t th e
outline o f th e plainson g 'Die s Irae' , b y th e iSyo s a commonplac e o f
romantic diablerie of which Verd i saw no reaso n to avail himself directly.
338 • V E R D I
Over th e nex t seventee n bar s th e rhythmi c symmetr y i s indeed 'dis -

solved' as a new ide a takes shape, is developed i n irregular sequences and
finally crystallise s into a n emphatic consequen t t o Ex. yc b based on th e
anguished dominan t mino r nint h (se e Ex. 82) , both theme s standin g as
bastions to this massive opening block .
The musi c subsides into anxiou s mutterings ('Quantu s tremo r es t fu -
turus') as all await the Secon d Coming. Here th e tercet s allow a charac-
teristic 'ritual' formula: three unison staments on a single note, each a tone
higher than the last, accompanied by the traditional apparatus of terror—
Ex. 8 2
shuddering strings, acciaccatura 'laments' on the winds, fatal 'rat-at-ats' on

the timpani. The Trump sound s not as in Berlioz with a peal of brass from
the four quarters of the earth, but as a single note played softly and extended
by th e familia r anapaest of death . T o sugges t th e approac h fro m a vast
distance Verdi makes use of four extra trumpets behind the scenes, a modest
enough additio n t o basi c resources but i t serves him fa r better tha n th e
Frenchman's lavishness. Fo r the effec t o f quadrophonic interplay , bright
splashes of major tonality, modulations and changes of rhythm is merely to
astonish. Verd i by contras t keep s to th e dar k ambienc e o f A fla t mino r
throughout an d generates his entire passage from one cell, expandin g the
semiquavers into triplet s where appropriate . Thus rhythmic insistence , a
prevalence of dominant harmon y all add to the growing sense of menace.
When the long-awaited toni c chord is reached full brass, bassoons and
timpani weigh in giving the music an almost thematic substance (Ex. 83).
The bas s solois t rejoin s with 'Tub a miru m spargen s sonum' ove r a ful l
orchestral chor d t o whic h chromaticall y descendin g string s giv e th e
feeling o f a universe falling apart . The choru s echo hi s words whil e th e
air resounds with bras s fanfares. Th e pac e quickens as the tw o block s of
sound—brass an d tutt i eac h wit h chorus—alternat e an d intermingle ,
until th e musi c stops short with a terrified shriek. I n th e quietnes s that
follows th e bas s contemplate s a s thoug h peerin g int o a n abys s th e
amazement o f Death an d Natur e a s every creature is called t o account .
Ex. 8 3
34O • V E R D I
Strings repeat an obsessive ostinato of jagged contour ( J ; J J> ^ J > i) punc-

tuated b y a beat o n th e bas s drum , th e ski n no w slackene d t o sugges t
infinite depth . O n th e las t two syllable s of 'responsura' ther e is a unison
blast fro m lowe r woodwin d an d horns , th e latte r marke d fo r onc e i n
Verdi 'frizzante' ('cuivré') , a device normally associated with terror. Th e
canvas become s increasingl y empty, th e bas s unable t o ge t beyond th e
word 'Mors' , almos t a s though th e compose r wer e lookin g forwar d to
lago's 'L a mort e è i l nulla' . Her e i s al l th e horro r o f th e void ; th e
equivalent o f E. M. Forster' s 'pani c and emptiness'.
For th e 'Libe r scriptus' Verdi happil y withdrew a very dull and aca -
demic choral fugue in favour of a solo for the mezzo-soprano, a s emblem
of th e recordin g angel . I t i s a super b exampl e o f declamator y melod y
articulated i n thre e massiv e periods eac h following th e terce t desig n o f
the poem. The first ('Liber scriptus proferetur') is a typical instance of late
Verdian three-limbed melod y suc h as we encounte r in the secon d due t
between her o and heroine in the five-act Don Carlos, the first two phrases
identical, bot h featurin g the rising fifth like a finger raised in warning ,
followed b y a menacing death-figure on th e timpani :
Ex. 8 4
Choral and Religious Works • 341
The thir d is equal in length to the othe r tw o combine d yet it evolves so

freely tha t all sense of regularity is obliterated. The effec t i s not, as in Don
Carlos, an involuntary spilling ove r of repressed emotion bu t rathe r o f a
lesson firml y drive n home—witnes s th e emphati c cadenc e i n th e low ,
dark registe r o f th e mezzo-sopran o voice . Th e secon d perio d ('Jude x
ergo cum sedebit') is an expanded counterpart of the first . Introduce d by
blazing brass chords i n th e major—th e searchligh t gaz e of the Suprem e
Judge from whom nothin g is hid—its first two phrases are similar but no t
identical, being of four and five bars respectively. The thir d proceeds for
seven bar s befor e mergin g int o th e correspondin g phras e o f th e firs t
period. Th e settin g of the second strophe is thus half as long again as that
of the first. One coul d make a comparison her e with th e tw o Stolle n of
Walter von Stolzing' s Preislied , th e differenc e bein g tha t here i t i s the
endings, no t th e beginning s tha t ar e th e same . Thereafte r th e analog y
breaks down . I n th e thir d perio d Verd i resume s the tex t o f both th e
preceding strophe s in a kind o f coda; th e first is sung over a poundin g
harmonic pedal tha t breaks off on a fortissimo diminishe d seventh . Th e
second i s muttered ove r shiftin g harmonie s tha t see m t o giv e wa y be -
neath our feet, th e soloist trailing into incoherence an d repeating 'Nil' as
the bass had repeated 'Mors' with a growing sense of emptiness. But here
the devic e has another purpose; that of lulling the listener into a state of
unpreparedness for th e thunderbol t o f the fina l phrase (Ex. 84!)). Based
on one of those secondary sevenths that are only recently a part of Verdi's
vocabulary, it is the dark equivalent of Desdemona's outburst 'Ah Emilia
addio!'
Throughout thi s movemen t th e choru s hav e contribute d n o mor e
than a n occasional murmure d 'Die s irae'. Now the y combin e wit h th e
orchestra i n a furiou s crescend o leadin g t o a restatemen t o f Ex . 82 .
After i t ha s subsided a s before, ou r attentio n i s turned t o th e individ -
ual sinne r i n a tri o fo r soprano , mezz o sopran o an d teno r ('Qui d su m
miser'). Wher e ca n th e poo r supplian t loo k fo r hel p whe n eve n th e
342 • V E R D I
righteous ar e hardly safe? Tw o clarinet s and a bassoon open th e musical

discourse with a cadential figure like an idiogram of grief that recurs like a
refrain:
Ex. 8 5
But a s so often with Verdi it does not revea l its full identit y at the outset .
Not til l th e thir d occurrenc e doe s it acquire that F sharp that gives it its
unique poignancy . S o to o wit h th e intervenin g voca l entries . Th e
mezzo-soprano's firs t phrase , a setting o f th e firs t lin e o f th e tercet , is
brought t o a cadenc e afte r fou r bars . Whe n sh e resume s it t o th e re -
maining two lines it flowers into something like a theme. Next the teno r
takes i t up , th e othe r tw o voice s joining in , t o produc e a stil l longe r
variant. A thir d an d final period begin s a n unaccompanie d trio i n th e
relative major but like the preceding two returns inexorably to the same
cadential phras e (Ex . 85 ) as the precedin g two . I n thi s wa y a tentativ e
opening ha s solidified into a species of bar-form wit h refrain . Anothe r
binding elemen t i s the purlin g bassoon pattern which form s th e instru -
mental bas s throughout— a wholl y origina l us e o f tha t instrumen t ad -
umbrated a s early as Luisa Miller. Th e cod a alternates major an d mino r
with a sweetnes s worthy o f Schubert ; bu t th e sens e o f consolatio n i s
precarious, an d th e soloist s ar e lef t repeatin g on e b y on e th e thre e
questions o n risin g level s o f pitch . T o thes e th e nex t episod e ('Re x
tremendae majestatis') brings a brutal answer: a descending arpeggio fro m
the choru s basse s i n Verdi' s best 'maledizione ' manner , backe d b y th e
lower instruments in unison and a tremolando o f upper strings (Ex. 86a).
Tenors divis i repea t the -word s in a subdued mutter. Bu t th e suppliant s
will not be silenced. The bas s launches a contrasting idea ('Salva me fon s
pietatis'), Ex . 86b , featurin g th e risin g sixt h fro m so h t o mi , whos e

association with the concept of love would seem to be Mozart's legacy to
the Romantic age.
Ex. 8 6
The tw o theme s engag e i n conflict . A t firs t th e soloists ' phrase s are

isolated each in a different key , linked onl y by the soprano' s 'Salv a me';
subsequently the y join together , on e answerin g th e other . Finally , just
when i t seem s that the battl e i s lost, a fragmente d statemen t o f Ex. 86 b
rises like a clou d o f incens e fro m th e choru s basse s t o culminat e i n a
cadential variant over wonderfully rich and mellow harmonies—surel y a
case o f the perfec t lov e tha t casteth out fear .
The 'Die s Irae ' no w enter s o n a calme r phrase . Th e 'Ricordare' , a
duettino for the two women discourses gently on a swaying 4/4 melod y
announced b y th e mezzo-sopran o ove r a velvet cushio n o f sustaining
horns, flut e an d clarine t an d a murmur o f lower strings . Onl y a dotted
figure i n th e uppe r woodwin d remain s t o remin d u s o f th e soprano' s
insistent 'salv a me' fro m th e precedin g prayer . Ther e are two episodes ,
neither o f which depart s very far fro m th e mai n theme , an d a tranquil
coda, with som e imaginativ e two-par t writin g fo r the voices. Next i t is
the tenor's tur n with 'Ingemisc o tamquam reus'; and indeed what voice
could b e mor e suitabl e t o sugges t a helples s groan ? Hi s introductor y
arioso recall s the desolat e utterance s of Don Carlos ; bu t h e take s heart
with the beginning of the movement prope r ('Qui Mariam absolvisti')—
a rar e cas e i n Verd i o f a compresse d sonat a desig n wit h tw o distinc t
themes in tonic an d dominant respectively . The reaso n for this becomes
clear when w e reac h the second o f them ('Inte r oves locum praesta').
344 • V E R D I
Ex. 8 7
It is a remarkably direct evocation of a shepherd piping to his flock on a

mountainside. I f th e obo e suggest s th e pipe , th e shimmerin g violin s
rarified atmosphere, th e dominant tonalit y serve s to enhance the sense of
height.
Clearly a n orthodox reprise would rui n th e effect . Instea d there i s a
mere orchestra l reminiscence beneat h the tenor's closin g lines, which i n
turn dovetail s neatly into a cadence fro m th e first theme.
In the 'Confutati s maledictis ' the bass soloist stands for both priest and
suppliant, so embracing the two poles of sternness and entreaty on whic h
the movemen t rests . Tw o theme s alternate . Th e firs t epitomize s th e
internal conflict . Beginning 'co n forza' i t consigns th e accurse d to thei r
doom with octave leaps and abrupt orchestral gestures; then softens into a
plea t o b e calle d amon g th e blessed . Th e secon d ('Or o supple x e t ac-
clinis') i s purely lyrical , movin g o n a typica l Verdia n axi s o f C shar p
minor—E minor an d coming meltingl y to rest in E major. But what first
strikes th e academicall y minde d listene r i s the blatan t chai n o f paralle l
fifths -wit h whic h i t open s (Ex . 88) . Tove y too k thi s t o b e a wa y o f
indicating total abjection—as though in an excess of humility the bass had
forgotten th e first rules of musical grammar. But in that case why shoul d
Ex. 8 8
the same device occur in the Consecration scen e of Aida? More probably
Verdi was aiming in both cases at an antique organum-like solemnity that
antedates th e rule s o f part-writing. Th e conflic t continues , usin g ele -
ments o f both themes . The n Ex . 8 8 returns unaltere d sav e fo r a pro -
longation o f the final bars. A codetta move s away towards E minor; bu t
the bass's last note is covered by a final irruption o f the 'Die s Irae' them e
(Ex. 7pb ) leapin g out , a s it were , fro m behin d a harmonic corner . I t is
only a partial reprise; for befor e Ex. 8 2 is reached i t ha s already swung
away toward s th e regio n o f B flat minor, approachin g th e nex t move -
ment wit h Wagneria n foreboding .
The melod y of the 'Lachrymosa ' has its origins in a discarded duet for
tenor and bass with mal e chorus from Don Carlos following the deat h of
Posa (see Ex. 89). With its sombre scoring and disposition of voices, its B
flat minor tonality , i t is one o f the mos t movin g operati c lament s eve r
written, whic h i s why, no w tha t moder n researc h ha s enable d it s re -
construction, severa l recent revival s o f th e oper a hav e restore d it . B y
comparison the 'Lachrymosa ' is simpler in outline an d more comple x in
detail. Jus t a s Verdi ha d conclude d Aida wit h a slo w cabalett a o f th e
utmost plainness and regularity so he round s of f this most wide-rangin g
and tempestuous prayer of the Requiem wit h a movement whos e main
theme form s a period of thirty-two bars with a phrase pattern A-A-B-A
(the melod y ha d evolve d ver y differentl y i n th e duet) . But wit h eac h
successive phras e the tapestr y becomes richer , embellishe d wit h coun -
terpoint an d a n abundanc e o f lamentin g figure s entruste d t o voice s as
well as instruments—the sighs and groans of a universe in torment. Th e
Ex. 8 9
346 • V E R D I
last cadenc e i s interrupted s o a s to lea d int o a twelve-ba r cod a i n th e

course of which th e theme is broken down ove r a descending bass, then
rises to a climax taking the solo soprano over a high B flat. But this is not
the end. A new pleading melody in G flat is sung by the fou r soloist s to
the line s 'Pie Jesu, Domine , don a ei s requiem'. I t i s the pales t shaft o f
light soo n t o vanis h as fragments of the openin g melod y treate d i n im -
itation tak e over th e res t of the movement ; bu t someho w th e darkness
has been softened . For th e fina l bar s Verdi makes telling use of the ful l
orchestra hushed, including bass drum ('l e corde molt o aliéntate'). Th e
'Amen' yield s a cadence unknown t o ecclesiastica l rules: a chord o f G
major, swelling and dying answered by orchestra alone with one of B flat.
Verdi conclude s the 'Die s Irae' a s impressively as he ha s begun it .
Despite a tex t whic h speak s o f deliver y fro m th e lion' s mout h an d
from th e lake of Tartarus, the OfFertori o fo r soloists without choir pre-
serves a mood o f almos t uncloude d serenity , it s movements formin g a
five-part pattern (A-B-C-B-A) . Th e openin g andant e ('Domin e Jesu
Christe') i s a miracle of thematic econom y an d also a convincing dem-
onstration o f how a theme can alter its sense according to context , lik e
the firs t lin e o f a medieva l rondea u o r a moder n triolet . Th e entir e
movement is based on a motif announced by the solo cello (Ex. 9oa).
When i t first appears as the culminatio n o f a flowing pattern of quavers
that alternat e wit h th e gentl e cadence s o f flute , obo e an d clarinet , it s
function i s clearly to bring the paragraph to a close. But with the entry of
Ex. 90
mezzo-soprano an d teno r soloist s the clos e is delayed. Ex. 90 3 is twice

repeated, th e secon d tim e leadin g t o th e dominan t wher e th e long -
awaited cadenc e occurs . But a paragraph which end s i n th e dominan t
requires a complement if only to point the way home. This is done in the
most natural way possible by a restatement of Ex. poa but wit h modified
harmony. Fro m the n t o th e en d o f the movemen t ther e i s not a single
phrase o r figur e tha t is not derive d fro m it . Sain t Michael th e standard
bearer make s a n unobtrusivel y dramati c appearanc e i n th e for m o f a
prolonged 'mess a di voce' while high divisi violins carry Ex. 903 through
a magica l harmoni c side-slip , alread y anticipate d i n th e fina l due t o f
Rigoletto (Ex . 9ob) . Th e soul s o f th e departe d ar e carrie d upwar d i n a
series of modulations into a radiant sonority—sustained chords for voices
and brass, celestial arpeggios for flutes, piccolo and clarinet and sparkling
pizzicato patterns for divided violins .
It was traditional to set the reminder 'Qua m olim Abrahae promisisti
et semin i ejus ' a s a fugue . Verd i begin s imitativel y bu t soo n slip s int o
homophony o f a trul y fuga l vigou r wit h a whirlwind rapidit y o f har -
monic rhythm. In total contrast the central movement, 'Hostia s et preces
tibi, Domine' , i s one o f the stil l oases . The irregularit y o f the ten-ba r
theme (2+4+4 ) f ar from being propulsive, enhance s the sense of time-
lessless; whil e th e not e E i n th e teno r voice , constantl y recurring, i s as
important t o th e colou r o f the melod y a s in Donizetti's 'Spirt o gentil' .
Again th e desig n i s A—A—B— A wit h th e unusua l tona l schem e o f C
major—F major—C minor—C major. Tenor and bass alternate the cantilena
with lyrical counterpoints from th e other soloists, the bass's heavy sound
lightened b y a n accompanimen t of divisi violins. A conclusiv e episode
in C minor , dominate d b y th e soprano , restores an abbreviated Ex. 89
high o n th e flut e ove r violi n harmonic s and acciaccatur e on flut e an d
horn an d toni c peda l harmon y whil e belo w th e singer s murmur thei r
prayer tha t th e dea d may pas s t o eterna l life . 'Qua m oli m Abrahae ' is
repeated wit h a mor e emphati c endin g whic h i n tur n usher s i n a
shortened repris e o f Ex . 9oa—shortene d literall y sinc e th e autograp h
shows tha t i t wa s originall y severa l page s longer. Th e reaso n i s clear
enough. Th e musica l equivalent of bilateral symmetry in th e visua l arts
does no t strictl y speakin g exis t sinc e eac h successiv e statemen t o f a
musical idea is apprehended through a perspective of time, so that the last
always bulk s the larges t i n th e listener' s mind. Ernes t Newma n onc e
348 • V E R D I
observed that in the prelude t o Lohengrin the grai l takes twice a s long to
descend a s to ascend ; ye t th e heare r i s lef t wit h th e impressio n o f a n
unvarying motion . I n th e sam e way a few repetition s a t close rang e o f
Ex. po a wit h arrestingl y varie d harmon y an d scorin g ar e sufficien t t o
balance the opening movement .
The 'Sanctus ' is a tour de force from ever y aspect: a double fugu e fo r
double choru s and orchestra with a cursive accompanying figure on th e
violins. Fro m th e openin g trumpe t call s an d crie s o f 'Sanctus ' al l is
lightness and vigour. Th e progres s by four bar s may give it a dance-lik e
character but, as Tovey beautifully pu t it, the dance is that of the Sons of
the Morning. 4 Th e entir e tex t fro m 'Sanctus ' t o 'Benedictus ' an d
'Hosanna' i s se t a s a continuou s movement— a transparen t tapestr y o f
counterpoint, settlin g a t the eightiet h ba r into lyrica l homophony per -
vaded by that calm radiance that Verdi so often distil s from th e ke y of F
major. In a final burst of energy the orchestral quavers get the upper hand
and driv e th e movemen t t o a brilliant conclusion .
Timelessness agai n prevail s i n th e 'Agnu s Dei' . Th e thirteen-ba r
melody begin s a s a kind o f diatoni c plainchan t fo r th e tw o wome n a n
octave apart— a uniqu e voca l effect—eve n i f the cadenc e (x ) has been
encountered a s early as Giselda's death scen e in / Lombardi (Ex . 91).
This i s now subjecte d to variatio n a la Russe, the melod y remainin g
unaltered sav e for one chang e of mode an d the sonorous palette altering
with ever y repetition. Twic e we are given th e second part of the them e
only. Th e textur e i s calculated dow n t o th e minutes t detail . Clarinets ,
bassoons, violins on th e G string, violas , cellos and one bas s double th e
unison chorus . Th e mino r version , agai n for femal e soloists , i s harmo-
nised b y violas and cello s and embellishe d wit h a pattern o f quavers on
flute and clarinet. A counterpoint o f three flutes envelops the two voices
at thei r fina l statement— a passag e quote d i n ever y textboo k o n or -
chestration. Th e movemen t end s with repetition s o f the cadence to th e
words 'Dona , dona ei s requiem sempiternam' .
The 'Lu x Aeterna', a trio fo r mezzo-soprano , teno r an d bass , see s a
return o f conflict: B flat and G flat major against a sombre B flat minor.
The mezzo-soprano' s praye r ('Lu x aetern a lucea t eis , Domine , cu m
4
D. F . Tovey, Essays i n Musical Analysis, 2 vols (Oxford 1981), Concertos and Choral Works,
p. 417.
Ex. 9 1
sanctis tuis in aeternum qui pius es'), surrounded by ethereal divisi strings,
betrays anxiety in its tonal instability within th e prevailing B flat major—
witness thos e characteristi c side-slipping chord s o f th e sixth . Th e bas s
launches a n inexorabl e repl y ('Requie m aetema m don a eis' ) i n B flat
minor ove r lo w chord s o n bassoons , trombones an d ophicleid e wit h
timpani rollin g i n fifths . I n a trio a cappella based o n G fla t th e thre e
soloists resum e thei r pleading , t o b e answere d a s before, tremoland o
strings an d woodwin d doubling s replacin g th e bras s chords . Bu t i t i s
the mezz o sopran o wh o find s th e sof t answe r that turnet h awa y wrath
with a commonplac e o f consolatio n whic h become s new-minte d i n
Verdi's hands , supporte d onl y b y violins , flut e an d glintin g piccol o
(Ex. 92).
Developed i n imitation and aided by a succession of melting cadences,
it ensure s a peacefu l en d t o th e movement , eve n thoug h th e lowe r
brass can be heard growling beneat h the celestia l arabesques of flute and
piccolo—the mortal remain s contrasted with th e immortal soul .
It is in the 'Libera me' that the Requiem comes closest to the world of
opera, not , t o b e sure , i n it s musica l form bu t rathe r i n th e sens e o f
personal anxiet y conveye d b y th e soprano—i t migh t b e Leonor a d i
Vargas in her lonely cave . An opening 'scena' o f eighteen bar s proceed s
through free declamation o n a single note, a reminiscence o f Ex. 92, and
a siniste r clucking an d purring o f the fou r bassoon s before reaching it s
350 • V E R DI
Ex. 92
first C minor cadence (one would suspect the influence of Brahms's First
Symphony wer e i t no t tw o year s in th e future) . To o broke n i n it s ut -
terance t o b e calle d a theme, th e soprano' s 'Tremen s factus ' i s a two -
limbed statement , th e secon d delaye d b y a five-ba r extensio n i n th e
region o f the dominant . Th e swif t harmoni c rhyth m recall s the 'Qua m
olim Abrahae' ; string s an d lo w flut e accoun t fo r mos t o f th e agitate d
figuration. A cadentia l swoo p fro m G i n al t hints a t th e subjec t o f th e
fugue t o come and the singer falters into silence. There follows the final
and most substantial statement of the 'Die s Irae' (Ex . ycb and its related
ideas). That th e diminuendo from Ex. 82 runs to forty-two bars as against
twenty-eight i n th e firs t occurrenc e Tove y too k a s evidence tha t th e
order of composition di d not interfere with the logic of Verdi's ideas and
that in the heat of inspiration he could hold i n reserve what ha d already
been designe d for the end . I n principle this is true; but i t must be added
that in the definitive version Verdi considerably expanded the passage in
question with element s from the introductor y 'scena' . A n extra turn o f
the scre w is given b y th e altered , more powerfu l and quit e unmetrica l

text ('Die s irae , die s ili a calamitati s e t miseriae , die s magn a e t amar a
valde'). Th e tumul t die s awa y t o b e succeede d b y th e 'Requie m ae -
ternam' (Ex . 80) , now a semitone highe r tha n before, sun g by th e so -
prano an d choru s unaccompanied , th e soloist' s hig h F magicall y
anticipated b y obo e an d horn . Ample r i n textur e tha n th e openin g
statement, it gives the effec t o f a finished painting as against a preparatory
sketch. Eigh t bar s o f declamatio n fro m th e sopran o ove r tremoland o
strings introduce th e fugue .
No mor e orthodox than the 'Sanctus' (wha t classical fugue ever closed
each entry in the exposition wit h a tutti cadence?), it remains a marvel of
contrapuntal an d architectoni c skill . The subjec t i s inverted, treate d i n
canon, broke n dow n an d develope d i n sequences : augmentation i s re-
served fo r th e sol o soprano' s firs t entr y ove r a temporar y lul l i n th e
contrapuntal movement . Th e clima x i s unashamedly chordal wit h th e
soprano carrie d u p t o a C i n altissimo . Bu t ther e i s n o subsequen t
lightening o f the gloom, n o winding up in a triumphant C major. The E
natural that marks the repeate d final cadences has the qualit y of a tierce de
Picardie; an d a t th e en d th e sopran o i s lef t murmurin g i n a n anxiou s
monotone 'Liber a m e Domine , d e mort e aetern a i n di e ill a tremenda '
joined by the chorus in a final 'Libera me... libéra me.'
In the early years of the century when th e composer's reputatio n was
at it s nadir eve n the sympatheti c Bernard Sha w expressed a doubt a s to
whether any of his works would prove immortal except for the Requiem ;
the operas could well pass into oblivion, no t because their music was bad
but because their style of dramatic expression would not be acceptable to
a generation reared once and for all on Wagnerian principles.5 If time has
disproved Shaw' s pessimism regarding the stag e works, i t has confirmed
the place of honour he assigned to the Requiem. N o longer the victim of
false notion s o f piety, it is seen to stan d in th e fron t ran k of the world' s
choral masterpieces.
The Pater Noster an d Av e Maria, compose d fo r a benefit concert di -
rected b y Facci o in 188 0 a t La Scala, Milan , ar e works o f less commit-
ment, though each is noble in thought an d refined in craft . Both prayers
are se t i n th e vernacula r version s attribute d t o Dante , agai n bearin g
5
Shaw, op. cit., Vol. Ill, p. 583 .
352 • V E R DI
witness to Verdi's continuing fondness for that freest o f all lyrical metres,
the hendecasyllabic .
The Ave Maria for voice and string orchestra, equally suited to soprano
or mezzo-soprano , i s a varian t o f th e minor—majo r 'romanza' , bot h
elements being epitomised in a substantial introduction fo r strings alone.
For he r firs t te n bar s the singe r remains , figurativel y speaking, o n he r
knees declaiming in a monotone ove r shifting chords. Thereafter the part
takes o n increasin g melodic interest , openin g ou t int o th e lyricis m o f
'Vergine benedetta' , whic h form s th e majo r key 'release' . Wel l before
the final cadence, however, th e singer has retreated into th e openin g B
minor; an d it is left t o the strings to supply the final words of comfort in
an eight-ba r coda .
The Pater Noster is Verdi's first act of homage to Palestrina, whom he
considered th e fathe r o f Italia n musi c just a s Bach wa s th e fathe r o f
German. Writte n fo r unaccompanied mixed chorus in five parts, it has
something o f the texture of a Renaissance motet; but th e form is entirely
modem. Lik e certai n o f th e late r operati c scenes , i t i s based o n tw o
contrasted themes , th e firs t ('Sanctificata' ) subjecte d to imitation , th e
second ('D à ogg i a no i pane' ) a recurrin g momen t o f lyrica l repos e
bearing a strong resemblance t o the final lines in Giselda's 'Salve Maria'
from I Lombardi. Modern too is the harmony: the powerful dissonances at
'Dell' inferna l nemico ' ('An d delive r u s from evil') ; th e wealt h o f 'ex-
pectant' 6/4 5 tha t follow , an d miraculou s ellipsi s o f th e fina l 'Amen '
(Ex. 93).
Nearer t o th e Palestrin a motet i n for m ar e th e Laudi alia Vergine, a
setting for four solo female voices from the final canto of Dante's Paradiso
and th e first to b e composed o f the so-calle d Fou r Sacred Pieces. Here
each tercet begins with a new motif, sometimes stated in block harmony,
sometimes i n unison , sometime s develope d i n imitation . Th e effec t
Ex. 9 3
however i s essentiall y Homophonie . Ther e ar e non e o f thos e inter -

twining melismata to be found in, say, Palestrina's 'Hodie Christus natus
est' for the sam e vocal combination. Bu t a s a balanced composition that
succeeds i n illustratin g Dante's tex t wit h th e subtles t of harmoni c an d
rhythmic inflexions , unashamedly modern i n character , it far outweighs
the mos t skilfu l attempt s at polyphonic archaizing . An F major tria d on
the wor d 'umile ' withi n a G majo r contex t i s sufficient t o sugges t th e
'lowliness' o f th e Virgin . Th e greatnes s o f th e Creato r ('Fattore' ) i s
conveyed b y a n emphati c jump t o th e chor d o f flattened 'La'; yet th e
same lin e ends , withou t th e slightes t incongruity , i n th e tenderes t o f
pianissimo cadence s drawn ou t wit h a slow triple t callin g t o min d th e
arms of the Madonna cradling the Christ child. The pligh t of those who
try t o fly without wing s is embodied i n a succession of repeated block
chords tha t only just avoi d a sense o f stasis. Th e fina l cantabil e ('L a tu a
benignità') wit h it s nineteenth-centur y suspension s is saved b y Verdi' s
refinement of taste from any hint of sentimentality. The Laudi is certainly
not the greatest of the Four Sacred Pieces; but one can understand why it
was invariably encored.
The Av e Maria sulla scala enigmática stands apart from its fellows. Verdi
never attache d any artisti c importanc e t o it ; fo r hi m i t wa s a sciarada, a
rebus, a mere conundrum. As far as he wa s concerned th e Sacre d Pieces
were three, not four. However once the Ave Maria was in print he had no
control ove r its circulation; and a concert given by th e Gesellschaf t de r
Musikfreunde i n Vienn a unde r Pvichar d Perge r initiate d th e b y no w
universal practice of giving it along with th e Stabat Mater, Laudi and T e
Deum.
Were Verdi' s doubts justified? Certai n scholars , includin g Mil a an d
Hussey, believe that they were; that a donnée as arbitrary as Crescentini's
'scala sgangherata ' (Verdi' s term) coul d onl y resul t in a triumph o f in -
genuity. T o Herman n Scherche n o n th e othe r han d th e scal e i s no t
Ex.94
Pietà, Signar! (1984)
354
arbitrary a t al l but a perceptiv e blen d o f th e fou r scale s o n whic h al l

modern musi c is based—the minor, th e major , the whole-tone and the
chromatic. This would apply to the upward scale only; in its descending
form th e F sharp is modified to F natural so as to permi t a n easie r and
more conclusiv e return t o base (Ex. 94).
The averag e listener will probabl y find such relationships difficult t o
bear i n mind, give n th e slo w pac e of the cantusßrmus an d the kaleido -
scopic change of harmonic perspectives , the clima x o f the phras e never
coinciding with that of the scale. Indeed much of the piece's charm lies in
those lyrical blooms that burgeon an d fade with the inexorable march of
the semibreves ; in th e ne w an d unexpecte d vista s opene d u p b y each
transition an d abov e al l in th e endles s variety of harmon y an d textur e
thrown u p b y th e fou r placing s of the scala enigmática.
Of th e tw o version s the reconstructe d one o f 189 6 is predictably the
better. The differences , suc h as they are, affect mainl y the secon d half of
the piece , wher e th e tex t i s better distribute d an d th e polyphon y free r
and mor e adventurous . Th e fina l Ame n i s broadene d ou t b y th e
equivalent o f two bars , thereb y providin g a far more satisfactor y bridg e
from th e B flat major t o th e origina l tonic o f C.
The remarkabl e density of Verdi's musical thought i n hi s last years is
impressively illustrate d by hi s 'Piet à Signor ' o f 189 4 fo r sol o voic e an d
piano accompaniment to a text adapted by Boito from the De profanais. A
mere twenty-on e bar s long, i t form s a complet e statement , a lapidary
expression o f spiritua l longing , ever y chor d charge d wit h emotiona l
significance. Ha s even Webern said so much with s o few notes?
So to the two las t and greatest of the Four Sacred Pieces, the T e Deum
and Stabat Mater, bot h writte n fo r larg e turn-of-the-centur y orchestr a
with triple woodwind, three trumpets, a fourth bassoon and in the case of
the Stabat Mater, a harp. But th e T e Deum has a more massiv e sonority,
since it features a double choir as against the singl e one o f the Stabat (for
each choi r Verd i stipulated voices i n th e rati o o f 12.12.12.14) . Th e T e
Deum seems to hav e been th e earlie r of the two ; th e Stabat following a
year o r s o later . Bu t fro m th e star t ther e wa s never an y doub t i n th e
composer's min d i n whic h orde r the y shoul d b e performed . Th e T e
Deum is the onl y possible conclusion t o th e set.
For once Verdi launches his composition wit h a snatch of plainchant
(Ex. 95 a).
356 • V E R D I
Ex. 9 5
It wa s a bold device ; an d Verdi , fearfu l o f fault y intonation , wrot e t o

Boito i n Pari s suggesting an improvise d orga n prelud e t o establis h th e
tonality firmly in th e mind s o f the choir . Bu t th e poin t become s clea r
when w e fin d a s the piec e proceeds that almost al l of its themes deriv e
from Ex . 95a . Verdi neve r wrot e a more thematicall y organise d wor k
than this . Differen t group s o f voices, on e o f them marke d 'i n th e dis -
tance', respond with chorda l mutterings (note once agai n the organum -
like consécutives at 'omnis terra veneratur'—surely not a n expression of
spiritual abasement); then at the word 'Sanctus ' full choir s and orchestra
peal forth, like a multitude of the heavenl y host, in divine praises. 'Pleni
sunt coeli et terra' brings the second main motif of the piece, sequential
in its nature and forming the third limb of the musical paragraph (Ex. 96).
The climati c cadenc e whic h follow s is interrupted wit h a powerful
affirmation o f G flat, a tonality whic h wil l dominate the next fifty-four
bars; the music sinks to pianissimo; and the praises are now those of men
rather than angels. But a n intuition o f divine grace can be sensed in th e
first derivative o f Ex. 95 3 on th e woodwin d ensembl e (Ex . 95b). Th e
Ex. 9 6
singers proliferate in simple, counter-themes on e of which ('T e Martyrum

candidates'), also derived fro m th e plainchan t opening, wil l assum e great
importance later on (Ex. 95c). As the tally of praises proceeds Ex. 95b takes
on variou s structural and harmonic guise s in relation t o intervenin g ma -
terial until at the mention of the Paraclete it develops into what will strike
the listene r a s a ne w them e altogethe r (Ex . psd) . Th e G fla t gravita -
tional pull weakens and fade s t o mak e way for what Verdi, accordin g to
his letters , regarde d a s on e o f th e grea t moment s o f th e score—th e
transformation o f Ex . 95 c int o a 'cant o litúrgic o grandioso ' (Ex . 97) .
Ex.97
Taken u p b y th e choir s i t develop s int o a closely worke d contrapunta l

discourse during which Ex. 95b, embellished with new counter themes, is
not forgotten . The n as the text passes from a hymn of praise to prayer we
find on e o f those poise d periodi c melodie s wit h whic h Verd i love d t o
crown hi s most elaborately busy passages (Ex . 983)
In the first bar of the third strain (Ex. 98b), with its subdominant triad
over a dominant pedal, we can recognise a favourite chord of Franz Liszt,
358 • V E R D I
Ex. 98
whose influence on Italian composers during the late nineteenth century

should no t b e underestimated . Durin g th e sequentia l combination s o f
Exx. 9 6 an d y8 b tha t follow , thi s sam e bitter-sweet chor d work s a s a
propulsive agen t until w e reac h the hushe d episod e 'Dignare , Domine
die isto sine peccato nos custodire', with it s muffled bas s drum-beats an d
stark two-part writing— a chill breath from the world o f Don Carlos and
the auto-da-fé. 'Miserere' , the chorus chant in isolated groups, gathering
together for their final prayer, 'Fiat misericordia tua, Domine, supe r nos'.
This turns out to be Ex. c8a sung by both choirs supported by a luminous
voicing of the ful l orchestra . As the notion o f hope breaks in the melod y
changes course , swells to a clima x ('I n t e speravi') , the n plunge s int o
torbid depth s ('No n confonda r in aeternum') . Ou t o f the horrifie d si-
lence Ex. 96 emerges, now pleading where it had once been triumphant .
A sol o trumpe t answer s an d wit h i t th e voic e o f supplian t humanit y
embodied, a s in th e 'Liber a me' , i n a soprano ; no t howeve r a prim a
donna wit h al l her capacit y for flutterin g emotion , bu t th e smal l steady
tone o f a chorister. Chorus an d orchestra join for the last 'In te speravi';
and while low orchestral chords drag themselves up to a plagal cadence, a
long held e" ' on first violins, shines like the faintest o f stars in the nigh t
sky.
Of th e fou r piece s the T e Deum was Verdi's favourite; he is even said
to have wanted the score to be buried with him. But not all writers have
shared hi s view. A t th e firs t performanc e in Pari s the Stabat Mater wa s

more highl y praised . Stanford , wh o wa s present, wit h a view t o con -
ducting the English première, aske d Boito fo r permission to place it last.
Tovey maintained that 'Of the Four Sacred Pieces... the Stabat Mater is
the most important an d the most perfect.' Mor e consisten t in style than
the T e Deum and mor e beautifu l i n conception , i t recalled fo r hi m Pa -
lestrina's setting of the same poem, 'th e purest cloud-scape i n the worl d
of harmony, without eve n a flight of birds to show the scale of its mighty
perspective'. What both works have in common i s a total lack of textual
repetition, s o that (Tove y again ) 'the lines of the poem rol l o n i n thei r
groups of three like a planet in its orbit'. A marked contrast, this, to th e
multi-movement setting s o f Pergolesi , Rossin i an d Dvora k wher e th e
immediacy o f th e word s i s stifled b y th e musica l development, an d i n
Rossini's cas e occasionally contradicte d b y it . No t tha t thi s i s in itsel f
wrong (i t happen s in mos t setting s of th e Mass) ; it i s just tha t Verdi' s
procedure, lik e Palestrina's , i s different . Rathe r tha n tak e th e tex t o f
Jacopo d a Todi a s the basi s of a large musical structure, h e treat s it a s a
piece of poetry, realising it in music with a Schubertian skill, but withou t
the ai d of Schubertian forms. Nor i s the musi c thematically organised as
with th e T e Deum. All of which make s the Stabat Mater very difficult t o
analyse i n conventional terms . Th e musica l ideas are many and strikin g
but the y rarely repeat except at short range. An exception is the openin g
where afte r a succession of bare orchestral fifths recalling Otello's 'Niun
mi tema' the chorus in unison launch a gaunt, jagged theme, th e alpha as
well a s the omeg a o f the compositio n (Ex . 99a).
Here mor e tha n i n an y othe r o f th e Sacre d Pieces Verd i draw s o n
the vocabular y of his operas, but alway s with th e strictes t economy: th e
sobbing violins at 'Cujus animam' ar e those of the exiles ' choru s in th e
revised Macbeth; th e baritone' s lin e a t 'Qua e morebat ' coul d hav e be -
longed t o an y of Verdi's mournful old men fro m Dog e Foscar i to Kin g
Philip, her e intensifie d b y th e wonderfull y expressiv e orchestra l pat -
terning. 'Qui s est homo' brings the first major ke y melody, a gesture of
sudden warmth and compassion all the more compelling fo r the austerity
that has preceded it (Ex. 99b). But the tonality, like the mood, is far from
stable; and no sooner ha s the paragraph moved t o a half close than a tiny
6
Tovey, op. cit , Concertos and Choral Works, p. 421.
Ex. 9 9
3 6o
motif of alarm insinuates itself into the texture (Ex. 990). It is sufficient t o
generate a powerfu l diminishe d sevent h clima x evocativ e o f Christ' s
suffering. Th e numb grief or 'Vidit suum dulcem natum' (compare 'Mors
stupebit' from th e Requiem) might seem unduly protracted had not Verdi
pointed th e en d wit h a minor ke y reminiscence o f Ex. 99 b in th e or -
chestra. A somewhat organ-lik e transitio n lead s to th e stil l heart o f th e
piece: 'Ej a Mater, fon s amoris ' in which tw o tercet s are set in two per -
fectly balancin g periods o f seven bars each (Ex . 99d) .
There i s a brief retur n t o th e turbulenc e o f Ex. 99 c ('Crucifix i fig e
plagas cordi me o valide'). After whic h th e words 'Tu i nat i vulnerati' the
altos begin wha t seems like a long ascen t towards fait h an d hope—tw o
eight-bar strain s like questio n an d answe r ar e repeate d a fourth highe r
and wit h increasingl y varie d scoring . Wit h 'Fa c u t porte m Christ i
mortem' the pace becomes more urgent , leading to a brief but terrifying
vision o f the fires of Hell wher e b y a n unusual phrasing Verdi achieves
much the sam e effec t a s Brahms with alternatin g groups of strings in th e
introduction t o th e finale of his first symphony—a fluttering terror be -
fore som e catastrophe. By 'Per te virgo si m defensus' the choi r ha s sunk
to a unison pianissimo, while insisten t raps on the trumpet prepare us for
another outburs t ('i n di e judicii'). Ye t thes e same 'rat-a-tats' wit h thei r
traditional connotatio n o f finality will clos e the nex t terce t a s a trium-
phant D majo r flouris h o n trumpet s an d trombones t o th e wor d 'vic -
toriae'. Horn s rais e a warning finger ; a solemn funerea l tram p ushers in
the basses ' 'Quand o corpu s moriretur'. Th e ful l choi r join the m i n th e
hushed prayer 'Fac ut anima e donetur'; whil e a t the word 'paradisi ' the
gates o f Heaven ope n wit h on e o f those miraculous entrie s of the har p
that Verd i reserve s for moment s suc h as these. Tremoland o flute s sus -
taining wind an d a simple spacing of strings add to th e etherea l effect. As
the voices mount higher , crotche t pulsations give way to quaver, quaver
to quave r triple t an d finall y t o sextuplet , culminatin g i n a blaze o f G
major glory. But that is not the end. The brightnes s dissolves; the texture
dwindles to tha t of harp, flutes and strings; and the music winds down a
final pianissimo 'Amen' which i n turn brings back Ex. 993 and with it the
implication o f G minor an d a doubt unresolved. Verdi's last word o n the
immortality o f the soul ? We shal l never know .
A P P E N D I XA
Calendar
Year Ag e Lif e Contemporar y Event s
1813 Giusepp e Fortunino Francesc o Dargomizhsk y bor n 2/1 4 Feb ;

Verdi born 9 Oct a t Le Ron- Grétr y (72 ) dies 24 Sept;
cole, n r Busseto (Parma ) son Petrell a bor n i Dec ; Wagne r
of Carlo, innkeeper , an d bor n 2 2 May.
Luigja Uttini .
1814 i Soldier s of the Hol y Allianc e pass Congres s o f Vienna.
through L e Roncóle; Luigi a
hides with chil d i n belfry .
1815 2 Battl e o f Waterloo .
1816 3 Rossini' s Barbiere d i Siviglia
first given, Rome .
Paisiello (75 ) dies 5 June.
1817 4 Begin s elementary education
under Do n Pietr o Baistrocchi.
1818 5 Gouno d born , 1 7 June.
1819 6 Offenbac h born , 2 i June .
1820 7 Carl o buy s him a n ol d spinet ; V.
begins t o substitut e as organist
of S. Michèle a t Roncóle.
1821 8 Defea t an d suppressio n of
Carbonari i n Naples . Death o f
Napoleon I , 5 May; Manzoni
publishes od e U cinque maggio,
later se t by V . Premièr e
Weber's De r Freischütz,
Berlin, 1 8 June.
363
364 • VERD I
Year Ag e Life Contemporary Events
1822 9 Engaged a s organist at church Franck born , i o Dec .

of Roncóle.
1823 i o Lives i n Busseto , lodging wit h Lalo born, 2 7 Jan. Semiramide,
cobbler, Pugnatta ; return s t o Rossini's las t Italia n opera,
Roncóle t o pla y for church ist perf . Venice , 3 Feb.
services o n Sunday s and
feast days . Admitted t o
Busseto ginnasio.
1824 i l Bruckner born , 4 Sept ; Smetana
born, 2 Mar. Beethoven' s
Choral Symphon y is t perf.
Vienna, 7 May.
1825 1 2 Begins forma l musica l training J. Straus s I I born, 2 5 Oct .
with Ferdinand e Provesi ,
organist o f collegiate church
S. Bartolomeo, municipa l
music maste r and directo r o f
Philharmonic Society .
1826 1 3 Weber (40 ) dies, 5 June.
1827 1 4 Beethoven (57 ) dies, 2 6 Mar.
Bellini's U Pirata is t perf.
Milan, 2 7 Oct .
1828 1 5 Composes overtur e fo r Rossini' s Schubert (31 ) dies , 1 9 Nov .
Barbiere d i Siviglia an d cantat a
/ deliri di Saul.
1829 1 6 Applies fo r pos t o f organist Guillaume Tell, Rossini' s last
at Soragn a bu t i s rejected; opera, is t perf . Paris, 3 Aug.
becomes Provesi' s assistan t
in Busseto ; composes Le
lamentazioni di Geremia.
1830 1 7 July revolutio n i n France;
revolution i n Belgium,
25 Aug.
1831 1 8 Moves t o hom e o f Antoni o Bellini's Norma is t perf. Milan, 26
Barezzi, merchant and President Dec. Meyerbeer' s Robert le
of Philharmonic Society ; gives Diable is t perf . Paris, 2 1 Nov .
lessons to daughter, Margherita, Abortive uprising s in Parma ,
his future wife . Carl o applies for Modena an d Piedmont.
grant from Monte d i Pietà t o
send V . to stud y in Milan.
Calendar • 36 5
Year Ag e Lif e Contemporary Events
1832 1 9 Travel s t o Milan , lodge s wit h dementi (80 ) dies, 2 0 Mar.

Giuseppe Seletti; his application Donizetti's L'elisir d'amore
for admission t o th e Con - ist perf . Milan , 1 2 May .
servatory i s turned down ;
Rolla, compose r an d violinist ,
advises privat e study in Milan .
Begins lessons with Vincenz o
Lavigna, compose r an d forme r
maestro al cembalo a t L a Scala .
1833 2 0 Proves i dies ; Giovann i Ferrar i Brahms born, 7 May. Donizetti' s
applies fo r post ; Lavign a writes Lucrezia Borgia is t perf . Milan ,
to Mont e di Pietà tha t V. needs 26 Dec .
a furthe r yea r o f study . V.'s
sister, Giusepp a Francesca , dies.
1834 2 i Direct s Haydn' s Creation a t Borodin born , 3 0 Oct/12 Nov ;
Casino de ' Nobili ; is invited Ponchielli born, 2 Sept. Maz -
by Pietr o Massini , directo r o f zini's faile d attemp t t o provok e
Filodrammatici, t o compos e an uprisin g i n Piedmont .
an opera . Ferrar i appointed
organist a t Busseto, 1 8 June.
V. return s t o Busset o t o appl y
for pos t an d remain s fo r rest
of the year .
1835 2 2 Complete s studie s with Lavigna; Bellini (34 ) dies, 2 4 Sept;
returns t o Busseto . Lavigna Saint-Saens born , 9 Oct .
recommends hi m fo r organist Première o f Bellini's / Puritani,
at Monz a cathedral ; but V . Paris, 2 5 Jan, an d Donizetti' s
declines becaus e o f public Lucia d i Lammermoor, Naples ,
opinion. 26 Sept.
1836 2 3 Begin s opera , Rocester, t o tex t b y Balakirev born, 3 0 Dec. Premièr e
Antonio Piazza . Examined fo r of Meyerbeer' s Le s Huguenots,
post o f municipal musi c master Paris, 2 9 Feb .
of Busseto by Giuseppe Alinovi,
court organis t at Parma ; and
later nominated . Wed s Mar -
gherita Barezzi , 4 May; afte r
honeymoon i n Mila n take s up
duties i n Busseto ; composes //
cinque maggio and a Tantum ergo
and complete s Rocester.
1837 2 4 Birt h o f a daughter, Virginia , 26 Field (55 ) dies, n Jan. Berlioz '
Mar. Attempt s without success Grande Messe de s Morts is t
to ge t Rocester performed a t perf. 5 Dec .
Parma o r Milan .
306 • V E R D I
1838 2 5 Birt h o f a son, Icili o Romano, Bizet born, 2 5 Oct. Premièr e

ii July; deat h o f Virginia, 1 2 of Berlioz' Benvenuto Cellini,
Aug. Visit s Milan t o arrang e Paris, l o Sept .
for performanc e of Rocester,
Sept-Oct. Publication o f
Sei romanze by Cant i o f
Milan. Submit s resignatio n
as municipal musi c master.
1839 2 6 Leave s Busseto with family ; Musorgsky born, 9/21 Mar .
settles in Milan , Vi a S . Simone . Paer (68 ) dies, 3 May.
Canti publishe s tw o songs ,
L'esule and L a seduzione an d
Notturno a 3 which i s well-
reviewed. Icili o Roman o dies,
22 Oct . Premièr e o f Oberto,
conté d i S . Bonifacio (probabl y
revised Rocester) a t L a Scala ,
Milan, 1 7 Nov . Accept s
contract fo r 3 more operas .
1840 2 7 Durin g compositio n o f U n Faccio born, 8 Mar; Tchaikovsk y
giomo d i regno Margherita die s born, 2 5 Apr/7 May . Premièr e
of encephalitis, 1 8 June; V . of Donizetti's L a favorite, Paris ,
returns t o Busset o t o complet e 2 Dec . Publicatio n o f Manzo -
opera. Premièr e o f U n giomo ni's nove l / promessi sposi i n its
di regno a t L a Scala , Milan, definitive form .
5 Sept, a total failure ; al l furthe r
performances cancelled ; Oberto
revived, 1 7 Oct .
1841 2 8 Attend s revival (wit h revisions) Chabrier born, 1 8 Jan;
of Oberto a t the Teatr o Carl o Dvorak born, 8 Sept.
Felice, Genoa. Receive s librett o
of Nabucco fro m impresario ,
Merelli, Jan, an d complete s
composition b y Oct. Meet s
Giuseppina Streppon i an d en -
lists her suppor t i n having it
performed the following season.
1842 2 9 Premièr e o f Nabucco a t L a Scala, Boito born , 24 Feb; Cherubin i
Milan, 9 March. Succes s gains (82) dies , 1 5 Mar ; Massenet
V. entré e t o Milanes e hig h so - born, 1 2 May .
ciety; salons of Clarin a Maffei ,
Emilia Morosini , Giuseppin a
Appiani. Compose s Ch i i bei di
m'adduce ancora fo r albu m o f
Sofia de ' Medici . Visits Rossini
in Bologna, June. Write s ne w
preghiera fo r Granchi t o sin g in
Venice reviva l o í Nabucco.
Calendar • 36 7
1843 3 0 Premièr e o f / Lombardi alla prima Grieg born, 1 5 June. Première s

crociata, 1 1 Feb . Goes t o Vienn a of Donizetti's Do n Pasquale,
for reviva l of Nabuao, Mar . Paris, 3 Jan; an d Wagner' s
Begins negotiations with L a Der fliegende Holländer, Dresden ,
Fenice, Venice, for what will 2 Jan.
be Emani. Goe s t o Parm a fo r
Nabucco wit h Strepponi , Apr,
and t o Senigalli a fo r reviva l of
/ Lombardi', write s new cabaletta
for Poggi .
1844 3 1 Premièr e o f Emani at L a Fenice , Rimsky-Korsakov born, 6/18
Venice, 9 Mar. Muzio come s to Mar. Uprisin g i n Cosenz a pu t
study wit h hi m i n Milan , 1 5 down. Fratell i Bandier a fac e
Apr. Direct s Emani with firing squa d i n Naple s singing
Strepponi a t Bergamo, Aug . chorus fro m Mercadante' s
Première o f / due Fosean a t Donna Garitea.
Teatro Argentina , Rome .
Friendship wit h poe t Ferrett i
and sculptor , Luccardi . At
Rossini's reques t writes ne w
aria fo r Ivanof f t o sin g i n
Emani.
1845 3 2 Premièr e o f Giovanna a'Ano a t La Fauré born , 1 3 May . Mayr (82)
Scala, Milan , 1 5 Feb . Se i ro- dies, 2 Dec. Premièr e o f
manze fo r voice an d pian o Wagner's Tannhäuser, Dresden ,
published b y Lucca . Première 19 Oct .
of Alzira at Sa n Carlo Theatre,
Naples. Buy s Palazzo Dordon i
in Busseto , 6 Oct. Léo n
Escudier acquire s Verdi's
French rights, Oct .
1846 3 3 Premièr e of Attila at L a Fenice , Mendelssohn's Elijah a t
Venice, 1 7 Mar. V.' s healt h Birmingham, 2 6 Aug. Berlioz'
breaks down; h e cancel s com - La Damnation d e Faust, Paris,
mitments and spends July at spa, 6 Dec .
Recoaro, wit h poets Andrea
Maffei an d Giuli o Carcano ;
witnesses separatio n of Andrea
and Clarina Maffei . A t work o n
Macbeth durin g autumn. Write s
alternative romanze for Moriani
and Ivanof f t o sin g i n Attila;
also ne w cabalett a for Mari o t o
sing i n Fosean.
308 • VERD I
1847 3 4I n Florenc e fo r premièr e o f Mendelssohn (38 ) dies, 4 Nov .

Macbeth a t th e Teatr o déli a
Pergola, 1 4 Mar. Acquaintance
with sculpto r Dupré , Baro n
Ricasoli an d poet Giusti .
Departs for London wit h
Muzio via Switzerland, Rhin e
valley and Paris . Meets Mazzin i
and Loui s Bonaparte i n Lon -
don. Premièr e o f / masnadieri
at He r Majesty' s Theatre, 2 2
July. Compose s II poveretto. T o
Paris for premièr e of Jérusalem
at th e Opéra , 2 6 Nov. Begin s
life wit h Giuseppin a Strepponi.
1848 3 5 Complete s Ü corsaro an d send s Abdication o f Louis-Philippe
it t o Lucca . In Milan, the n in France , Feb; uprising of
Busseto (May ) to bu y estat e at Cinque Giornat e in Milan ,
S. Ágata. Returns t o Paris, June, Mar; Austrian s retreat; Carlo
to begi n work o n L a battaglia Alberto o f Piedmont invade s
di Legnano. Sign s appeal to Lombardy bu t i s defeated at
General Cavaigna c to interven e Battle o f Custozza, July, an d
in wa r o n Italy' s behalf, sends forced t o mak e peace. Revolu-
setting of Suona l a tromba t o tions in Vienna, Warsaw an d
Mazzini. Première o f II corsaro, German cities . Wagner force d
Teatro Grande , Trieste, 2 5 into exile . Donizett i (51 ) dies ,
Oct, i n V.'s absence. 8 Apr . Pope Pi ó Non o flees
from Rome, Nov .
1849 3 6 L'abandonnée, song , publishe d in Rome declared a republic, 9 Feb.
French periodical. Premièr e o f Carlo Albert o denounce s
La battaglia d i Legnano, Teatr o amnesty an d i s defeated at
Argentina, Rome, 2 7 Jan. Novara b y Radetzk y (2 3 Mar).
Leaves Rome fo r Paris , Feb. Rome, besieged , hold s ou t
Returns wit h Giuseppin a under Garibaldi til l July. Frenc h
Strepponi t o Palazz o Dordoni, troops restor e Pope . Garibald i
Aug-Sept. Works o n Luisa retreats into th e mountains,
Miller; travel s with Barezz i to eventually flees to America .
Naples fo r première a t Teatr o Status quo restore d throughou t
San Carlo , 8 Dec. Friendshi p the peninsula . Chopi n (40 )
with Cesar e D e Sanctis , dies, 1 7 Oct; Nicola i (39)
business man . dies, n May . Première o f
Meyerbeer's L e Prophète,
Paris, 1 6 Apr .
Calendar • 36 9
Year Ag e Lif e Contemporary Event s
1850 3 7 Plan s a Re Lear with Cammarano ; Wagner's Lohengrin firs t perf. a t

sends hi m a synopsis. Suggests Weimar unde r Liszt, 28 Aug.
to Piave Hugo's L e roi s'amuse as
subject fo r Venice. I n Bologn a
to direc t reviva l o f Macbeth,
Sept-Oct. To Triest e fo r pre -
mière o f Stiffelio, Teatr o
Grande, 1 6 Nov ; compose s
barcarole Fiorellin i n Triest e
for Giovann i Seven , Nov .
Has difficultie s wit h censorshi p
over L e ro i s'amuse
(Rigoletto).
1851 3 8 Premièr e of Rigoletto, Teatr o La D'Indy born , 2 7 Mar. Lortzin g
Fenice, Venice, n Mar . Settles (48) dies , 2 i Jan; Spontini (77)
parents a t Vidalenzo an d move s dies, 1 4 Jan.
with Giuseppin a to S . Ágata.
Death o f Luigia Verdi, 2 8 June.
In Bologn a fo r revival s of
Macbeth an d Luisa Miller,
Sept-Oct. Leave s Busseto
for Paris , Dec .
1852 3 9 Sign s contract with directo r o f Première o f Dumas's L a dame
Opéra, Feb . Return s t o aux camélias.
Busseto, Mar . Sign s contract
with L a Fenice, May.
Cammarano dies , July; librett o
of H trovatore complete d b y
Bardare. Nominate d Chevalie r
de l a Légion d'Honneu r b y
Louis Bonaparte, Aug . Signs
contract wit h Teatr o Apollo ,
Rome, Oct .
1853 4 0 Premièr e o f / / trovatore, Teatr o Abortive uprisin g in Mila n
Apollo, Rome , 1 9 Jan; unsuc - inspired b y Mazzini , Feb.
cessful premièr e o f L a traviata, Ecclesiastical court s abolishe d
Teatro l a Fenice, Venice, 6 in Piedmont . Cavou r becomes
Mar. Return s t o Busseto, Prime Minister .
Mar; leave s for Paris , Oct .
Corresponds wit h Antoni o
Somma, playwright , about a
Re Lear.
3?O • V E R D I
1854 4 1 Begin s Les vêpres siciliennes a t Assassination o f Duke Carl o II I
Mandres and Paris. T o Londo n of Parma (Mar) . By Law of
to secure rights of U trovatore, Convents Piedmon t become s a
Mar. Premiere o f revised Traviata secular state. Vittorio Emanuel e
at Teatro Gallo, Venice in V.'s is excommunicated. Catalan i
absence. Rehearsals of Vêpres born, 1 9 June; Humperdinc k
interrupted by flight of Cruvelli. born, i Sept ; Janácek bom ,
Directs U trovatore at Théâtre de s 4 July.
Italiens, Paris, 26 Dec.
1855 4 2 Rehearsal s resumed , director o f Piedmont despatche s expedition-
Opéra replaced . Premiere of Le s ary forc e t o Crimea n Wa r o n
vêpres siàliennes, Opéra, 1 3 June. the sid e of Britain, Franc e and
Remains i n Pari s to wor k o n Austria; it fights with distinctio n
Italian translatio n o f Vêpres an d at Barde of Chemaya. Chausso n
French translatio n o f Trovatore born, 2 i Jan. Premièr e o f
with Emilien Pacini. In Londo n Offenbach's Le s deux aveugles,
to secur e right s o f Vêpres. Paris, 5 July.
Returns t o Busseto, Dec .
1856 4 3I n Parm a to urg e signin g o f in - Martucci bom, 6 Jan; Schuman n
ternational treat y to safeguar d (46) dies . Cavou r take s part i n
performing rights. Receive s Congress o f Nations followin g
from Vittorio Emanuel e tid e o f Crimean War . Enlist s suppor t
Cavalière dell'Ordin e di S.S . of Republicans suc h as Manin
Maurizio e Lazzaro, Feb. Signs and Garibald i fo r House o f
contract for oper a a t La Fenice, Savoy.
May. Work s wit h Piav e o n
revision o f Stiffelio. I n Venic e
with Giuseppin a for sea-bath -
ing, June—July . Leave s fo r Paris
to prosecut e Calzado , directo r
of Théâtre de s Italiens, for using
pirated version s o f his works.
Fails; bu t sign s contract fo r L e
trouvère a t Opéra , Sept .
1857 4 4 Premièr e o f Le trouvère a t Opéra , Elgar born , 2 June; Glink a (54)
12 Jan. Enlists help of exiled dies, 1 5 Feb. Attempt on th e lif e
patriot Montanelli for adjust - of Ferdinan d I o f Naples .
ments to Piave's libretto of Simon
Boccanegra. Returns t o Busseto,
Jan. Signs contract with S. Carlo
Theatre, Naples . Première o f
Simon Boaanegra, Teatro La
Fenice, 1 2 Mar. Revived i n
Reggio Emilia, May . Première
of Anido (revise d Stiffelio) a t
Teatro Nuovo , Rimini , con -
ducted by Mariani. Encounters
trouble with Neapolitan censor s
over plot of U n bailo in maschera.
Calendar • 37 1
1858 4 5 Censors retur n librett o altere d Leoncavallo born, 8 Mar; Puccini

into Adelia degli Aditnari. born, 2 2 June. Attempt by
Verdi refuse s it , Feb . Arranges Felice Orsin i to assassinate
for oper a t o b e produce d i n Napoleon III , 1 4 Jan.
Rome, Mar. Win s suit to
withdraw oper a fro m Naples ,
on conditio n o f reviving
Simon Boccanegra i n Nov .
Works o n modification s
to U n bailo i n maschera.
Writes song , L a preghiera
d'un poeta.
1859 4 6 In Naple s witnesses first use of L. Ricci (54 ) dies, 3 1 Dec ;
slogan 'Viv a V.E.R.D.I.' T o Spohr (75 ) dies, 22 Oct. Austria
Rome fo r premièr e o f U n bailo invades Piedmont , 2 9 Apr.
maschera, Teatr o Apollo , 1 7 Batdes o f Magenta, 4 June,
Feb. Elected honorar y membe r and Solferino , 23 June. Peac e
of Accademia Filarmónic a of Villafranca. Mo b murde r
Romana, Feb . Marries Anviti, polic e chie f o f Parma,
Giuseppina Streppon i at Oct. Premièr e o f Gounod' s
Collonges-sous-Salèves Faust, Theatr e Lyrique ,
(Savoy), 2 9 Aug. Elected t o 19 Mar.
represent Busset o in assembly
of Parma provinces; goe s t o
Turin t o present petitio n
for annexatio n to Piedmont ,
Sept; i s made honorary
citizen o f Turin an d meets
Cavour.
1860 4 7 Manages estate s a t Busseto; late Albeniz born , 2 9 May;
winter i n Genoa ; high summe r Charpentier born , 2 5 June;
at Tabbiano spa . Buys rifles for Franchetti born , 1 8 Sept ;
the Busset o militia. Mahler born , 7 July; Wolf
born 1 3 Mar . Nic e an d Savoy
annexed t o France , 24 Mar;
Garibaldi invade s Kingdom
of Two Sicilies , May; Cialdini
marches into Easter n Papal
States, Sept.
1861 4 8 Elected Deput y for Borgo S . Marschner (66 ) dies, 1 4 Dec ;
Donnino, Jan; attends opening Cavour dies, 6 June. Premièr e
of Italian Parliament , Feb. Signs of Wagner's revise d Tannhäuser,
contract fo r St . Petersburg Opéra, 1 3 Mar.
opera; leaves for Russia, Nov ;
but première is postponed, Dec .
Friendship wit h Pirol i and
Arrivabene.
372 • V E R D I
1862 4 9 Leave s Russia fo r Paris , Feb ; re - Debussy born , 2 2 Aug; Deliu s

ceives tex t o f Inno dette nazioni, born, 2 9 Jan; Halév y (63)
performed a t He r Majesty's dies, 1 7 Mar .
Theatre, 2 4 May. Spend s
summer betwee n Busset o and
Turin. T o St . Petersburg for
première of Laforza de l destino,
at Italia n Imperial Theatre , 1 0
Nov; receive s Cros s of Imperial
and Royal Orde r o f S. Stanislas.
1863 5 0 Reviva l ofLaforza a t Teatro Real, Mascagni born , 7 Dec. Berlioz "
Madrid, 2i Feb ; composes new Les Troyens à Carthage, Théâtr e
romance for Villaret to sing in Lyrique, Paris, 4 Nov. Premièr e
revival of Les vêpres siciliennes, of Faccio' s I profughi fiamminghi ,
Opéra, 2 0 July. Summer in Milan, 11 Nov. Boito's offendin g
Busseto an d composes song U 'Ode to Italian Art'. Pió Nono
brigidino for niece of Piroli . issues Syllabus of Errors, Dec.
1864 5 1 Betwee n Geno a an d Busseto; Meyerbeer (73 ) dies, 2 May;
with visit s to Turin . Begin s R. Straus s born, 1 1 June.
revision o f Macbeth fo r Paris. Florence become s capita l of
Elected membe r o f the Frenc h Italy, i i Dec .
Académie des Beaux-Arts, June.
1865 5 2 Premièr e o f revise d Macbeth, Dukas born, i Oct ; Glazuno v
Theatre Lyrique , Paris, I Apri l born, 2 9 July; Sibeliu s born, 8
in V.'s absence. Dispute with Dec. Posthumou s premièr e o f
Busseto authoritie s over ne w Meyerbeer's L'Africaine a t
theatre; agree s t o le t it b e Opéra, 2 8 Apr; and o f Faccio's
named afte r hi m bu t refuse s t o Amleto, Genoa, 3 0 May wit h
set foo t insid e it. Stand s dow n libretto b y Boito. Wagner' s
from Parliament, Sept . Signs Tristan un d Isolde firs t give n i n
contract i n Pari s for Do n Carlos Munich, i o June, unde r Billow.
to b e give n a t the Opéra , Dec .
1866 5 3 Compose s Do n Carlos at Busseto, Busoni born, i April ; Cile a born,
Paris and Cauterets. Arrange s to 26 July. Ital y declare s war o n
rent apartmen t in Genoa , i n Austria, June; suffer s defeat s a t
Palazzo Saul i in which t o spend Custozza, 24 June, and Lissa ,
winter months , July. 20 July. Garibald i captures
Trentino with voluntee r arm y
including Facci o an d Boito.
Prussians defea t Austri a at
Koniggratz, 3 July; Austria
make peac e ceding Véneto t o
France wh o hands it t o Italy .
Première o f Smetana's Th e
Bartered Bride, Prague , 3 0 May.
Calendar • 37 3
1867 5 4 Cari o Verd i dies , 1 4 Jan. Giordano born , 2 7 Aug;

Première o f Do n Carlos, Opéra , Granados born, 2 9 July; Pacini
ii Mar . Take s possessio n of (71) dies , 6 Dec. Garibald i
apartment i n Genoa , Mar . Is defeated a t Montana, arrested
made a n honorar y citize n of and kep t unde r surveillanc e at
Genoa, April . Assume s guard- Caprera (autumn).
ianship o f Filomena Verdi ,
act. 7 . Antonio Barezz i dies,
(21 July). I n Pari s wit h
Giuseppina an d Marian i t o
see Grea t Exhibition. Marian i
conducts Italia n premièr e o f
Don Carlos i n V.' s absence at
Teatro Comunale , Bologn a
(27 Oct) .
1868 5 5 Refuse s Cross o f the Crow n o f Rossini (76 ) dies, 1 3 Nov .
Italy becaus e of Minister Bro - Première o f Wagner's Di e
glio's attac k o n al l Italian music Meistersinger, Munich , 2 1 June,
since Rossini , May . Meet s and Boito' s Mefistofele, L a Scala,
Manzoni i n Milan , June. Milan, 5 Mar. Bruckner' s
Plans composit e Mas s t o Symphony no . i first given,
commemorate deat h of Rossini , Linz, 9 May.
Nov. I n Geno a begins wor k
on revisio n ofLaforza de l
destino, Dec .
1869 5 6 Premièr e o f revise d Laforza Berlioz (66 ) dies, 8 March;
del destino, L a Scab, Milan , Dargomizhsky (56 ) dies, 1 7 Jan;
27 Feb. Agree s to compos e Pfitzner born , 5 May; Rousse l
Libéra m e for Rossini-Requiem , born, 5 May. Openin g o f Suez
June. Nominate d Cavalièr e Canal; new Cairo Oper a Hous e
dell'ordine del Mérito Civil e inaugurated wit h Rigoletto.
di Savoia , July. Publicatio n o f
'Album Piave ' t o whic h V .
contributes Stomello, Dec .
1870 5 7 Applie s to D u Lóel e fo r French Mercadante (75 ) dies. Pió Nono
translations o f Wagner's pros e proclaims Papal infallibility as
works, Jan; searches for operatic official dogma , July. Outbrea k
subject, Mar-April ; agrees to of Franco-Prussian War, Aug .
compose Aida fo r Khedive' s French defeate d at Sedan ;
opera house , May . Work s Italian troop s marc h int o
with Ghislanzon i a s versifier, Rome, Sept . Siege o f Paris
July-Dec. Decline s directorshi p begins.
of Naples Conservatory i n
succession t o Mercadante , Dec .
374 • V E R D I
1871 5 8 Appointe d honorar y member o f Auber (89 ) dies, 1 2 May. Scriabin

Società Filarmónic a o f Naples, born, 2 5 Dec. Germa n Empir e
Jan. Forms part of committee i n proclaimed a t Versailles, Jan.
Florence to decid e o n reform Paris capitulates. Rome
of Conservatories, Mar . Con - becomes capita l of Italy, Feb.
cerns himself wit h castin g and Commune an d second sieg e
production o f Egyptian and of Paris, Mar; end s May with
European première s of Aida. massacre o f Communards .
Attends Lohengrin at Bologna ,
conducted by Mariani, 1 9 Nov .
Première of Aida, Cairo Opér a
House, 2 4 Dec, i n V.'s absence.
1872 5 9 Italia n première of Aida, La Scala, Carafa (85 ) dies, 2 6 July;
Milan, 8 Feb. Directs revival in Vaughan-Williams bom ,
Parma, 2 0 Apr; to Naple s for 12 Oct .
revivals of Do n Carlos and Aida.
Performance o f partially revised
Don Carlos, San Carlo, Dec .
1873 6 0 Reviva l o f Aida a t Sa n Carlo , 3 0 Rakhmaninov born, 2 0 Mar;
Mar. Privat e performanc e of Reger born, 1 9 Mar .
String Quartet i n E minor .
Manzoni dies , 2 2 May; V.
proposes to Mayo r of Milan
a Requiem i n commemoration ,
June.
1874 6 1 Conduct s premièr e o f Requie m a t Cornelius (50 ) dies, 2 6 Oct ;
Church o f San Marco, Milan , Schoenberg born, 1 3 Sept .
22 May ; an d a t L a Scala, 25 Première o f Musorgsky's Boris
May; a t Opéra Comique , Paris , Godunov, St . Petersburg , 8 Feb;
9 June. I n London t o arrange Johann Strauss' s Di e Fledermaus,
for performanc e following Vienna, 5 Apr.
year, June. Move s into ne w
apartment i n Geno a in Palazz o
Doria. Nominate d Senator ,
Nov.
1875 6 2 Conduct s Requiem a t Opér a Co - Bizet (37 ) dies, 3 June;
mique, Paris , 1 9 Apr; receives Montemezzi born , 3 1 May;
Cross of Légion d'Honneur ; Ravel bom , 7 Mar. Premièr e
conducts Requiem (revised ) at of Bizet's Carmen, Paris, i Mar ;
Royal Alber t Hall , London, 1 5 Boito's revised Meßstofele,
May, Hofoperntheater , Vienna, Bologna, 4 Oct. Openin g of
11 June, followe d b y Aida, 1 9 Palais Gamier (Opéra ) Paris .
June. Swor n i n a s Senator i n
Rome, 1 5 Nov .
Calendar • 37 5
1876 6 3 Conduct s Aida a t Théâtre de s Alfano born , 8 Mar; Fall a born ,

Italiens, Paris , 22 April, an d 23 Nov ; Wolf-Ferrar i born ,
Requiem. Strin g Quarte t per - 12 Jan. Firs t Bayreuth Festival,
formed privatel y in Hote l d e première o f Wagner's Ring,
Bade, i June; V . decides to 13-17 Aug. Ponchielli' s La
publish. Attend s graduation o f gioconda, Milan , 8 Apr; Brahms's
Maria Filomen a fro m schoo l i n Symphony no . i , Karlsruhe,
Turin, Aug ; her engagemen t t o 4 Nov .
Alberto Carrar a announced .
1877 6 4 Conduct s Requiem a t Lowe r Dohnanyi born , 2 7 July; Petrella
Rhine Festival , 21 May . (64) dies , 7 Apr; F . Ricci (68)
Friendship wit h Ferdinan d dies, l o Dec. Premièr e o f
Hiller. Visit s Holland , May . Tchaikovsky's Eugene Onegin,
Moscow, 2 9 Mar.
1878 6 5 Visit s Mont e Carlo , Mar ; Paris, Vittorio Emanuele I I dies;
Apr an d Nov . Mari a Filomena Umberto I succeeds, Jan. Pi o
marries Alberto Carrara , 1 1 Nono dies , Feb .
Oct. Electe d honorar y membe r
of Modena's Accademi a d i
Scienze, Letter e e Arti, Dec .
1879 6 6I n Milan wit h Giulio Ricordi and Medtner born , 2 5 July; Irelan d
Boito conceive s ide a for Otello; born, 1 3 Aug ; Respighi
conducts Requiem i n benefi t born, 7 July.
concert fo r flood victims. Maria
Filomena give s birth t o daugh -
ter, Giuseppina . Boito send s
synopsis o f Otello libretto, Sept .
1880 6 7 Electe d honorary member o f Bloch born , 2 4 July; Offenbac h
Gesellschaft de r Musikfreund e (61) dies , 4 Oct; Pizzett i
of Vienna, Jan. Directs Aída i n born, 2 0 Sept.
French wit h definitiv e balle t at
Opéra, 2 2 Mar. Nominate d
Grand Office r o f th e Foreig n
Legion, Mar , Cavalièr e of the
Great Cros s o f Italy , 1 1 Apr.
Attends Performanc e of Ave
María an d Pater Noster at benefit
concert i n Milan , 1 8 Apr . Re -
ceives revised libretto o f Otello,
Aug; begin s revisio n o f Simon
Boaanegra, Dec .
1881 6 8 Premièr e o f revised Simon Bartók born, 2 5 Mar; Musorgsky
Boccanegra, L a Scala , Milan , 2 4 (42) dies , 1 6 Mar. Posthmous
Mar. Furthe r work o n librett o première o f Offenbach's Les
of Otello. Contes d'Hoffmann, Paris , io Feb.
376 VERDI
1882 6 9I n Pari s to ensur e copyrigh t Kodaly born, 1 6 Dec; Malipier o

interests afte r deat h of Léon born, 1 8 Mar ; Raff (60 ) dies;
Escudier. Plan s 4-act Don Stravinsky born, 5 June. Secon d
Carlos. Begins revision o f Bayreuth Festival ; premier e
Don Carlos, Sept. of Wagner's Parsifal, 2 6 July.
Triple Allianc e formed, May.
1883 7 0 Complet e revisio n o f Bax born, 6 Nov; Casella born 25
Don Carlos, Mar. July; Szymanowsk i born , 2 1
Sept; Wagner (69 ) dies, 1 3 Feb ;
Webern born , 3 Dec; Zandona i
born, 1 8 May . Deaths o f Hugo
and Garibaldi .
1884 7 1 Premièr e o f revised Don Smetana (60 ) dies. Premièr e o f
Carlos, La Scala, Milan, Massenet's Manon, Paris , 1 9 Jan.
i o Jan. Begin s Otello, Mar. Puccini's L e Villi, Teatr o Da l
Verme, Milan , 3 1 May .
1885 7 2 Resume s compositio n o f Berg born, 7 Feb.
Otello, Sept .
1886 7 3 Complete s Otello, Nov . Premièr e Liszt (75 ) dies, 31 July; Ponchielli
of fina l version of Do n Carlos (52) dies , lojan .
with Fontaineblea u act restored,
Teatro Municipale , Modena,
26 Dec .
1887 7 4 Receive s Grea t Cros s o f th e Borodin (53 ) dies, 1 6 Feb .
Order o f SS. Maurizio e
Lazzaro. Premièr e o f Otello,
La Scala , Milan , 5 Feb .
Awarded honorar y citizenship
of Milan, 8 Feb.
1888 7 5 Compose s Laudi alia Vergine. Italian premièr e o f Wagner' s
Inauguration o f hospital at Tristan un d Isolde conducte d
Villanova sull'Arda , 6 Nov . by Martucci, Bologna , 2 June.
1889 7 6 Compose s Av e Maria sulla scala Wagner's Di e Meistersinger firs t
enigmática, Mar. Decide s t o given in Italian, La Scala, Milan,
write Falstaff, July . Acquires site 26 Dec. Mahler' s Symphon y
in Mila n for musicians ' Casa no. i first given, Budapest ,
di Riposo . 20 Nov .
1890 7 7 Complete s Ac t I o f Falstaff. Franck (68 ) dies. Premièr e o f
Mascagni's Cavalleria Rusticana,
Rome, 1 7 May.
1891 7 8 Work s slowl y on compositio n Bliss born , 2 Aug; Delibes (55 )
of Falstaff. dies, lojan ; Facci o (51 ) dies, 23
July; Prokofiev born, 1 1 Apr.
Wagner's Di e Walküre in Italian,
Turin, 2 2 Dec .
Calendar • 37 7
1892 7 9 Conduct s praye r fro m Mosè a s Honegger born, 1 0 Mar ; Lal o

part o f Rossini centenar y cele - (69) dies , 2 2 Apr; Milhau d
brations i n Milan , 1 0 Apr. Fin - born, 4 Sept. Première s o f
ishes Fabtaff, Dec . Leoncavallo's Pagliacci, 2 1 Mar ;
Catalani's L a Wally, Milan , 20
Jan. Publicatio n o f Debussy' s
Prélude à l'après-midi d'u n
faune.
1893 8 0 Premièr e o f Falstaff, L a Scala , Catalani (39 ) dies, 7 Äug;
Milan, 9 Feb; mad e honorar y Gounod (75 ) dies, 1 8 Oct ;
citizen o f Rome, 1 4 Apr ; Tchaikovsky (53 ) dies, 2 5 Oct .
attends Falstaff i n Rom e Première o f Puccini's Manon
with definitiv e alterations , Lescaut, Turin, 2 Feb .
15 Apr. Humperdinck's Hansel un d
Gretel, Weimar, 2 3 Dec .
1894 8 1 Attend s Falstaff ut Opér a Co - Chabrier (53 ) dies, 1 3 Sept ; A .
mique, Paris , 18 Apr. Compose s Rubinstein (64 ) dies, 8 Nov .
ballet fo r Frenc h Otello (sum -
mer). Attend s premièr e o f
French Otello at Opéra; receives
Grand Cros s o f Legion o f
Honour, 1 2 Oct . Son g Pieü,
Signar published i n periodica l
Fata Morgana fo r benefi t o f
earthquake victims in Sicily an d
Calabria.
1895 8 2 Plan s the constructio n o f Cas a d i Castelnuovo-Tedesco born , 3
Riposo in Milan . Begin s com - Apr; Hindemit h born,
position o f T e Deum. Perfor - 16 Nov .
mance o f Av e Maria sulla scala
enigmática b y student s of Parm a
Conservatory, June.
1896 8 3 Work s o n T e Daum an d Bruckner (72 ) dies, n Oct ;
Stabat Mater. Cagnoni (68 ) dies, 3 0 Apr.
Italian defea t a t Battle o f
Adowa. Premièr e o f Puccini' s
La Bohème, Turin, i Feb .
1897 8 4 Send s Quattro pezzi sacri t o Brahms dies , 3 Apr.
Ricordi for publication, Oct .
Giuseppina Verd i dies , 1 4 Nov .
1898 8 5 Stabat Mater, Laudi an d T e Deum
performed i n Pari s in V.'s
absence, 7 Apr; als o a t Turin
Exhibition unde r Toscanini ,
May.
378 • V E R D I
Year Ag e Lif e Contemporar y Events
1899 8 6 Found s Casa d i Riposo, Dec. Poulen c born, 7 Jan; J. Straus s

II (74 ) dies, 3 June.
1900 8 7 Sketche s composition o f Queen Krene k born , 2 3 Aug.
Margherita's prayer. Assassinatio n of Umberto I .
1901 Ha s fata l stroke , 2 1 Jan;
dies 27 Jan.
A P P E N D I XB
List of Works
I. Operas
Oberto, Conté d i San Bonifacio, oper a i n 2 act s by Temistocl e Soler a (probabl y adapte d
from Rocester by Antonio Piazza) . Milan, Scala , 17.11.1839 .
Un giomo di regno (late r Ilßnto Stanislao), melodramm a giocos o i n 2 act s b y Felic e
Romani (afte r L e faux Stanislas, comed y b y Alexandre Vincen t Pineu-Duval) . Milan ,
Scala, 3.9.1840 .
Nabucodonosor (late r Nabucco), oper a in 4 parts by Temistocle Soler a (afte r Nabucodonosor,
play b y Anicet-Bourgeois an d Franci s Cornue). Milan , Scala , 9.3.1842 .
/ Lombardi alla prima crociata, opera in 4 acts by Temistocle Soler a (afte r poe m o f the same
title b y Tommaso Grossi) . Milan , Scala , 11.2.1843 .
Emani, opera i n 4 acts by Francesc o Maria Piav e (afte r Hemani, pla y by Victo r Hugo) .
Venice, Fenice , 9.3.1844 .
/ due Fosean, opera in 3 acts by Francesco Maria Piave (afte r Th e two Fosean, play by Lord
Byron). Rome , Argentina, 3.11.1844 .
Giovanna d'Arco, oper a in a prologue an d 3 acts by Temistocle Solera (afte r Di e Jungfrau
von Orleans, play by Schiller) . Milan , Scala , 15.2.1845 .
Alzira, oper a i n a prologue an d 2 act s b y Salvator e Cammaran o (afte r Alzire, o u les
Américains, traged y by Voltaire) . Naples , Sa n Carlo, 12.8.1845 .
Attila, opera i n a prologue an d 3 acts by Temistocl e Solera , addition s b y Piav e (afte r
Attila, König de r Hunnen, play by Zacharia s Werner). Venice , Fenice , 17.3.1846 .
Macbeth, oper a i n 4 acts by Francesc o Mari a Piave , wit h addition s b y Andrea MafFe i
(after Shakespeare) . Florence, Pergola , 14.3.1847 ; revise d version Paris , Théâtr e
Lyrique, 19.4.1865 .
/ masnadieri, oper a i n 4 act s b y Andre a Mafiei (afte r Di e Räuber, pla y b y Schiller) .
London, He r Majesty's , 22.7.1847.
Jérusalem oper a i n 4 acts b y Alphonse Royer an d Gustav e Vaëz (adapte d fro m / Lom-
bardi). Paris , Opéra, 22.11.1847 .
Il corsaro, oper a i n 3 acts by Francesc o Maria Piav e (afte r Th e Corsair, poem b y Lor d
Byron); Trieste , Teatr o Grande , 25.10.1848 .
379
38O • V E R D I
La battaglia d i Legnano, oper a i n 4 act s by Salvator e Cammaran o (afte r L a bataille de

Toulouse, pla y by Joseph Mery) . Rome, Argentina , 27.1.1849 .
Luisa Miller, oper a i n 3 acts by Salvator e Cammaran o (afte r Kabale un d Liebe, play b y
Schiller). Naples , Sa n Carlo, 8.12.1849 .
Stiffelio, oper a in 3 acts by Francesc o Maria Piave (afte r L e pasteur, o u L'évangile et le foyer,
play b y Emile Silvestr e an d Eugène Bourgeois) . Trieste , Teatr o Grande , 16.10.1850 .
Rigoletto, opera i n 3 acts by Francesc o Mari a Piav e (afte r L e ro i s'amuse, play by Victo r
Hugo). Venice , Fenice , 11.3.1851 .
Il trovatore, opera i n fou r part s by Salvator e Cammarano , wit h addition s b y Leon e
Emanuele Bardar e (afte r E l trovador, pla y by Antoni o Garci a Gutiérrez) . Rome,
Apollo, 19.1.1853 .
La traviata, opera i n 3 acts by Francesc o Maria Piav e (afte r L a dame au x camélias, play b y
Alexandre Dumas , fils). Venice, Fenice , 6.3.1853 .
Les vêpres siciliennes, opera in 5 acts by Eugène Scrib e and Charle s Duveyrier (after L e Duc
d'Albe, librett o b y th e sam e authors). Paris, Opéra , 13.6.1855 .
Simon Boccanegra, oper a i n a prologue an d 3 acts by Francesc o Maria Piave, wit h ad -
ditions b y Giusepp e Montanell i (afte r Simon Bocanegra, play by Antoni o Garci a
Gutierrez). Venice , Fenice, 12.3.1857 ; revised version wit h addition s by Arrigo Boito,
Milan, Scala , 24.3.1881 .
Aroldo, opera in 4 acts by Francesc o Maria Piave (adapted from Stiffelio). Rimini , Teatro
Nuovo, 18.8.1857 .
Un bailo in maschera, opera i n 3 acts by Antoni o Somm a (afte r Gustave III o u le bal masqué,
libretto b y Eugène Scribe) . Rome , Apoll o 17.2.1859 .
Laforza de l destino, opera in 4 acts by Francesc o Maria Piave (after Do n Alvaro o La fuerza
del sin, play by Angel d e Saavedra, Duke o f Rivas, wit h a scene adde d fro m Schiller' s
Wallensteins Lager, translate d by Andre a Maflei). St . Petersburg , Bolshoi , 10.11.1862 ;
revised versio n wit h addition s b y Antoni o Ghislanzoni , Milan , Scal a 27.2.1869.
Don Carlos, opera i n 5 acts by Joseph Mér y an d Camill e D u Lóel e (afte r Do n Carlos,
Infant vo n Spanien, pla y by Friedric h Schiller) . Paris , Opér a 11.3.1867 ; revised versio n
in 4 acts, additions t o Frenc h tex t b y D u Lóele , Italia n translation b y Angel o
Zanardini base d on tha t o f original versio n b y Achill e D e Lauzières , Milan, Scala
10.1.1884.
Aida, oper a i n 4 acts by Antoni o Ghislanzon i (afte r scenari o by August e Mariette) .
Cairo, Opera House , 24.12.1871 .
Otello, opera i n 4 acts by Arrig o Boit o (afte r Shakespeare) . Milan , Scala , 5.2.1887 .
Falstaff, oper a i n 3 acts by Arrig o Boit o (afte r Shakespeare) . Milan; Scala , 9.2.1893 .
//. Miscellaneous Operatic Compositions

lo l a vidi fo r teno r an d orchestra , tex t fro m / / Solitario e d Elodia b y Giusepp e Persian! ,
comp. i832-s(?) .
Pria che scende sull'indegno, duet fo r Leonor a an d Cuniz a i n Oberto, probably a relic fro m
Rocester and remove d befor e first performance; composed c.i837(?) .
D'innocenza i cari ínganní, cavatin a for Cuniz a i n Oberto, composed 184 0 fo r Luigi a
Abbadia, tex t b y Soler a (?).
Ah Riccardo, a mia ragione, duet fo r Cuniz a an d Riccard o i n Oberto compose d 184 0 fo r
Luigia Abbadi a an d Lorenz o Salvi , tex t b y Soler a (?).
List o f Works • 38 1
Dove com, o sciagurata? duet fo r Leonor a an d Obert o i n Oberto, compose d 184 1 fo r

Antonietta Rainieri-Marin i an d Ignazio Marini . Text unknown .
Ma fi n 'he u n brando vindice, cabalett a fo r Obert o i n Oberto compose d summe r 184 1 fo r
Ignazio Marini, text by Soler a (?) . (Pub. in vocal score of Emani as Infin ch e un brando
vindice.)
Oh, dischius'è il firmamento, alternative setting of Fenena's prayer from Nabucco composed
late 184 2 fo r Almerind a Granchi , tex t b y Solera .
Comepoteva u n angelo, alternative setting of Oronte's cabaletta from I Lombardi composed
summer 184 3 fo r Antoni o Poggi , tex t b y Soler a (pub . in voca l score).
Odi i l voto, O grande Iddío, ari a fo r tid e rol e i n Emani composed lat e summer-autum n
1844 fo r Nicol a Ivanoff , tex t b y Piav e (?), pub. Suvin i Zerboni .
Potrei lasciar la margine, cavatina for Giovann a in Giovanna a'Arco composed winter 1845 —
6 fo r Sofi a Loewe , tex t unknown , musi c lost.
Sí, l o sentó, Iddio m i Mama, cabaletta for Jacopo i n / du e Fosean composed summer 184 6
for Giovann i Mario , tex t b y Piav e (?) .
Sventurato! alia mia vita, romanza for Forest o i n Attila composed lat e summer 184 6 fo r
Nicola Ivanoff , tex t by Piav e (musi c inaccessible).
Oh dolare! e d io vivea, romanza for Forest o i n Attila composed autum n 184 6 for Na -
poleone Moriani , tex t by Piav e (?) .
O to i que j'ai chérie, romance for Henri i n Le í vêpres siciliennes composed 186 3 for Villaret,
text unknown .
Overture: Aida: compose d 187 2 the n withdrawn ; pub . Suvin i Zerboni.
Prends pitié d e sa jeunesse, mélodie fo r Maddalen a i n Rjgoletto adapte d fro m romanza , / /
poveretto (1847) .
///. Choral an d Religious Works

Tantum Ergo fo r teno r an d orchestra , composed 183 6 for Luig i Machiavelli.
Suona l a tromba for 3-par t mal e choru s an d orchestra , compose d summe r 1849 , tex t b y
Goffredo Mameli .
Inno delle nazioni fo r tenor , choru s and orchestra , compose d 186 2 fo r London' s Grea t
Exhibition, tex t by Artigo Boito.
Libera m e for soprano , chorus and orchestra , composed 186 9 fo r composit e requie m i n
memory o f Rossini .
Messa d a Requiem for SATB soloists , chorus and orchestra , composed 1873- 4 to com -
memorate anniversary of death of Alessandro Manzoni.
Ave Maria fo r soprano and small string ensemble, composed 1879-8 0 for benefit concert,
text attribute d to Dante .
Pater Noster, fo r 5-par t unaccompanie d chorus composed 1879-8 0 fo r benefi t concert ,
text attribute d to Dante .
Laudi alia Vergine Maria fo r 4-par t femal e voice s composed 1887-8 , pub. 189 8 a s no. 3
of Quattro pezzi sacri; tex t b y Dant e fro m fina l cant o o f Paradiso.
Ave Maria sulla scala enigmática for 4-par t unaccompanied chorus composed 1889 , pub. as
no. i o f the Quattro pezzi sacri.
Pietà, Signar! for tenor and piano composed 189 4 and pub. in periodical Fata Morgana fo r
victims of earthquakes in Sicily and Calabria, text adapted from Deprofundis b y Arrigo
Boito.
382 • VERD I
Te Deutn fo r doubl e choru s and orchestra , composed 1895-6 , pub. 189 8 a s no. 4 o f
Quattro pezzi sacri.
Stabat Mater fo r choru s and orchestra , composed 1896- 7 (?) , pub. 189 8 a s no. 2 fo r
Quattro pezzi sacri.
IV. Vocal Chamber Music

Sei romanze (pub . 1838 )
No« t'accostare all'uma, poem b y Jacopo Vittorell i
More, Elisa, l o stance poeta, poem b y Tommas o Bianchi
In solitaria stanza, poem b y Jacopo Vittorell i
Nell'orror d i notte oscura, poem b y Carl o Angiolin i
Perduta h o la pace, poem b y Goethe , translate d Luigi Balestra
Deh, pietoso, o h Addolorata, poe m b y Goethe , translate d Luigi Balestra
Guarda ch e blanca luna, nocturn o fo r STB , flut e an d piano , poem b y Jacopo Vittorell i
(pub. 1839 )
L'esule (pub . ?i839), poem b y Temistocle Soler a
La seduzione (pub . ?i839) , poe m b y Luig i Balestra
Chi i bei di m'adame ancora, poem by Goethe translated Luigi Balestra (?), composed 184 2
for autograp h album of Sofia De'Medici , Marchesa di Marignano, pub. Frank Walker
in Th e Music Review, Vol. 9 no. i , Feb . 1948 .
Sei romanze (pub . 1845 )

// tramonto, poem b y Andre a Maffe i
La zíngara, poem by Manfred o Maggion i
Ad un a Stella, poem b y Andre a Maffe i
Lo spazzacamino, poe m b y Manfred o Maggion i
U mistero, poem b y Felic e Roman i
Brindisi, poem b y Andrea Maffei (earlie r version 'accordin g to th e autograph ' pub . b y
Ricordi a s no. 1 6 i n thei r Composizioni d i camera 1935 , reprinte d 1948) .
II poveretto (pub. 1847) , poe m b y Manfred o Maggioni (se e also (II) Prends pitié d e sa
jeunesse).
L'abandonnée (pub . 1849) , poe m b y Mari e an d Léo n Escudie r (reprinte d 188 2 by
Heugel).
FiorelUn ch e sorgi appena, baracarola, poe m b y Francesc o Maria Piave (comp. No v 185 0
for Giovann i Seven ; pub. in fascimil e i n G . Stefiàni , Verdi e Trieste (Trieste 1951) .
Lapreghiera de l poeta, poem by Nicola Sole (comp. 1858 ; pub. in Rivista Musicale Italiana.
vol XLV , ann o 1941) .
Il brigidino, poem b y Francesc o DalTOngaro (comp . 186 3 fo r niec e o f Piroli; pub. b y
Sonzogno, 1948) .
Stomello, poem anon , (contributio n t o Album Piave, pub. 1869) .
V. Instrumental Music
Sinfonía i n D
Valzer
Romanza senza parole for pian o (pub . 186 5 i n Gioie e sospiri b y Canti )
String Quartet i n E mino r (comp . 1873 , pub . 1876) .
A P P E N D I XC
Personalia
Appiani, Giuseppin a (c . 1797—?). Born Countes s Strigelli . Maintained salo n i n

Borgo Monforte , Milan . Close frien d o f Bellini, Donizett i and Verdi.
Arditi, Luigi (1822-1903). Italian conductor, compose r and violinist. Frien d of
Verdi. Conducte d premièr e o f Inno delle nazioni Londo n 186 2 an d nu -
merous U.S . an d British Verdi premières .
Arrivabene, Count Opprandino (1805—87) . Italia n newspaper correspondent ;
editor o f Gazzetta d i Torino durin g firs t Italia n parliament. Clos e frien d
and frequen t corresponden t o f Verdi's.
Balestra, Luigi (1808—63). Italian lawyer and poet fro m Busseto ; provided tex t
for a revival o f Oberto i n Genoa . Verd i se t hi s translation s of poem s b y
Goethe.
Barbieri—Nini, Mariann a (1820-87) . Italia n soprano, on e o f the fines t inter -
preters o f earl y Verdi . Create d Lucrezi a i n / du e Fosean (1844) , Lad y
Macbeth (1847) , Guiñar a in U corsaro (1848) ; lef t a n entertainin g account
of Verdi's methods o f rehearsal at Florence i n 1847 .
Bardare, Leone Emanuele (b. 1820) . Neapolita n librettist . Director o f teacher
training schools in Naples. Completed librett o of u trovatore after deat h of
Cammarano.
Barezzi, Antoni o (1798-1867) . Busset o merchan t an d musi c lover . Verdi' s
patron an d father-in-law—hi s 'secon d father' (Verdi' s words). Macbeth i s
dedicated t o him .
Basevi, Abram o (1818-95) . Doctor , autho r an d musi c critic . Founde d th e
Società de l Quartetto i n Florence . Publishe d a n analysi s o f Beethoven' s
Quartets opus 18 ; author of the first serious work o n Verdi's music, Studio
suite opere d i Giuseppe Verdi (Florenc e 1859) .
383
384 • VERD I
Basily, Francesc o (1767—1850) . Italia n musicia n an d educator . Heade d th e

examining boar d at Milan Conservator y whic h rejecte d Verdi' s applica -
tion fo r entrance, but recognise d hi s talent.
Bellaigue, Camille (1858—1930) . French critic and author; wrote fo r Revue des
deux mondes an d othe r periodicals . A friend o f Boito; corresponded wit h
Verdi an d published a monograph o n th e composer , 1912 .
Boito, Arrig o (1842-1918) . Italia n poet , compose r an d Verdi' s las t librettist ;
wrote tex t fo r Inno delle nazioni (1862) ; collaborate d o n th e revisio n o f
Simon Boccanegra (1881) ; provide d librett i o f Otello (1887 ) an d Falstaff
(1893); also, under a pseudonym, of Ponchielli's La Gioconda (1876). In his
youth a leading member of the 'Scapigliatura Milanese' his own operas are
Mefistofele (186 8 rev. 1875 ) an d Nerone (posth . 1918) .
Bottesini, Giovann i (1821-89) . Italia n composer, conducto r an d double-bas s
virtuoso. Conducte d premièr e of Aida i n Cair o (1871) . Appointe d di -
rector o f Parma Conservator y shortl y befor e death , du e t o Verdi' s rec -
ommendation.
Brenna, Guglielmo . Secretar y of th e managin g committe e o f th e Teatr o l a
Fenice, Venice . Introduce d Verd i t o th e wor k o f Piav e an d prove d a
valuable go-between in the composer' s dealing s with th e theatre .
Biilow, Han s Guido , Baro n vo n (1830-94) . Germa n conducto r an d pianist.
First husban d o f Wagner's secon d wife , Cosima ; muc h associate d wit h
Wagner i n Munic h i n th e i86os ; settle d i n Florenc e afte r break-u p o f
marriage; move d t o Meininge n t o becom e note d exponen t o f Brahms.
Wrote attackin g Verdi's Requiem but recante d in 1892 .
Calzado, Torrivro (b . 1805) . Manager of the Theatre de s Italiens, Paris, in th e
18505. Presente d Trovatore unde r Verdi' s directio n 1854—5 . Sue d unsuc -
cessfully by Verdi for refusing to pay rights on Rigoletto and La traviata (1856).
Cammarano, Salvator e (1801-52) . Italia n librettist , membe r o f a large the -
atrical Neapolitan family . Wrote libretti o f Alzira, La battaglia di Legnano,
Luisa Miller, U trovatore. Verdi's firs t choic e fo r R e Lear. Also librettist o f
Donizetti's Lucia d i Lammermoor, an d severa l othe r opera s b y hi m an d
Mercadante.
Carcano, Giuli o (1812—84) . Italia n poe t an d translato r of Shakespeare . Sug -
gested t o Verd i a libretto o n Hamlet.
Carrara, Albert o (1854-1925) . Italian lawyer. Married Verdi's ward, Filomen a
Maria, i n 1878 .
Carvalho, Léo n (1825-97) . Frenc h impresario . Manage d Theatr e Lyrique ,
Paris (1856-60, 1862-68) . Premiered Gounod' s Faust (1859) , Berlioz' Les
Troyens à Carthage (1863) , a Frenc h L a traviata unde r th e tid e o f Violetta
(1864) an d th e revise d Macbeth (1865) .
Coletti, Filippo (1811-94). Italian baritone, notabl e exponent ofVerdia n roles .
Created Gusma n in Alzira, Francesco in / masnadieri and Germont in the
revised Traviata.
Personalia • 38 5
Corticelli, Mauro . Italia n theatrica l agen t an d frien d o f Giuseppin a Verdi .

Managed tours of actress Adelaide Ristori. Installed as 'fattore' at S. Ágata
1867—9 until dismisse d for financial misconduct .
Cruvelli, Sofi a (1826—1907) . Germa n soprano . Create d Hélèn e i n Le s vêpres
siciliennes; caused trouble during rehearsals by departin g on a pre-marital
honeymoon wit h he r futur e husband , Baron Vigier.
De Bassini , Achille (1819-81). Italian baritone, known a s the 'Ronconi of the
South'. Created Francesc o in / du e Fosean, Seid in U Corsaro and Miller in
Luisa Miller, wa s chose n b y Verd i t o creat e Fr a Meliton e i n Laforza de l
destino du e t o a natural gift fo r comedy .
Deifico, Melchiorr e (1825-95) . Italia n caricaturis t an d writer . Lef t a se t o f
cartoons of Verdi and the musical world or Naples in 185 8 and another in
connection wit h th e premièr e o f Otello in Milan, 1887 .
Demaldé, Giuseppe ('Finóla') (b . 1795) . Italian writer and friend o f the young
Verdi. Lef t a series of notes for a n unwritte n biograph y o f Verdi c . 1842
(Cenni biografici).
De Sanctis , Cesar e (d . 1881) . Italia n business man. Verdi's chie f contact with
Naples from 1849 . H e an d Giuseppin a stood as godparents to hi s son.
Draneht, Paul (1815-94). Greek Cyprio t (real name Pavlidis). Intendant of the
Cairo theatre at the tim e of Aida.
Du Locle, Camille (1832-1903) . French librettist and theatre manager. Son-in-
law o f Emil e Perri n (q.v.). Librettis t of Do n Carlos wit h Joseph Méry .
Translator wit h Nuitte r of La forza del destino and Aida; responsibl e for
revised text of Do n Carlos (1884) . Managed the Opér a Comiqu e 1870-5 ;
premiered Bizet' s Carmen (1875) .
Dupré, Giovanni (1817-82) . Italian sculptor; made a cast of Verdi's right hand
in Florenc e 184 7 and lef t a n affectionat e memoi r o f the composer .
Escudier, Léon (i 821-81). French publisher, later impresario. Verdi's publisher
in France ; together wit h hi s brother, Marie , founde d La France musicale.
Managed th e Théâtr e de s Italiens, 1874—6 . Mounted Frenc h première of
Aida. Lef t a n account o f Verdi i n hi s memoirs .
Faccio, Franc o (1840—91) . Italia n compose r an d conductor . Italy' s leadin g
conductor afte r deat h o f Marian i i n 1873 . Clos e frien d o f Boit o an d
fellow-'scapigliato'. Compose d / profughi ßamminghi (1863 ) an d Amleto
(1865). Conducte d Italia n première s o f Aida, revise d Simon Boccanegra,
Don Carlos an d Otello.
Ferretti, Jacop o (1784-1852) . Italia n librettist ; membe r o f Arcadia n So -
ciety. Wrot e librett o o f Rossini' s L a cenerentola an d Donizetti' s Tor-
quato Tasso. Me t Verd i a t première o f I due Foscari; recite d a poem in hi s
honour.
Filippi, Filipp o (1830-87) . Italia n musi c critic . Wrot e fo r L a gazzetta musi-
cale d i Milano an d L a perseveranza. Hi s sympathie s wer e moder n an d
Wagnerian.
386 • V E R D I
Florimo, Francesc o (1800-88). Italia n writer an d librarian. Frien d and fellow

student of Bellini at the Naples Conservatory. Wrote books on Bellini and
music i n Naples . Hi s look s an d gentlemanl y manner s earne d hi m th e
nickname o f Lor d Palmerston . Attempte d unsuccessfull y t o persuad e
Verdi t o accep t directorship o f Naples Conservatory in 1870 .
Fraschini, Gaetan o (1816-87). Italia n tenor much admire d by Verdi. Create d
Zamoro i n Alzira, Corrado i n / / corsaro, Arrigo in L a battaglia d i Legnano,
tide role in Stiffelio an d Riccard o in U n bailo in maschera. Verdi had him i n
mind a s late a s 187 0 fo r Radame s i n Aida. Know n a s the 'tenor e dell a
maledizione' fro m th e forc e wit h whic h h e delivere d Edgardo's curs e in
Luda di Lammermoor.
Frezzolini-Poggi, Ermini a (1818-84) . Italia n soprano , admire d b y Verd i as
exponent o f modern , expressiv e styl e o f singing . Create d Giseld a i n /
Lombardi an d tid e rol e o f Giovanna d'Arco. Daughte r o f a famou s bass o
buffo, sh e was engaged t o Ott o Nicola i befor e marryin g the teno r An -
tonio Poggi .
Gallo, Antonio . Italia n impresario , violinis t an d bookseller . On e o f Verdi' s
supporters i n Naples ; mounte d th e revise d L a traviata a t hi s theatr e i n
1854-
Gemito, Vincenzo (1852-1929). Italian sculptor. Verdi bought hi s exemption
from militar y service in retur n fo r busts of himself and Giuseppina.
Ghislanzoni, Antonio (1824-93) . Italian baritone, writer and one of the mos t
skilled librettist s of th e 1870 5 an d '8os . Provide d additiona l text fo r th e
revised Forza de l destino (1869 ) an d th e 'intermediate ' Do n Carlos of 1872 .
Wrote th e librett o o f Aida. A n entertainin g write r o n contemporar y
Italian events, he lef t a valuable account of a visit to S . Agata in hi s Libro
serio.
Giusti, Giuseppe (1809-50). Italia n poet and patriot. Referred t o Verdi in on e
of hi s mos t famou s poems . Me t th e compose r a t Florenc e durin g re -
hearsals fo r Macbeth an d wrot e hi m a well-known lette r urgin g hi m t o
keep to Italia n subjects .
Hiller, Ferdinand (1811-85) . German compose r and pianist. As Director o f the
Lower Rhin e Festiva l he invite d Verd i t o conduc t hi s Requiem ther e i n
1877. They corresponded cordiall y unti l Miller's death .
Ivanoff, Nicol a (1810—77) . Russia n tenor wh o cam e to Ital y with Glink a and
settled there. At Rossini's reques t Verdi wrote tw o insert-arias for him t o
sing in Emani and Attila respectively.
Jacovacci, Vincenzo (1811-81). Italia n impresario active in Rome. Presente d
premières o f U trovatore and U n bailo in maschera. Renowned fo r unwill -
ingness to spend .
Lanari, Alessandro (1790-1862). Italia n impresario, one o f the mos t famou s o f
his day . Managed Giuseppin a Strepponi i n he r professiona l career. Pre -
sented Macbeth a t the Teatr o dell a Pergola, Florence .
Personalia • 38 7
Lucca, Francesc o (1802-72) an d Giovannin a Strazz a (1814-94) . Italia n music

publishers. Th e fir m share d right s i n Nabucco wit h Ricordi . Publishe d
Attila, I masnadieri, H corsaro. Ricordi' s chie f rivals , they acquire d Italia n
rights of Gounod, Thomas , Meyerbee r an d Wagner. Giovannin a sold out
to Ricordi in 1888 .
Luccardi, Vincenzo (1811-76) . Italia n sculptor, professor at the Accademi a di
San Luca , Rome . Clos e frien d an d corresponden t o f Verdi fro m 1844 .
Lumley, Benjami n (1811-75) . Englis h impresario . Manage d He r Majesty' s
Theatre Londo n a t various times 1841—59 ; mounte d premièr e o f / mas-
nadieri. Lef t a valuable set o f memoirs .
Maffei, Andre a (1798-1885). Italian poet an d translator. Close friend o f Verdi,
who se t three o f his poems. Provide d librett o o f / masnadieri an d mod -
ifications t o librett o o í Macbeth. Verd i borrowed hi s translation of Schil-
ler's Wallensteins Lager for comi c sermo n o f Fr a Melitone i n Laforza de l
destino.
Maffei, Clar a (1814—86) . Wife o f the above , legall y separated fro m hi m 1846 .
Maintained salon in Milan, frequented by artists, musicians and writers of
a patriotic persuasion. Corresponded wit h Verdi from 1840 5 till her death;
introduced hi m t o Manzoni. Extended patronag e to 'scapigliati' .
Manzoni, Alessandr o (1785-1873) . Italia n poet, novelis t and patriot o f liberal
Catholic views . Verdi , a life-lon g admirer , me t hi m i n June 186 8 an d
wrote Requie m commemoratin g hi s death.
Mariani, Angel o (1822—73) . Italia n conductor , violinis t an d composer . Con -
ducted première s o f Aroldo an d th e revise d Forza de l destino; gav e muc h
lauded firs t Italia n performanc e o f th e origina l Do n Carlos, als o o f
Wagner's Lohengrin and Tannhäuser. A close friend ofVerdi' s fro m 185 7 to
1869.
Mariette, Auguste-Edouar d (1821—81) . Frenc h Egyptologist ; establishe d
Boulaq i n 1863 . Provide d th e plo t o f Aida.
Marini, Ignazi o (1811-73). Italia n bass ; created titl e roles of Oberto and Attila.
Verdi wrote for him the cabaletta 'Infin ch e un brando vindice' t o sing in
a revival of Oberto. H e transferre d i t t o Ernani.
Mario, Giovanni Matteo d i Candia (1810-83). Italian tenor, Rubini's successor
in th e so-called 'Puritan i quartet'. Lived with soprano Giulia Grisi. Verdi
wrote fo r him th e cabalett a 'Sentó Iddi o che m i chiama' t o sin g in / due
Fosean. On e o f the fe w remaining stars to us e 'falsetto' .
Massini, Pietro . Italia n amateu r musician ; directe d th e Filodrammatic i o f
Milan. Did muc h t o promote Verdi' s earl y career.
Maurel, Victo r (1848-1923) . Frenc h baritone o f outstandin g intelligence an d
dramatic ability . Create d titl e rol e o f revise d Simon Boccanegra, lag o i n
Otello an d titl e rol e o f Falstaff; als o Tonio i n Leoncavallo' s Pagliacti. Hi s
book Di x an s de carrière contain s valuabl e chapte r o n th e mountin g o f
Otello.
388 • V E R D I
Mazzucato, Albert o (1813—77) . Italia n composer , teache r an d conductor .

From 183 9 taugh t a t Mila n Conservatory ; hi s pupil s include d Boito .
Conducted firs t Mila n performanc e o f Do n Carlos. Becam e directo r o f
Conservatory i n 1872 .
Merelli, Bartolome o (1795—1879) . Italia n impresario . Commissione d an d
mounted Oberto, U n giorno d i regno, Nabucco, I Lombardi an d Giovanna
d'Arco; fel l ou t o f favour wit h Verd i due t o parsimoniou s and inefficien t
management of La Scala, Milan .
Méry, Françoi s Joseph (1797-1865) . Frenc h playwrigh t o f Bonapartis t sym -
pathies. Autho r o f L a bataille d e Toulouse whic h furnishe d basi s o f L a
battaglia d i Legnano. Part-author wit h D u Lóel e of libretto of Do n Carlos.
Mocenigo, Count Alvise. Italia n nobleman. Presidente agl i Spettacoli, Teatr o
La Fenice, Venice, during the 18405 . Helpful t o Verdi over the premièr e
of Emani. Also president of the compan y that opened Italy' s first railway
line fro m Mila n t o Venice .
Morelli, Domenic o (1826-1901) . Italia n painter . On e o f Verdi's Neapolita n
circle o f friends , h e painte d th e composer' s portrai t an d corresponde d
with hi m ove r th e figure of lago.
Moriani, Napoleon e (1806-78) . Italia n tenor , know n a s 'il tenor e déli a bell a
morte' fro m hi s romantic portrayal of Edgardo's deat h i n Luda d i Lam-
mermoor. Verdi wrote a romanza for him t o sin g in Attila. Most probable
father o f Giuseppina Strepponi's thir d illegitimate child .
Morosini, Countes s Emili a (d . c . 1848) . Italia n noblewoman . Maintaine d a
salon in Milan during the 18405 . Verdi was a friend of the countess and her
family.
Muzio, Emanuel e (1825—90) . Italia n compose r an d conductor , Verdi' s onl y
pupil, also a protege o f Barezzi. Accompanied Verdi to London i n 1847 .
Composed opera s Claudia an d Giovanna l a pazza; thereafte r confine d hi s
career t o conducting . Gav e foreig n première s o f severa l Verd i operas .
Resident conducto r o f the Theatr e de s Italiens, Paris, 1870-6 .
Nuitter, Charles-Louis-Etienn e (1828-99) . Frenc h librettist , translato r an d
archivist. Collaborate d wit h Beaumon t o n Frenc h translatio n of Macbeth
and wit h Du Locl e on translation s of Aida, Laforza de l destino and Simo n
Boccanegra. A s archivist of the Pari s Opéra, h e kep t valuabl e record s re -
lating t o Do n Carlos an d acte d a s intermediary betwee n Verd i an d D u
Locle over th e opera' s revisio n 1882-3 .
Pantaleone, Romild a (1847-1917) . Italia n soprano . Create d Desdemon a i n
Otello, not to Verdi's satisfaction; but o n his recommendation wa s cast for
Tigrana in Puccini's Edgar. Mistres s of the conducto r Faccio .
Pasqua, Giuseppin a (1855-1930) . Italian contralto. Cas t b y Verdi for Mistress
Quickly; h e adde d for he r th e sol o a t start o f Act I I scene 2 of Fabtaff.
Perrin, Emile-César-Victor (1814-85) . Frenc h painter and administrator. Di -
rected Opér a Comiqu e 1848-57 ; Théâtr e Lyriqu e 1854—5 ; an d Opér a
Personalia • 38 9
1862—73, during which tim e he commissioned Do n Carlos. Father-in-la w

of Du Lóele .
Piave, Francesc o Mari a (1810—76) . Italia n librettist . Autho r o f Emani, I due
Fosean, Macbeth, U corsaro, Stiffelio, Rigoletto, La traviata, Simon Boccanegra,
Aroldo, Laforza del destino and th e las t act of Attila; resident poet an d stage
manager at La Fenice, Venice 1844-60; moved t o La Scala, Milan 186 1 at
Verdi's recommendation . Suffere d a stroke i n 186 7 an d remaine d para -
lysed until hi s death.
Piazza, Antonio. Italia n journalist. Author of libretto whic h wa s subsequently
fashioned b y Soler a int o Oberto.
Piroli, Giuseppe (i 815-90). Italian lawyer and parliamentarian. Professor of law
at Parma University an d deputy for the cit y in the first Italian parliament.
A member o f the Libera l party, he was made a Senator in 1884 . A close
friend and correspondent o f Verdi.
Poggi, Antoni o (1808—75) . Italia n tenor . Create d Carl o i n Giovanna d'Arco.
Verdi wrot e ne w cabalett a fo r hi m t o sin g i n I Lombardi. Husban d o f
Erminia Frezzolin i and lover o f Countess Samoyloff .
Pougin, Arthur (1834—1921) . French writer. Wrote a life o f Verdi 188 1 whic h
was translate d int o Italia n and amplifie d b y Folchett o wit h a n account ,
not alway s reliable , o f th e composer' s earl y year s authorise d b y Verd i
himself.
Provesi, Ferdinand e (c . 1770-1833). Italia n organis t an d teacher . Municipa l
music master, organist at the church of S. Bartolomeo and director o f the
Philharmonic Societ y a t Busset o durin g Verdi' s youth . Verd i wa s his
pupil, then his assistant and finally his successor as municipal music master.
Ranieri-Marini, Antonietta . Italia n mezzo-soprano . Create d Leonor a i n
Oberto, appearin g i n mos t contemporar y revival s of th e opera , an d th e
Marchesa i n U n giorno d i regno.
Ricordi, Giovann i (1785-1853) . Founde d i n 180 8 th e publishin g hous e tha t
bears his name; published most of the operas of Rossini, Bellini , Donizett i
and Verdi. Founde d th e Gazzetta musicale di Milano whic h continue d t o
appear until 1902 .
Ricordi, Giulio (1840-1912). Son and successor of Tito. A friend of Boito and
Faccio, he too k a n increasingly active part in the firm' s affair s fro m 186 8
onwards. Establishe d cordial relations with Verdi and was responsible for
mounting al l hi s Italia n première s fro m th e revise d Forza de l destino. A
powerful forc e i n Italy's musical life, h e was among the first to recognis e
Puccini's talen t an d to giv e him materia l help befor e h e mad e his name.
He was also a writer, painter and—under the pseudonym of Burgmein—a
composer.
Ricordi, Tito (1811—88) . Son of Giovanni, who m h e succeeded as head of the
firm. An intimat e friend of Verdi, wh o addresse d him with 'tu ' but fre -
quently complained o f his laziness and inefficiency .
39O • V E R D I
Rivas, Angel de Saavedra, Duque de (1791-1865). Spanish dramatist and patriot

of Liberal sympathies. Author of Do n Alvaro o la fuerzade l sin on whic h L a
forza de l destino i s based.
Romani, Felic e (1788—1865) . Italia n librettist , th e mos t accomplishe d o f hi s
generation. Autho r o f al l but tw o o f Bellini' s librettos . Wrot e R ßnto
Stanislao for Adalbert Gyr o wetz, late r set a s Ungiomo d i regno by Verdi.
Ronconi, Giorgio (1810-90) . Italian baritone. Created severa l leading roles for
Donizetti a s well a s the tid e rol e i n Nabucco. Th e prototyp e o f the hig h
dramatic baritone .
Roqueplan, Nestor (1804-70) . French administrator. Managed Pari s Opéra at
the tim e of Jérusalem. Commissione d Le s vêpres siciliennes, bu t force d t o
resign i n 185 4 after fligh t o f Cruvelli.
Royer, Alphonse (1803—75) . French librettist. Co-author with Gustave Vaez of
Jérusalem an d Donizetti' s L a favorite.
Salvini-Donatelli, Fann y (1815-91) . Italia n soprano. Create d Violett a i n L a
traviata, i n whic h sh e san g wel l bu t he r matronly figur e carrie d littl e
dramatic conviction .
Sasse, Marie-Constance (1838—1907) . Belgian soprano. Star of the Paris Opér a
during the 186os ; create d Elisabeth in Do n Carlos, Selika i n Meyerbeer' s
L'Africaine an d Elisabet h in th e Pari s première o f Tannhäuser.
Scribe, Augusti n Eugène (1791—1861) . Frenc h dramatis t and librettist , autho r
of innumerabl e plays , vaudevilles , librett i an d balle t scenario s includin g
Gustave III on whic h U n bailo in maschera is based. With Charles Duveyrier
he wrote L e Due d'Albe, later transformed, with many modifications, into
Les vêpres siciliennes.
Severi, Giovanni . Italia n tenor . Create d Prio r o f Mila n i n / Lombardi; late r
retired t o Triest e a s businessman. Verdi an d Piav e wrot e th e barcarol a
'Fiorellin che sorg i appena' for the birt h o f his son.
Sole, Nicol a (1827—59) . Italia n lawyer an d poet , a membe r o f Verdi' s Nea -
politan circle. Verdi set his 'La preghiera del poeta'; his death put an end to
future plan s for collaboration .
Solera, Temistocle (1815-78) . Italia n librettist and jack-of-all-trades. Residen t
poet a t L a Scala , c . 1839-45 . Autho r o f Nabucco, I Lombardi, Giovanna
a'Arco and Attila, which h e failed t o complete; re-fashione d Oberto from a
previous libretto. Pursue d an adventurous but mostl y ill-fated career.
Somma, Antoni o (1809-65) . Italia n lawyer an d playwright . Wrot e tragedies
performed b y th e famou s actres s Ristori; librettis t o f King Lear, whic h
Verdi commissioned bu t neve r set, and o f U n bailo i n maschera.
Stolz, Teresa (1834—1902) . Austrian soprano. Sang Leonora in the revised Forza
del destino, th e titl e role i n th e Italia n premièr e o f Aida and th e sopran o
solo i n th e firs t performanc e of th e Requiem a s well a s in man y revivals .
Together with Mari a Waldmann (q.v.) appeare d in many Verdi revivals.
Personalia • 39 1
Rumoured t o b e Verdi's mistress; but i t is difficult t o prove tha t she was

more tha n a close friend o f husband and wife .
Strepponi, Giuseppin a (1815—97). Italia n soprano . Verdi's second wife. A star
in th e lat e 18305 , he r voic e rapidl y declined ; sh e create d Abigaill e i n
Nabucco i n poor vocal condition. Afte r retirin g from the stag e she taught
singing i n Paris , wher e Verd i firs t live d wit h he r i n 1847 . The y wer e
married in 1859 . Lef t muc h interestin g and lively correspondence .
Tamagno, Francesc o (1850—1905) . Italia n tenor. Create d Gabriel e i n th e re -
vised Simon Boaanegra an d tid e rol e o f Otello, whos e deat h scen e h e
recorded twice .
Tamberlick, Enrico (1820-89) . Italian 'tenor di forza' renowned fo r being th e
first to sing a C sharp 'di petto'. Created Alvar o in the original La forza del
destino. The teno r solo in the 'Inno delle nazioni' was also written for him.
Believed to have obtained Verdi's permission to introduce the high C into
'Di quella pira' (II trovatore) 'provide d it i s a good one'.
Vaez, Gustave (1812-62). Belgian librettist and administrator. Co-autho r with
Royer of Jérusalem an d Donizetti' s L a favorite.
Varesi, Felic e (1813-89) . Italia n dramatic baritone. Create d titl e roles of Mac-
beth an d Rigoletto an d Germon t i n L a traviata. Value d b y Verd i fo r hi s
intelligence an d actin g ability.
Vasselli, Antoni o (c . 1795-1870). Italia n lawyer, brother-in-law o f Donizetti.
Helpful t o Verd i i n steerin g U n bailo i n maschera throug h th e Roma n
censorship.
Vigna, Cesar e (1814-1912) . Italia n alienist. A pionee r i n th e fiel d o f menta l
illness. Venetian correspondent of the Gazzetta Musicale di Milano he was a
strong supporter of Verdi an d a close friend .
Waldmann, Maria (1844-1920). Austrian mezzo-soprano; san g Amneris in the
Italian premièr e o f Aida and th e mezzo-sopran o sol o i n th e firs t perfor -
mance of the Requiem and in many revivals . Together with Teres a Stol z
often appeare d in Do n Carlos an d Aida. Retire d earl y fro m th e stag e t o
marry into th e aristocracy.
A P P E N D I XD
Select Bibliography
list o f Abbreviations of Principal Periodicals

AcM Act a Musicologica
AMw Archi v fü r Musikwissenschaf t
AnMc Analect a Musicologic a
JAMS Journa l o f the America n Musicologica l Societ y
ML Musi c and Letters
MQ Musica l Quarterl y
MR Musi c Review
MT Musica l Times
NRMI Nuov a Rivist a Musical e Italiana
NZM Neu e Zeitschrif t fur Musik
PRMA Proceeding s o f the Roya l Musica l Association
RaM Rassegn a Musicale
RdM Revu e d e Musicologi e
ReM Revu e Musicale
RIM Rivist a Italian a di Musicología
RMI Rivist a Musical e Italiana
Musical Studie s
A. Basevi : Studio salle opere di Giuseppe Verdi (Florence , 1859 )
G. B. Shaw: 'A Word More about Verdi', Anglo-Saxon Review (1901, March); repr. in London
Music i n 1888-89 (London , 1937 , 2/1950 ) 40 5
A. Soffredini : L e opere d i Verdi: studio critico analítico (Milan , 1901 )
G. Roncaglia : L'ascensione créatrice d i Giuseppe Verdi (Florence , 1940 )
Verdi: studi e memorie (Rome, 1941 )
G. Roncaglia : 'I I "tema-cardine " neu"opera d i Giusepp e Verdi', RMI, xlvii (1943) , 220
A. Deli a Corte : L e se i più belle opere d i Giuseppe Verdi: Rigoletto. H trovatore, L a traviata, Aida,
Otello, Falstaff (Milan , 1946 ; pub d separately , 1923—43 )
M. Mila : 'Verd i e Hanslick', RaM, xxi (1951) , 21 2
I. Pizzetti : 'Contrappunt o e d armoni a nelToper a d i Verdi', RaM, xxi (1951) , 18 9
392
Select Bibliography • 39 3
U. Rolandi : II libretto per música attraverso i tempi (Rome , 1951) , 12 6

R. Vlad : 'Anticipazion i ne l linguaggi o armónic o verdiano' , RaM, xx i (1951) , 237
F. I . Travis : Verdi's Orchestration (Zurich , 1956 )
G. Roncaglia : Gallería verdiana: studi e figure (Milan, 1959 )
L. Dallapiccola: 'Parole e música ne l melodramma', Quademi délia Rassegna musicale, ii (1965) ,
117; Eng. trans, as 'Words and Music in Italia n XIX Centur y Opera', Quademi dell'Istituto
italiano di cultura (Dublin , 1964) , no . 3 ; repr. in PNM, v/ i (1966) , 121 . Se e also Th e Verdi
Companion, 193—21 5
F. Lippmann : 'Verdi e Bellini' , I o congresso intemazionale d i studi verdiani: Venezia 1966, 184;
Ger. versio n i n Beiträge zu r Geschichte de r Oper, ed . H . Becke r (Regensburg, 1969) , 7 7
J. Kovács : 'Zu m Spätsti l Verdis', 1° congresso intemazionale d i studi verdiani: Venezia 1966, 13 2
P. P . Várnai : 'Contribut o pe r un o studi o déli a ripizzazion e negativa nell e oper a verdiane :
personaggi e situazioni' , 1° congresso intemazionale d i studi verdiani: Venezia 1966, 26 8
L. K . Gerhartz : Di e Auseinandersetzungen de s jungen Giuseppe Verdi mi t de m literarischen Drama:
ein Beitrag zu r szenischen Strukturbestimmung de r Oper, Berline r Studie n zu r Musik -
wissenschaft, x v (Berlin , 1968 )
S. Hughes : Famous Verdi Operas (London , 1968 )
J. Kerman : 'Verdi' s Us e o f Recurrin g Themes' , Studies i n Music History: Essays for Oliver
Strunk (Princeton , 1968) , 495
Colloquium Verdi-Wagner: Ro m 1969 [AnMc, no . n (1972) ]
C. Osborne : Th e Complete Operas o f Verdi (London , 1969 )
G. Baldini : Abitare l a battaglia: la storía d i Giuseppe Verdi (Milan , 1970) ; Eng . trans , b y R .
Parker a s Th e Story o f Giuseppe Verdi (Cambridg e 1980 )
P. Petrobelli : 'Osservazion i su l process o compositiv o i n Verdi' , AcM, xlii i (1971) , 12 5 [incl .
sketches]
W. Dean : 'Som e Echoe s o f Donizett i i n Verdi' s Operas' , f congresso intemazionale d i studi
verdiani: Milano 1972, 12 2
J. Budden : Th e Operas o f Verdi: from Oberto t o Rigoletto (Londo n 1973) ; fro m ¡I trovatore to L a
forza de l destino (1978) ; fro m Do n Carlos t o Otello (1981 )
D. Lawton : Tonality an d Drama i n Verdi's Early Operas (diss. , U . o f California , Berkeley ,
1973)-
F. Lippmann : 'De r italienisch e Ver s und de r musikalisch e Rhythmus: zu m Verhältni s von
Vers und Musik in der italienischen Oper des 19. Jahrhunderts, mit eine m Rückblick auf
die 2 . Hälft e de s 18 . Jahrhunderts', AnMc, no. 1 2 (1973) , 253-369 ; no . 1 4 (1974) , 324 -
410; no . 1 5 (I975) . 298-33 3
M. Mila : L a giovinezza d i Verdi (Turin , 1974 )
F. Lippmann : 'Verd i un d Donizetti' , Opemstudien: Anna Amalie Abert zu m 65 . Geburtstag
(Tutzing, 1975) , 15 3
V. Godefroy : Th e Dramatic Genius of Verdi: Studies of Selected Operas, i: 'Nabuao' t o 'La traviata'
(London, 1975) ; ii : 'I vesprí siciliani' t o 'Falstaff (London , 1977 )
F. Noske : Th e Signifier an d th e Signified: Studies i n th e Operas o f Mozart an d Verdi (Th e Hague ,
1977)
W. Weave r an d M . Chusid , eds. : Th e Verdi Companion (Ne w York , 1979 )
M. Mila : L'arte d i Verdi (Turin , 1980 )
D. Kimbell : Verdi i n th e Age o f Italian Romanticism (Cambridge , 1981 )
J. Nicolaisen : Italian Opera i n Transition, itf/i-i& y (An n Arbor, Michigan , UM I Researc h
Press, 198 1 Musicology, 31 )
P. Weiss : 'Verdi an d th e fusio n o f genres', JAMS xxxv/ i (1982 ) 13 8
G. D e Van : Verdi: U n Théâtre e n Musique (Paris , 1992 )
M. Engelhardt : Verdi un d andere (Parma , 1992)
394 • V E R D I
Biography, Life an d Works

G. Demaldè : Cenni biografía (MS , archive s o f Mont e d i Pieta , Busseto , c . 1953) ; pub d i n
Newsletter o f th e American Institute for Verdi Studies (1976—7) , nos . 1— 3
M. Lessona : 'Parma : Giusepp e Verdi' , Valere è potere (Milan , 1869) , 28 7
A. Pougin : Giuseppe Verdi: vita aneddotica (Milan , 188 1 [trans , an d annotate d b y Folchett o
(pseud, o f J. Caponi ) fro m biographica l article s in L e ménestrel, 1878] ; Fr . orig. , incor -
porating Caponi' s additions , 1886 ; Eng . trans. , 1887 )
G. Monaldi : Verdi (Turin , 1899 , 4/1951 )
F. Bonavia : Verdi (Londo n 1930 )
C. Gatti : Verdi (Milan , 1931 , 2/1951 ; Eng . trans. , much abbreviated , 1955 , a s Verdi: th e Man
and His Music)
F. Toye : Giuseppe Verdi: Hi s Life an d Works (London , 1931 )
H. Gerigk : Giuseppe Verdi (Potsdam , 1932 )
D. Hussey : Verdi (London , 1940 , 5/1973 )
G. Cénzalo : ¡riñeran verdiani (Parma , 1949 , 2/1955 )
F. Walker: 'Vincenz o Gemit o an d Hi s Bus t of Verdi', ML , xx x (1949) , 44
M. Mila : Giuseppe Verdi (Bari , 1958 )
F. Abbiati : Giuseppe Verdi (Milan , 1959 )
F. Walker : Th e Man Verdi (London , 1962) ; ne w ed . Chicago , 198 2
G. Martin : Verdi (Ne w York , 1963) , rev . 2/196 4
M. J. Matz : 'Th e Verd i Famil y o f Sant'Ágata an d Roncóle : Legen d an d Truth' , F congresso
internationale d i studi verdiani: Venezia 1966 , 216
—: 'Verdi : th e Root s o f th e Tree' , Verdi: Boltettino dett'Istituto d i studi verdiani, ii i (1969 —
73), 33 3
W. Weaver : 'Verdi th e Playgoer' , Musical Newsletter, vi/ i (1976) , 3
G. Marchesi : Verdi, Merli e Cucù (Busseto , 1979 )
M. Conati : Interviste e incontri co n Verdi (Milan , 1980) ; Eng . trans , a s Interviews an d Encounters
with Verdi (London , 1984 )
G. Marchesi : Giuseppe Verdi: I'uomo, i l genio, ¡'artista (Milan , 1981 )
A. Porter : Th e Ne w Grove Masters o f Italian Opera (London , 1983) , 193 .
J. Rosselli : 'Verd i e l a stori a dell a retribuzion e de l compositor e italiano' , Studi verdiani, i i
(1983)
—: Th e Opera Industry i n Italy from Cimarosa t o Verdi: Th e Rote o f th e Impresario (Cambridge ,
1984)
C. Osborne : Verdi: A Life i n th e Theatre (London , 1987 )
G. Martin : Aspects o f Verdi (Ne w York , 1988 )
Letters and Documents

I. Pizzi : Ricordi verdiani inediti (Turin , 1901 )
A. Pascolato : R e Lear e Bailo i n maschera: lettere di Giuseppe Verdi a d Antonio Somma (Citt à d i
Castello, 1902 )
G. Cesa n an d A . Luzio : / copialettere d i Giuseppe Verdi (Milan , I9i3/Ri973 ; Eng . trans. ,
abridged, 1971 , a s Letters o f Giuseppe Verdi, e d C . Osborne )
J. G . Prod'homme: 'Unpublishe d Letter s from Verdi t o Camill e du Lóele' , MQ, v u (1921) ,
73-103; Fr . orig., ReM, x (1928-9) , no . 5 , p. 97 ; no. 7 . p. 25
—: 'Verdi' s Letter s t o Léo n Escudier' , ML, i v (1923) , 62 , 184 , 375 ; Fr. trans. , Bulletin d e la
société Union musicologique, v (1925) , 7 ; It . orig. , RMI, xxx v (1928) , i , 171 , 519—5 2
F. Werfe l an d P . Stefan : Da s Bildnis Giuseppe Verdis (Vienna , 1926 ; Eng . trans. , enlarged ,
1942, a s Verdi: Th e Ma n i n Hi s Letters)
A. Luzio : 'I I carteggi o d i Giusepp e Verd i co n l a confess a Maffei , Profili biografía e bozzetti
storici, i i (Milan , 1927) , 505—6 2
A. Alberti : Verdi intimo: carteggio d i Giuseppe Verdi co n il conte Opprandino Arrivabene (1861—1886)
(Verona, 1931 )
L. A. Garibaldi : Giuseppe Verdi nelle lettere di Emanuele Muzio a d Antonio. Barezzi (Milan, 1931)
R. D e Rensis : Franco Faceto e Verdi, carteggio e documenti inediti (Milan , 1934 )
A. Luzio : Carteggi verdiani, i —ii (Rome, 1935), Hi —iv (Rome , 1947 )
C. Bongiovanni : Dal carteggio inédito Verdi-Vigna (Rome , 1941 )
A. Oberdorfer : Giuseppe Verdi: autobiograßa dalle lettere (Verona , 194 1 [unde r pseud . C .
Graziani an d censored] ; complet e Mila n 2/1951) ; ne w ed . b y M . Conat i (Milan , 1981 )
F. Walker: 'Verd i an d Francesc o Florimo : Some Unpublishe d Letters' , ML, xxv i (1945) , 201
—: 'Fou r Unpublishe d Verd i Letters' , ML , xxi x (1948) , 4 4
—: 'Cinqu e letter e verdiane' , RaM, xx i (1951) , 256
F. Schlitzer : 'Inedit i verdian i nell a collezion e dell'Accademi a musical e chigiana' , Giuseppe
Verdi, Chigiana , vii i (1951) , 30 : pub d separately , enlarged a s Inediti verdiani nell'archivio
dell'Accademia chigiana (Siena , 1953 )
F. Walker : 'Verdi an d Vienna : Wit h Som e Unpublishe d Letters' , MT , xci i (1951) , 403 , 45 1
—: 'Verdia n Forgeries' , MR , xi x (i958),273 : x x (1959) , 28 : It. trans. , RaM, xx x (1960) , 338
T. Jauner : Fünf Jahre Wiener Opemtheater, 1875—1880: Franz Jauner un d seine Zeit (Vienna ,
1963)
E. Zanetti : 'L a corrispondenz a d i Verd i consérval a a S Cecilia', Verdi: Bollettino dell'Istituto d i
studi verdiani, ii i (1969-73) , 113 1
U. Günther : 'Document s inconnu s concernant le s relations d e Verdi avec l'Opéra d e Paris',
f congresso intemazionale d i studi verdiani: Milano 1972 , 564
M. Conati : 'Saggi o d i entich e e cronach e verdian e dall a Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung d i
Lipsia (1840-48) . 'II melodramma italiano dell'ottocento: studi e ricerche pe r Massimo Mila
(Turin, 1977) , 1 3
W. Weaver : Verdi: A Documentary Study (London , 1977 )
M. Medic i an d M . Conati : Carteggio Verdi/Boito, 2 vols (Parm a 1978 )
E. Baker: 'Lettere di Giusepp e Verdi a Francesco Maria Piave', Studi verdiani iv (1986—7) , 13 6
C. M . Mossa : 'Le letter e d i Emanuel e Muzi o all a Cas a Ricordi", Studi verdiani, i v (1986—7) ,
167
P. Petrobelli , M . D i Gregori o Casat i and C . M . Moss a (eds) : Carteggio Verdi-Ricordi 1880 -
1881 (Parma , 1988 )
L. Sartoris : Nuovi inediti verdiani (Genoa , 1990 )
Catalogues
D. Lawto n an d D . Rosen : 'Verdi's Non-definitiv e Revisions : th e Earl y Operas', 3° congresso
intemazionale d i studi verdiani: Milano 1972 , 189
C. Hopkinson : A Bibliography o f th e Works o f Giuseppe Verdi, 1813-1901, i (Ne w York , 1973 )
[vocal an d ins t work s excludin g operas] ; i i (Ne w York , 1978 ) [operas ]
M. Chusid : A Catalog o f Verdi's Operas (Hackensack , 1974 )
M. Chusid , L . Jensen an d D . Day : Th e Verdi Archive at New York University: Part I I ( A List of
Verdi's Music, Librettos, Production Materials, Nineteenth-Century Italian Periodicals, and Other
Research Materials), i n Verdi Newsletter, 9-10 , 1981- 2
Iconographical
G. Bocea : 'Verd i e la caricatura', RMI, vii i (1901) , 32 6
C. Gatti : Verdi nelle immagini (Milan , 1941 ) [incl . sketches , pp . 64f , 184 , i86f ]
396 • V E R D I
M. T. Muraro : 'L e scenografie déli e cinque "prim e assolute " di Verdi alla Fenice di Venezia' ,
F congresso d i studi verdiani: Venezia ¡966, 32 8
W. Weaver: Verdi: A Documentary Study (London , 1977 )
Bibliographical
C. Hopkinson : 'Bibliographica l Problem s concerne d wit h Verd i an d hi s Publishers', I e con-
gresso intemazionale d i studi verdiani: Venezia 1966, 43 1
D. Lawton : 'Pe r una bibliografía ragionata verdiana', f congresso intemazionale di studi verdiani:
Venezia 1966, 43 7
M. Pavarani : 'Pe r un a bibliografí a e documentazion e verdiana' , í ° congresso intemazionale di
studi verdiani: Venezia 1966, 446
G. Tintori : 'Bibliografía verdian a in Russia' , F congresso intemazionale d i studi verdiani: Venezia
1966, 45 8
M. Mila : L a giovinezza d i Verdi (Turin , 1974) , 5Oif f
Newsletter o f th e American Institute for Verdi Studies (1976- ) [incl . detaile d list s o f publications ,
I975-]
E. Surian : 'L o stat o attual e degli stud i verdiani : appunt i e bibliografí a ragionata' , RIM, xi i
(1977), 30 5
A. Porter : 'A Select Bibliography', Th e Verdi Companion (London , 1979) , 23 9
M. Conati : 'Bibliografí a verdiana' , Studi verdiani i (1982) , 12 9
: 'Bibliografí a verdiana ' (1980-2) , Studi verdiani, ii (1983) , 15 0
Locative Studie s
U. Dauth : Verdis Opern i m Spiegel de r Wiener Presse vo n 1843 bis ¡859. Ei n Beitrag zu r Re -
zeptionsgeschichte (Munich , 1981 )
G. M . Ciampelli : L e opere verdiane a l Teatro alla Scala (1839-1929) (Milan , 1929 )
Verdi e Roma (Rome , 1951 )
G. Steffani : Verdi e Trieste (Trieste , 1951 )
Verdi e Firenze (Florence , 1951 )
M. Conati : L a bottega délia música: Verdi e L a Fenice (Milan , 1983 )
Publications of The Istituto Di Stud i Verdiani, Parm a

Verdi: Bollettino dell'Istituto d i studi verdiani, 1/1-3 (1960 ) [mainl y o n U n hallo i n maschera]
Verdi: Bollettino dell'Istituto d i studi verdiani, II/4— 6 (1961—6 ) [mainl y o n Laforza de l destino]
Verdi: Bollettino dell'Istituto d i studi verdiani, 111/7— 9 (1969—82 ) [mainl y o n Rigoletto]
Verdi: Bollettino dell'btituto di studi verdiani, X Emani ¡eri e Oggi (1987 )
[Atti del] i ° congresso intemazionale d i studi verdiani: Venezia 1966 (1969 )
[Atti del\ 2 ° congresso intemazionale d i studi verdiani: Verona 1969 (1971 )
[Atti del\ 3 ° congresso intemazionale d i studi verdiani: Milano 1972 (1974 )
Quademi dell'Istituto d i studi verdiani, i // Corsaro (1963) , ii : Cerusalemme (1963) , iii : Stiffelio
(1968), iv : Genesi dell'Aida (1971) , v : Messa pe r Rossini. L a storia, i l testo, ¡ a música, M .
Girardi an d P . Petrobell i (eds ) (1988 )
Studi verdiani i (1982) , ii (1983) , iii (1985) , iv (1986-7), v (1988-91), vi (1990 ) [Miscellaneou s
articles]
Special Periodica l Number s

(* article tide s liste d i n M . Mila : L a giovinezza di Verdi (Turin , 1974) , 5i4f )
* Cazzetta musicale di Milano, Iv i (1901 , March )
Natura ed arte (1901 )

* RM!, viii/2 (1901 )
Die Musik, xii i (1913-14 ) [incl . article s by A . Weissmann, E . Istel , R . Specht ]
* Nuova antología, clxvii (1 6 Oct 1913 )
* Áurea Parma, xxv (1941) , Jan-Feb
Illustrazione italiana (2 6 Jan 1941 )
* L a regione Emilia-Romagna (1950) , nos . 9-12
* ZjßVf , Jg. 11 2 (1951) , Jan
* Da i Musikleben, i v (1951) , Feb
* H diapason (1951) , Fe b
* Melos, xvii i (1951) , Fe b
* Opera, ii/ 2 (1951 )
* Laßera letteraria (2 2 April 1951 )
* RaM, xx i (1951) , July
Verdiana: bollettino d i notizie (1950-51 ) [1 2 issues ]
HMYB, vi i (1952 ) 49 4
High Fidelity, xii i (1963) . Oc t [incl . articles by A . Moravia , W. Weaver , an d o n earl y Ne w
York productions] ¡gth Century Music, ii/ 2 (1978-9 )
Individual Works
Oberto
C. Sartori : 'Rocester, l a prima opera d i Verdi', RAÍ/ , xliii (1939) , 97
M. Conati : 'L'Oberto, conté d i Sa n Bonifacio i n du e recensión ! straniere poc o not e e i n un a
lettera inédit a d i Verdi' , 1 ° congresso intemazionale d i studi verdiani: Venezia 1966, 6 7
D. R . B . Kimbell : 'Poi[bu8]divent 6 I'Oberto', ML , l u (1971) , I
P. D . Giovanelli : 'L a stori a e la favol a del l Oberto', Studi verdiani, i i (1983) , 2 9
Un Giomo di Regno
R. Parker : 'Un giomo d i regno; fro m Romani' s librett o t o Verdi' s opera' , Studi verdiani, i i
(1983), 3 8
M. Engelhardt , 'Nuovi dati sulla nascita dell'opera giovanile di Verdi Ungiomo d i regno', Studi
verdiani, iv (1986-^7) , I I
Nabucco
P. Petrobelli : 'Nabucco' , Conference ¡966-67: Associazione Amid della Scala, 1 7
D. Lawton : 'Analytica l Observation s o n th e Nabucco Revisions' , 3 ° congresso intemazionale di
studi verdiani: Milano 1972, 20 8
/ Lombardi alla prima crociata (see JERUSALEM)

Emani
ein Beitrag zu r szenischen Strukturbestimmung de r Oper, Berline r Studie n zu r Musikwissen -
schaft, x v (Berlin , 1968) , 30-82 , 4538 "
J. Kerman : 'Note s o n a n Earl y Verdi Opera', Soundings, ii i (1973) , 5 6
R. Parker : 'Level s o f motivic definitio n i n Verdi' s Emani', icjth Century Music, vi/ 2 (1982) ,
141
Verdi: Bollettino dell'Istituto d i studi verdiani, X Emani leri e Oggi (1987 )
398 • V E R D I
/ Due Fosean
C. Simone : 'Letter e al tenore Mario de Candía sulla cabaletta de I due Foscarf, Nuova antología,
Ixix (1934) , 32 7
G. Biddlecombe : 'Th e revisio n o f "No , no n morrai , ch e i perfidi" ; Verdi' s compositiona l
process i n / du e Fosean, Studi verdiani (1983) , ii , 5 9
Alzira
M. Mila : 'Lettur a deWAIzira', RIM, i (1966) , 24 6
Attila
M. Noira y and R. Parker : 'La compositio n d'Attila: étude de quelques variantes', RAM, Ixi i
(1976), 10 4
M. Mila : 'Lettur a dell ' Attila', NRMI, i i (1983) , 24 7
Macbeth
G. C . Varesi : 'L'interpretazione de l Macbeth', Nuova antología, cclxxx i (1932) , 43 3
ein Beitrag zu r szenischen Strukturbestimmung de r Oper, Berline r Studie n zu r Musikwis -
senschaft, x v (Berlin , 1968) , 82-193 , 4650 "
W. OsthofF : 'Di e beiden Fassunge n von Verdi s Macbeth', AMw, xxi x (1972) , 1 7
F. Degrada : 'Lettur a de l Macbeth d i Verdi', Studi musicali, vi (1977) , 20 7
D. Goldin : 'I I Macbeth verdiano : genesi e linguaggio di un libretto', AnMc, no. 1 9 (1979) , 336
M. Conati : 'Aspett i délia messinscena del Macbeth d i Verdi', NRMI, xv/(i98i) , 37 4
see als o 'Shakespear e operas '
Verdi's 'Macbeth': a sourcebook, ed . D . Rose n an d A . Porte r (London , 1984 )
N. John (ed.) : Macbeth, Englis h Nationa l Oper a Guide , 4 1 (London , 199 )
Jérusalem
'Gerusalemme', Quaderni dell'Istituto d i studi verdiani, i i (1963 )
D. Kimbell : 'Verdi' s first rifacimento: / Lombardi an d Jerusalem', ML , ix/ i (1969) , i
H Corsaro
'II corsaro' , Quaderni dell'Istituto d i studi verdiani, i (1963 )
M. Mila : 'Lettur a de l Corsaro', NRMI, i/i97i , 40
D. Lawto n 'Th e Corsai r reaches port', Opera News, xlvi/2O, 1982 , 1 6
Luisa Miller
ein Beitrag zu r szenischen Strukturbestimmung de r Oper, Berline r Studie n zu r Musikwis -
senschaft, x v (Berlin , 1968) , 193—270 , 475f f
Stiffelio
V. Levi : 'Stiffelio e i l su o rifaciment o (Aroldo)', i° congresso intemazionale d i studi verdiani:
Venezia 1966 , 17 2
'Stiffelio', Quademi dell'Istituto d i ¡tuái verdiani, ii i (1968 )

G. Morell i (ed.) : Tomando a 'Stiffelio'. Popolarità, rifacimento , messinscena, effettismo e t altre 'cure'
nella drammaturgia de l Verdi romántico (Florence , 1987 )
Rigoletto
C. Gatti : Introductio n t o L'abbozzo de l Rigoletto d i Giuseppe Verdi (Milan , 1941 ) [sketches]
G. Roncaglia : 'L'abbozz o de l Rigoletto d i Verdi' , RMI, xlvii i (1946) , 112 ; repr. i n G . Ron -
caglia: Galleria verdiana (Milan , 1959 )
P. Petrobelli : 'Verd i e i l Do n Giovanni: osservazion i sull a scen a iniziale de l Rigoletto', i °
congresso internationale d i studi verdiani: Venezia 1966 , 23 2
Verdi: Bollettino dell'Istituto d i studi verdiani, ii i (1969—82 )
N.John (ed.) : Rigoletto, English Nationa l Oper a Guide , 1 5 (London , 1982 )
II Trovatore
P. Petrobelli : 'Pe r un'eseges i dell a struttur a drammatic a de l Trovatore', 3 ° congresso inter-
nazionale d i studi verdiani: Milano 1972 , 38 7
D. Rosen : 'Le trouvère: Comparin g Verdi' s Frenc h Version with Hi s Original' , Opera News,
xli/22 (1977) , 1 0
W. Drabkin: 'Characters, ke y relation s and tona l structure in / / trovatore', Music Analysis, i/ 2
(1982), 14 3
R. Parker : 'The dramati c structure of// trovatore', Musical Analysis, i/ 2 (1982) , 15 5
J. Black : 'Salvadore Cammarano's programma fo r // trovatore and the problem s of the finale' ,
Studi verdiani, i i (1983) , 7 8
N. John (ed.) : // trovatore, English National Oper a Guide , 2 0 (London , 1983 )
La Traviata
M. Chusid : 'Dram a an d th e Ke y o f F major in L a traviata', f congresso intemazionale d i studi
verdiani: Milano 1972 , 89
J. Budden : 'The Tw o Traviatas', PRMA, xci x (1972-3) , 43
D. Rosen : 'Virtu e restored' , Opera News, xlii/g (1977—8) , 3 6
N.John (ed.) : L a Traviata, Englis h National Opera Guide , (London , 1981 )
F. Della Seta: 'II tempo dell a festa; s u due scen e della Traviata e su altri luoghi verdiani', Studi
verdiani, i i (1983) , 10 8
J. A . Hepokoski: 'Genre and content i n mid-century Verdi: "Addio, del passato" (L a traviata,
Act III)' , Cambridge Opera Journal, I (1989) , 24 9
Les Vêpres Siciliennes

P. Bonnefon : 'Les metamorphose s d'un opéra' , Revue des deux mondes, xl i (1917) , 87 7
J. Budden : 'Variant i ne i Vespr i siciliani' , NRMI, v i (1972) , 15 5
M. Mila , R . Cellett i an d G . Gualerzi : Opera: collana d i guide musicali is t ser. , i (Turi n 1973 )
essays wit h Fr./It . librett o
A. Porter: 'Les vêpres siciliennes; Ne w Letter s fro m Verd i t o Scribe' , tgth Century Music, i i
(1978-9), 95
F. Noske : 'Melodí a e struttur a i n Le s vêpres siciliennes d i Verdi', Ricerche musicali, i v (1980) , 3
J. Budden : 'Verd i and Meyerbeer in relation to Le s vêpres siciliennes', Studi verdiani, i (1982), 1 1
M. Conati : 'Ballabili nei Vespri; co n alcun e osservazioni su Verdi e la música popolare', Studi
verdiani, i (1982) , 2 1
4<X> • V E R D I
Simo« Boccanegra
F. Walker: 'Verdi , Giuseppe Montanelli and th e librett o o f Simo n Boccanegra', Verdi: Boltettino
dell' Istituto d i studi verdiani, i (1960) , 137 3
W. Osthoff : 'Die beiden Boarane^ra-Fassunge n und de r Beginn vo n Verdi s Spätwerk, AnMc,
no. i (1963) , 70
J. Kerman : 'Lyri c For m an d Flexibilit y i n Simo n Boccanegra', Studi verdiani, i (1982) , 4 7
P. P . Varnai : 'Paol o Albiani. I I cammin o d i u n personaggio' , Studi verdiani, i (1982) , 63
E. T. Cone: 'On the road to Otello. Tonality an d Structure in Simon Boccanegra', Studi verdiani,
i (1982) , 7 2
N. John (ed.) : Simon Boccanegra, English Nationa l Oper a Guide , 3 2 (London, 1985 )
H. Busch : Verdi's 'Otello' an d 'Simon Boccanegra' (Revised Version) i n Letters an d Documents
(Oxford, 1988 )
Aroldo (see Stiffelio)
Un Bailo in Maschera
A. Pascolato : R e Lear e Bailo i n maschera: lettere d i Giuseppe Verdi a d Antonio Somma (Citt à d i
Castello, 1902 )
Verdi: Bollettino dell'Istituto d i studi verdiani i (1960—1 )
G. Salvett i an d R . Celletti : Opera: collana d i guide musicali is t ser. ii (Turin , 1973 ) essay s with
lib.
S. Levarie: 'Ke y relationship s in Verdi' s U n bailo i n maschera', içth century music, ii/2 (1978) ,
142
N. Joh n (éd.) : U n hallo i n maschera, English National Oper a Guide, 4 0 (London , 1990 )
La Forza Del Destino

Verdi: Bollettino dell'Istituto d i studi verdiani, i i (1961—5 )
E. Rescigno : L a Forza del destino di Verdi (Mila n 1981 )
N.John (ed.) : The Force o f Destiny, English National Oper a Guide , 2 5 (London , 1983 )
W. C . Holmes : 'Th e earliest revisions of La forza de l destino', Studi verdiani, vi (1990 )
Don Carlos
2° congresso intemazionale di studi verdiani: Verona ¡960,
A. Porter: ' A Sketc h fo r Do n Carlos', MT, cx i (1970) , 882
: 'The Making o f Don Carlos', PRMA, xcvii i (1971-2) , 73
U. Günther : 'L a genès e d e Do n Carlos', RdM, Ivii i (1972) , 16 ; b e (1974) , 8 7
A. Porter: ' A Note on Princes s Eboli', MT, cxii i (1972) , 750
U. Günthe r an d G. Carrara Verdi: 'De r Briefwechsel Verdi-Nuitter-Du Lod e zur Revisio n
des Do n Carlos', AnMc, no. 1 4 (1974) , i ; no . 1 5 (1975) , 33 4
A. Porter : 'Preambl e t o a New Do n Carlos', Opera, xx v (1974) , 665
M. Clémeur : 'Ein e neuentdeckt e Quell e fu r da s Libretto vo n Verdi' s Do n Carlos', Melos/
NZM, ii i (1977) , 496
U. Günther : 'L'edizion e integrale de l Do n Carlos'. Prefac e t o complet e editio n o f the oper a
(Milan, 1977 )
:'La genes e d u Do n Carlos d e Verdi: nouveau x documents', RdM, Ixxi i (1986) , 10 4
N. John (ed.) : Do n Carlos, English National Oper a Guide , 46 (London , 1992 )
Aída
A. Luzio : 'Come f u compost a l'Aida' , Carteggi verdiani, iv (Rome , 1947) , 5
E. Lendvai : 'Verdis Formgeheimnisse', i° congress*) internazionale di studi verdiani: Venezia 1966 ,
157
'Genesi d i Aida' , Quademi dell'Istituto d i studi verdiani, i v (1971 )
U. Günther : 'Zu r Entstehun g von Verdi s Aida', Studi tnusicali, i i (1973) , 15—7 1
P. Gossett : 'Verdi, Ghislanzoni and Aida: Th e Use s of Convention', Critical Inquiry, i (1974),
291
J. Humbert : 'A propo s d e l'égyptomani e dan s l'oeuvr e d e Verdi : attributio n à August e
Mariette d'u n scénari o anonyme d e l'opér a Aida', RdM, bai (1976) , 229
L. Alberti : ' I progress i attual i [1872 ] de l dramm a musicale : note sull a Disposizione scenica per
l'opéra "Aida" ' , II melodratnma italiano dell'ottocento: studi e ricerche per Massimo Mila (Turin ,
1977) 12 5
H. Busch : Verdi's Aida: Th e History o f a n Opera i n Letters an d Documents (Minneapolis , 1978 )
P. Petrobelli : 'Musi c i n th e theatr e (a propos of Aida, act 111)' , Themes i n Drama, 3. Drama,
Dance an d Music (Cambridge , 1980) , 12 9
N. John (éd.) : Aida, English Nationa l Oper a Guide , 2 (London , 1980 )
M. Conati : 'Aspett i d i melodrammaturgia verdiana. A proposito d i una sconosciuta versione
del final e de l duett o Aida-Amneris' , Studi verdiani, iii (1985) , 4 5
Otello
F. Busoni : 'Verdi' s Otello: ein e kritische Studie' , NZM , li v (1887) , 12 5
J. Kerman : 'Verdi' s Otello, o r Shakespear e explained' i n J. Kerman : Opera a s Drama (Ne w
York, 1956) , 12 9
W. Dean : 'Verdi' s Otello: A Shakespearean masterpiece', Shakespeare Survey, xx i (1968) , 8 7
D. Lawton : 'On th e 'bacio ' them e i n Otello', it)th Century Music, i (1977-8) , 21 1
J. Budden : 'Tim e stand s still in Otello , Opera, xxxii/ 9 (1981) , 888
N.John (ed.) : Otello, English Nationa l Oper a Guide, 7 (London, 1981 )
J. A . Hepokoski : Giuseppe Verdi: 'Otello' (Cambridge , 1987 )
H. Busch : Verdi's 'Otello' an d 'Simon Boccanegra' (Revised Version) i n Letters an d Documents
(Oxford, 1988 )
Falstaff
H. Gal : ' A delete d episod e i n Verdi' s Falstaff, MR , i i (1941) , 26 6
E. T . Cone : 'Th e statur e of Falstaff. Techniqu e an d conten t i n Verdi' s las t opera' , Center, i
(1954), 1 7
G. Barbián : U n prezioso spartito d i Falstaff (Milan , 1957 )
D. Sabbeth: 'Dramati c an d musica l organisation in Falstaff', 3 ° congresso internazionale d i studi
verdiani: Milan, 1972 , 415
W. Osthoff : 'I I sonetto nel Falstaff d i Verdi', U melodramma italiano dell'ottocento: studi e ricerche
per Massimo Mila (Turin , 1977) , 15 7
D. Linthicum : 'Verdi' s Falstaff an d classica l sonata form', MR , xxxviii/ i (1978) , 3 9
J. Hepokoski : 'Verdi , Giuseppina Pasqua and the compositio n o f Falstaff, icth Century Music,
iii/3 (1980) , 239
N. John (ed.) : Falstaff, Englis h Nationa l Oper a Guide , 1 0 (London , 1982 )
J. Hepokoski : Giuseppe Verdi: Falstaff (Cambridge , 1983 )
4O2 • VERD I
// R e Lear
A. Pascolato : Rè Lear e Bailo i n maschera: lettere d i Giuseppe Verdi a d Antonio Somma (Citt à d i
Castello, 1902 )
M. Medici : 'Letter e s u R e Lear' , Verdi: Bollettino deü'lstituto d i studi verdiani, i (1960 )
L. K . Gerhartz : 'I I R e Lear d i Antoni o Somm a e d i l modell o melodrammatic o dell'oper a
verdiana: princip i pe r un a definizion e de l librett o verdiano' , 1 ° congresso intemazionale d i
studi verdiani: Venezia 1966 , 11 0
: Die Auseinandersetzungen des jungen Giuseppe Verdi mit dem literarischen Drama: ein
Beitrag zur szenischen Strukturbestimmung de r Oper, Berline r Studie n zu r Musikwissenschaft ,
xv (Berlin , 1968) , 2778" , 4978 "
G. Martin: 'Verdi , King Lear and Mari a Piccolomini', Columbia Library Columns, xxi (1971), 1 2
see also 'Shakespear e operas '
Shakespeare Operas
E. T. Cône : 'Verdis letzte Opern: di Spielzeuge eines alten Mannes: die Spätwerk Verdis im
Lichte de r moderne n Kritik' , Perspektiven, v i (1953) , 127 ; Eng . orig. , 'Th e Ol d Man' s
Toys', Perspectives USA, v i (1954) , 11 4
W. Dean : 'Shakespear e and Opera' , Shakespeare i n Music, ed . P . Hartnol l (London , 1964) , 89
: 'Shakespear e i n th e Oper a House' , Shakespeare Survey, xvii i (1965) , 7 5 se e als o
'Macbeth', 'Otello' , 'FalstafT , 'I I r e Lear '
Requiem
I. Pizzetti : 'L a religiosit à d i Verdi : introduzion e ali a Mess a d a Requiem' , Nuova antología, i
(I94I)
D. Rosen : 'Verdi' s "Libe r scriptus " Rewritten' , MQ, I v (1969) , 15 1
: 'L a Messa a Rossini e i l Requiem pe r Manzoni" , RIM, i v (1969) , 127 ; v (1970) , 21 6
: Th e Genesis o f Verdi's Requiem (diss. , U . o f California , Berkeley, 1976 )
Quattro Pezzi Sacri Etc

H. Scherchen : ' l quattr o pezzi sacri', / / diapason (1951) , Fe b
F. Walker : 'Verdi' s Four Sacred Pieces', Ricordiana, vi/2 (1961) , i
D. Stivender : 'Th e Composer of Gesù mon' Newsletter o f the American Institute for Verdi Studies
(1976), no . 2 , p. 6
M. Conati : 'L e Ave Maria sulla scala enigmática d i Verdi dall a prima alla seconda stesura (1889—
1897)', RIM, xii i (1978) , 28 0
Disposizioni Scenich e
Contemporary productio n book s (Photocopie s exis t a t th e Istitut o Nazionale d i Stud i
Verdiani, Parma. )
Les Vêpres siciliennes, opéra à cinq actes, paroles de MM . E . Scribe e t Ch. Duveyrier, musique
de G . Verdi, représenté pour l a première fois à Paris sur le Théâtre Impéria l de l'Opéra l e
13 juin 185 5 (collectio n d e mises-en-scèn e rédigé s e t publié s par M . L . Palianti ) (Pari s
1855)
Disposizione scenic a per l'opér a Giovanna d e Guzman de l maestr o cavalièr e Giusepp e Verd i
ufficiale déli a Légio n d'Onor e compílal a e regolat a sull a mise-en-scèn e ne l Teatr o Im -
periale delTOper a d i Parig i (Mila n ?i855 )
Disposizione scenic a pe r Toper a U n Bailo i n Maschera d i G . Verd i sull a mess a i n scen a de l

Teatro Apoll o i n Rom a i l carneval e de l 1859 , de l direttor e d i scen a de l medesimo ,
Giuseppe Cencett i (Milan , 1859 )
La Forza de l Destino, opera de l maestr o Giusepp e Verdi , librett o d i Francesc o Maria Piave ,
ordinazioni e disposizion e scenic a (Mila n ?i863 )
Disposizione scenic a per I'oper a Don Carlo di Giuseppe Verdi compílala e regolata secondo la
messa in scena del Teatro Imperiale dell'Opera di Parigi (is t ed. Milan 1867 , 3rd ed. 1884 )
Disposizione scenic a pe r I'oper a Aida vers i d i Antoni o Ghislanzoni , músic a d i Giusepp e
Verdi, compilat a e regolat a second o l a mess a i n scen a de l Teatr o all a Scal a d a Giuli o
Ricordi (Mila n 1872 )
Disposizione scenic a pe r I'oper a Simon Boccanegra d i Giusepp e Verd i compilat a e regolat a
secondo l a messa del Teatr o all a Scal a da Giuli o Ricord i (Mila n 1881 )
Disposizione scenic a pe r I'oper a Otello, dramma líric o i n quattr o atti, vers i d i Arrig o Boito ,
música d i Giusepp e Verdi ; compilat a e regolata second o l a messa in scen a de l Teatro alla
Scala d a Giuli o Ricord i (Mila n 1887 )
Note
A critica l editio n o f Verdi's work s i s in proces s o f publicatio n b y th e Cas a Ricord i i n
conjunction wit h th e Universit y o f Chicago Press. Already i n print:
Rigoletto ( 2 vols) éd. M . Chusi d (1983 )
Emani ( 2 vols) ed. C . Gallic o (1984 )
Nabucco ( 2 vols) ed . R . Parke r (1988 )
Messa d a Requiem ( 2 vols) ed . D . Rose n (1990 )
Luisa Miller ( 2 vols) ed . Jeffre y Kallber g (1991 )
For a comprehensive bibliograph y th e reade r i s referred t o th e Ne w Grove Dictionary o f
Opera, ed . S . Sadie (London , 1992) .
A P P E N D I XE
Glossary of Nineteenth-Century
Operatic Terms
Accento (1) Manne r o f simultaneous articulation o f words an d notes .

(2) Th e fina l accen t i n a line o f verse: piano, i f it fall s o n th e las t
syllable but one ; sdrucciolo if on th e las t but two , s o adding an extra
syllable to the metre (see Verso); tronco if on th e last, so robbing th e
metre o f a syllable.
Appaltatore A theatrica l agent, usuall y an impresari o as well.
Aria A large-scal e sol o usuall y i n tw o contraste d movement s an d
preceded by a scena (q.v.) (Se e also Cantabile, Cabaletta, Cavatina,
Rondo-finale); co n pertichini with intervention s from one o r mor e
singers, which giv e it the character, though not th e form, of a duet
or ensemble ; di baute (lit . 'suitcas e aria') , on e suitabl e t o a stoc k
situation, whic h principal singers carried with the m t o interpolat e
into any opera in place of what the compose r had written; d i sortita
(see Cavatina) .
Arioso A lyrica l passage with th e characte r of an ari a bu t i n fre e form .
Ballabile Usual ter m fo r a sung dance .
Cabaletta The concluding , usuall y Est movement o f an aria or due t (se e also
Stretta). From 1820—8 0 it connotes a form involving the repetitio n
of a melodi c perio d wit h ritornell o (q.v.) an d noisy , applause -
provoking coda .
Cadenza A passage of free vocalisation preceding the singer's final cadence in
a cantabile .
Cantabile The first movement o f an aria or the secon d o f a three-movement
duet; slo w an d expressive , usually ending wit h a cadenza.
Canto fiorito Decorated voca l musi c o f th e typ e associate d wit h th e ag e o f
Rossini.
Camevale-quaresima The mai n operati c seaso n o f the yea r running fro m 2 6 December
until Easter.
CarteUo The playbil l for a whol e season . Teatro di cartello: leadin g oper a
house.
Cavatina Aria markin g th e singer' s first appearance.
404
Glossary o f Nineteenth-Century Operatic Terms • 40 5
Comparsa Walking-on part.

Comprimario Sub-principal singer , wh o qualifie s fo r a 'romanza ' (q.v.) o r a n
important par t i n a n ensemble , bu t neve r fo r a ful l ari a i n tw o
movements.
Convenienze Rules o f etiquett e governin g singers ' ran k (se e Primo, Compri -
mario, Seconde).
Couplets (Fr. ) A song consisting of two paralle l strophes set to th e sam e melody,
of whic h th e las t lines , identica l i n eac h cas e for m a refrain ,
sometimes echoe d b y chorus (e.g. 'Di tu s e fedele' fro m U n bailo in
maschera). Ofte n minor-majo r i n ke y structure .
Decasillabo See Verso.
Endecasillabo See Verso.
Falso canone A slo w ensembl e i n th e for m o f a round proceedin g a s far as th e
entry o f the las t voice .
Finale Final ensembl e o f a n ac t usuall y consisting o f tw o formal , con -
trasted movement s durin g whic h th e actio n i s frozen , alternatin g
with tw o free r movement s durin g which i t i s carried forward (see
Tempo d'attacco, Pezzo concertato, Tempo di mezzo, Stretta).
Fioritura Florid vocal decoration .
Introduzione A comple x o f chorus , scen a materia l an d on e o r mor e cavatin e
occurring a t th e beginnin g o f a n oper a afte r th e prelud e o r
overture.
Maestro concertatore A 'coach ' o r 'répétiteur ' responsibl e no t onl y fo r teachin g th e
singers thei r note s bu t als o for rehearsin g th e whol e oper a a t th e
keyboard; henc e th e alternative tid e Maestro a l cembalo).
Melisma A grou p o f notes sun g to a single syllable.
Opera di obbligo Opera commissione d a s one o f the noveltie s o f the season.
Opera di ripiego An oper a hel d i n reserv e t o b e mounte d whe n th e schedule d
novelty i s delayed.
Octonario See Verso.
Parlante An orchestra l them e wit h whic h th e voice s engag e intermittentl y
either o n th e melodi c lin e (parlante melódico) o r o n harmon y notes
(parlante armónico) o r alternativel y on bot h (parlante misto).
Pezzo concertato A large-scal e ensembl e wit h elaborat e part-writin g formin g th e
cantabile o f a final e an d ofte n th e musica l pinnacl e o f th e opera ;
not alway s balanced by a stretta. (Se e also Finale.)
Pertíchino See Aria .
Piano See Accento.
Preghiera Prayer (se e Romanza).
Primo (a) Term denoting principal singer (e.g. 'prima donna, primo tenore') .
Quinario See Verso.
Recitativo The declamator y o r conversationa l par t o f a n oper a wher e th e
vocal lin e follow s th e fre e rhyth m an d accentuatio n o f ordinary
speech.
Ritornello Conventional ter m for a short repeated instrumental passage within
a forma l movement .
Romanza A short , slo w ari a i n on e movement , ofte n minor-majo r i n key -
structure; sometime s calle d 'Preghiera ' wher e th e contex t i s
appropriate.
Rondo-finale A gran d ari a usuall y wit h chora l intervention s an d pertichin i
occurring a t the en d o f an act.
400 • V E R D I
Rosalia Th e identica l repetitio n o f a melodic ide a a tone higher , keepin g th e

exact interval s of th e notes . (Derive d fro m a n ol d son g 'Rosalia , mi a
cara'.)
Scena (i ) A 'scene' , marke d of f b y th e entranc e an d exi t o f on e o r mor e
characters bu t includin g sometimes a preparatory chorus. (2 ) Any par t
of an act during which the scene remains unchanged. (3 ) A complex o f
recitative, arioso , orchestra l figuratio n an d parlant e preparator y t o a
formal numbe r (a s in 'scen a e d aria' , 'scen a e duetto').
Sciolti Se e Verso .
Sdrucciolo Se e Accento.
Secondo (a ) 'Second' . Term denotin g th e lowes t categor y o f solo singer , confine d
to recitativ e an d a harmoni c par t i n a larg e ensembl e (e.g . 'second a
donna, second o tenor e etc.' )
Senario Se e Verso .
Settenario Se e Verso.
Sinfonia Overture .
Stretta Fast , concludin g movement o f an ensemble , especiall y a finale, corre -
sponding t o th e cabalett a of an ari a o r due t (ofte n th e term s ar e used
interchangeably).
Tempo D'attacc o Fas t first movement o f a three-movement due t o r ensemble .
Tempo d i mezzo Free , transitiona l movemen t occurrin g betwee n th e cantabil e an d
cabaletta o f a duet or ensemble o r th e pezz o concertato and stretta of a
finale.
Tronco Se e Accento.
Verso A lin e o f verse , classifie d accordin g t o it s metre , e.g . Verso decasillabo:
lo-syllable vers e i n anapaesti c metre ; endecasillabo, n-syllabl e vers e
usually i n iambi c metre ; ottonario: 8-syllabl e vers e i n trochai c metre ;
quinario: 5-syllabl e vers e i n iambi c metre ; senario: 6-syllabl e vers e i n
broken anapaests ; settenario: y-syllabl e vers e i n iambi c metr e (se e als o
accento). Versi sciolti; a fre e minglin g o f 7 - an d n-syllabl e vers e
employed fo r recitatives.
Index
Abbadia, Luigia, 19 , 31 0 Pirata, II , 15 5

Adam, Adolphe , 246 Sonnambula, La , 146, 168, 21 4
Alboni, Marietta, 21 5 Straniera, La, 15 5
Alfieri, Vittorio , 5 , 1 2 Bendazzi, Luigia, 74
Anastasi-Pozzoni, Antonietta, 11 2 Berlioz, Hector , 26 , 70 , 75 , 93, 155 , 165 ,
Anviti, Colonel , 85 , 11 4 167, 246 , 306 , 334 , 339
Appiani, Giuseppina , 15, 2 1 Bertani, Prospero, 11 4
Arditi, Luigi , 75 , 89 , 324 Bishop, Anna , 33
Arrivabene, Opprandino, 34 , 86, 88, 89, 95, Bizet, Georges , 97 , 11 1
ico, 105 , 109 , 131 , 133 , 135 , 233 , 253 Carmen, 119 , 122 , 15 4
Auber, Daniel-François-Esprit , 89 , 90, lo o Boito, Arrigo, 89-94, 96, 99-100, 117 , 127-38 ,
Gustav HI, 77 , 25 5 141-3, 145-7 , 149-50 , 152, 158 , 202,
Muette d e Portici, La , 70 , 90 , 24 3 250-1, 292 , 295, 301-2, 307 , 330,
355, 35 9
Bach, Johann Sebastian , i , 139 , 154 , 334 , 352 Mefistofele, 99 , 125 , 129 , 132 , 295 , 30 7
Baldini, Gabriele , 23 , 293 Nerone, 107 , 13 2
Balestra, Luigi , 317-1 8 Boito, Gamillo, 134 , 14 3
Barbieri-Nini, Marianna , 40-1 , 45, 148 , 207 Borghi-Mamo, Adelaide, 233
Bardare, Leon e Emanuele , 61 , 72 Borodin, Alexander, 269, 325
Barezzi, Antonio , 4 , 6, 7, 9, u , 13 , 16 , 18, 27, Bottesini, Giovanni , 112 , 13 7
41-2, 48, 53-4, 59-60 , 65, 98, 151 , 304 Bourgeois, Eugene , 55
Barezzi, Giovanni , 25 , 94, 10 0 Brahms, Johannes, 117 , 154 , 297 , 326 , 334,
Barilli, Bruno , 29 3 350, 36 1
Basevi, Abramo, 51, 157 , 175,213 , 233, 315, 336 Brambilla, Teresa , 5 8
Easily, Francesco , 6, 1 0 Brenna, Guglielmo , 22-4 , 57 , 58, 60
Baucarde, Carlo , 6 2 Broglio, Emilio , 9 9
Beethoven, Ludwi g van , i , 3 , 5, 8, 27, 91, 151 , Bruckner, Anton , 151 , 331 , 335
154, 220 , 250 , 263 , 293, 303-4, 315 , Bruneau, Alfred , 138 , 29 5
326-7, 331 , 334 Bülow, Han s von, 8 , 26, 114 , 117 , 139 , 334
Bellaigue, Camille, 149 , 155 , 30 1 Busch, Fritz , 270
Bellincioni, Gemma , 63 , 13 4 Byron, Georg e Gordon, Lord, 23 , 37, 155 , 185 ,
Bellini, Vincenzo , 14 , 25-6, 34 , 46, loo , lio , 207, 32 2
151, 155 , 165-6 , 168 , 177 , 190 , 212, 220,
235, 290 , 310-11, 316 , 329 Cagnoni, Antonio, 324 , 331
Norma, 155 , 174 , 28 1 Calzado, T . 71 , 73
407
408 • INDE X
Cammarano, Salvatore, 32 , 50, 51-2, 54-5 , Lucia d i Lammermoor, 32 , 43 , 45 , 166 , 173 ,

59-62, 69, 79, 190-1, 201, 210 , 213-14, 192, 208, 231, 236
222, 22 8 Lucrezia Borgia, 158 , 17 5
Capponi, Giuseppe , 11 8 Pía De'Tolomei, 234, 237
Carcano, Giulio, 39, 55, 84 Poliuto, 266
Carlo Alberto, Kin g of Piedmont, 14 , 50 Draneht, Paul, 11 2
Carrara, Alberto, 82 , 12 3 Du Lóele , Camille , 95 , 106-7, i°9 , 122-3 ,
Carrara-Verdi, Maria Filomena ('Fifao'), 82 , 97, 130-2, 274-5, 283
loo, 123 , 146 , 14 8 Dumas, Alexandre (fls), 60-1 , 235
Carvalho, Léon, 92 Dumas, Alexandre (père), 23 , 55 , 10 7
Casella, Alfredo, 30 8 Duponchel, G., 45
Catalani, Alfredo, 35, in, 114, 136 , 138-9,152, Dupré, Giovanni , 42, 127 , 15 2
291, 29 4 Duprez, Gilbert , 45 , 166 , 206
Cavour, Gamill o Benso, 71, 83—5 , 15 3 Dvorak, Antonin, 154 , 359
Cherubini, Luigj , 154 , 315 , 333
Chierici, Maurizio, 14 8 Escudier, Léon, 36, 45,47, 60,73, 86,94-5, n8,
Chopin, Frédéric , 151 , 165 , 208, 211, 238, 325 I2I-3, 130 , 201 , 321- 2
Chorley, Henr y Fothergjll , 26 , 44 Escudier, Marie, 45 , 47, 55 , 322
Cilea, Francesco, 14 1 Etcheverria, Giuseppe , 74
dementi, Muzio, 92 , 315
Coletti, Filippo , 33, 44, 72, 79-80, 247 Faccio, Franco, 91, 92, 94, 96, 100 , 112 , 124-5 ,
Colini, Filippo, 50 , 56 , 72, 190 , 21 3 131-2, 134 , 136-^7,27 6
Corelli, Arcangelo, 154 , 31 5 Fauré, Gabriel, 33 1
Cormon, Eugène, 95, 271 Faure, Jean-Baptiste, 97
Costa, Si r Michael, 43, 75, 98 Ferdinand I , Emperor of Austria, 9 , 1 4
Co wen, Frederick , 124 , 14 2 Ferdinand I, King of Naples, 83
Crispi, Francesco, 140 , 14 5 Ferrari, Giovanni, 9-11
Crosnier, Louis , 69, 71 Ferretti, Jacopo, 29-30 , 16 7
Cruvelli, Sofia, 6 9 Filippi, Filippo, 94 , 113 , 15 6
Flauto, Vincenzo, 32 , 50 , 5 1
Dallapiccola, Luigi, 258 Florimo, Francesco, 8, 80, n o
DalTOngaro, Francesco , 323 Fogazzaro, Antonio, 293
Dante Alighieri, 9 , 124 , 128 , 154 , 35 1 Fraschini, Gaetano, 34 , 40, 43, 46, 50 , 56,
David, Félicien , 33 , 143 , 194 , 299 72, 79-80, 90, 19 2
D'Azeglio, Massimo, 14 , 1 5 Frezzolini-Poggi, Erminia, 15 , 26 , 53 , 179 , 18 9
De Bassini , Achille, 46, 90 Fried, Antonina, 33 1
Debussy, Claude-Achille, 29 6
De Giuli-Borsi , Teresa, 50 , 313 Gallignani, G., 14 4
Dejean, Mm e Julien, 82 Gallo, Antonio, 11 7
De Lauzires, Achille, 98 , 10 0 Garbin, Edoardo , 14 0
Deifico, Melchiorre , 8 l Gardoni, ítalo, 43, 44
Delibes, Leo , 246, 304 Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 50, 84—5 , 9 6
Demaldé, Giuseppe ('Finóla'), 2, 5 , 15 , Gauthier, Théophile, 97
31, 53 Gazzaniga-Malaspina, Maria, 56
Depanis, Giuseppe, inn, 115 , I37n , 139 , 15 2 Ghislanzoni, Antonio, 14 , loo-i , 108 , 152 , 274
De Reszke , Edouard , 13 0 Giacosa, Giuseppe, 133 , 14 2
Derivis, Prosper, 29 Gianetti-Galli, Isabella, 323
De Sanctis , Cesare, 54-5 , 59 , 61—2, 65, 68, 69, Giordano, Umberto , 14 1
72, 80-1, 115 , 12 3 Giraldoni, Leone, 74 , 82, 247
Donizetti, Gaetano , 25 , 32, 45—6, 8l, 97, 100 , Giusti, Giuseppe, 42
119, 156 , 166 , 169-^70 , 177 , 186 , Gluck, Christoph Willibald, 15 5
189, 205, 214, 234-5, 266, 2 69, 32°, Gobatti, Stefàno , 35 , 11 4
329, 333 , 347 Godard, Benjamin , 288, 294
Belisario, 215 Goethe, Wolfgang , 158 , 307
Duc d'Albe, Le , 67 Goldmark, Karl, 119 , 12 5
Etisir d'amare, V , 17 0 Gomes, Antonio, 291
Linda d i Chamounix, 33 , 214 Gossett, Philip, io8 n
Index ' 409
Gounod, Charles , 35 , 97, 99, 107 , 113 , 143 , Manzoni, Alessandro , n, 14 , 91, 99, 102—3 ,
154-5, 243 , 333 116-17, 154 , 170 , 17 8
Faust, 92, 99, 154-5 , 233 Mapleson, James Henry, 89 , 11 8
Granchi, Almerinda, 22 , 31 1 Marcello, Benedetto , 125 , 15 4
Grillparzer, Franz , 40 Marchetti, Filippo , 291
Grisi, Giulia , 43 Margherita, Quee n of Italy, 140 , 14 7
Grossi, Eleonora , 11 2 Maria Luigia , Duchess o f Parma, io , 22
Grossi, Tommaso, 14 , 21 , 17 8 Mariani, Angelo, 75-7 , 85-6, 96-105, 109 , 112 ,
Guaseo, Cario , 25 115, 117 , 120 , 25 4
Guerrazzi, Francesc o Domenico , 14 , 50 , 5 1 Mariette, Auguste , 10 7
Gueymard Lauters, Pauline, 97 Marini, Ignazio , 16 , 34 , 192 , 311-1 2
Gutiérrez, Antoni a Garcia, 59 , 73, 107 , Mario, Giovanni , 43 , 166 , 311—1 2
229, 24 6 Martucci, Giuseppe , 134 , 292
Gyrowetz, Adalbert , 17 , 18,17 2 Marzari, Carlo, 55 , 57
Mascagni, Pietro, 72, in, 14 9
Halévy Jacques Fromenthal, 55 Caballería Rusticana, 138 , 14 1
La Juive, 7 0 Amico Fritz, L', 138 , 295 , 308
Handel, Georg e Frideric , n8 , 154-5 , 334 Mascheroni, Edoardo , 140 , 14 4
Haydn, Fran z Joseph, 5 , 8, 154 , 216, 33 1 Massenet, Jules, in, 288, 294
Henschel, George , 12 4 Massini, Pietro , 8 , u, 12 , 1 6
Hepokoski, James, 306 Maurel, Victor , 128 , 130 , 14 0
Hiller, Ferdinand, 123—4 , 283 Mazzini, Giuseppe, 14 , 44, 49, 83 , 95, 15 3
Honegger, Artur , 226 Mazzucato, Alberto , 76 , 91, 99 , 11 6
Hugo, Victor , 24 , 58-9 , 88, 158 , 181 , 227 Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Felix, 45, 91, 123 , 304,
Hussey, Dyneley, 35 3 306, 326 , 333
Mercadante, Saverio , 17 , 19 , 25, 33 , 80,
Ivanoff, Nicola , 30 , 37, 311-12 loo, 103 , iio , 157 , 166 , 169 , 234,
247,250, 31 0
Jacovacci, Vincenzo , 62 , 81— 2 Reggente, // , 17 , 25 5
Merelli, Bartolomeo , 12 , 15-21 , 47, 16 9
Khedive o f Egypt, 10 7 Méry, Joseph, 50 , 95, 210
Metastasio, Pietro, 16 7
Lablache, Luigi, 37, 43- 4 Meyerbeer, Giacomo , 26 , 35, 74-5, 89 , 113 ,
Lalo, Edouard, 294 206, 242 , 243, 245-6, 271 , 283 , 286
Lañan, Alessandro, 34 , 40-1, 76 Africaine, L', 95, 286
Lanza Tommasi , Gioachino, 32 5 Etoile d u Nord, L', 68, 24 2
Lavigna, Vincenzo, 7-1 1 Huguenots, Les, 70, 24 1
Lessona, Michèle , 18-2 1 Prophète, Le , jo, 229, 242, 281
Lind, Jenny, 43-4 , 20 3 Robert le Diable, 70, 24 2
Liszt, Franz, 8, 26, 114 , 154 , 166 , 218, 224, 297, Mila, Massimo, 304 , 35 3
315, 325 , 357 Milanov, Zinka , 224
Loewe, Sofia , 25 , 34 , 37 , 175 , 183 , 196 , 31 2 Mírate, Raffaele , 5 8
Lucca, Francesco, 15 , 32 , 34—8 , 45, 59 , 64, no , Mocenigo, Coun t Alvise , 22-3, 2 4
141, 20 7 Montanelli, Giuseppe , 73—4 , 8 4
Lucca, Giovannina, 28 , 34-5 , 47 , no-ii, Monteverdi, Claudio , 154 , 16 7
"4, 13 4 Morelli, Domenico, 80, 13 0
Luccardi, Vincenzo , 36 , 51 , 77 , Si , 12 3 Moriani, Napoleone, 15 , 37 , 47, 31 2
Morosini, Emilia , 2 i
Mackerras, Si r Charles, 25 4 Mozart, Wolfgan g Amadeus, i, 3 , 90, 151 , 154 ,
MafFei, Andréa , 29, 33 , 35 , 39 , 41-2, 88 , 135 , 195, 241 , 325 , 343
195, 202, 319-2 0 Don Giovanni, 136 , 172 , 222 , 254-5, 258
MafFei, Clarina , 15 , 21 , 39 , 41-2, 62, 68 , 84 , Nozze ai Figaro, Le, 251 , 30 7
87, 91—2 , 99, 102 , 104 , 109 , 117—18 , Mugnone, Leopoldo , 14 4
135, 18 5 Mussorgsky, Modeste , 246 , 270
Maggioni, Manfredo, 44 , 89, 320-1 Boris Codunov, 27 0
Maini, Ormondo, 11 8 Muzio, Emanuele , 27-34 , 39, 4!-5, 48, 6 4, 6 5>
Mameli, Goffredo , 4 9 107, 112 , 121 , 130 , 135 , 15 1
4IO • INDE X
Napoleon Bonaparte , 2, 5 , 16 3 Romani, Felice , 17 , 32 , 167 , 170 , 292 , 320

Napoleon III , 44, 83- 4 Romani, Pietro, 40, 49
Negrini, Carlo, 74 Ronconi, Giorgio , 15 , 23 , 43—4 , 47, 175 , 19 0
Newman, Ernest , 347- 8 Roqueplan, Nestor , 45 , 69
Nicolai, Otto, 19 , 26, 16 7 Rossini, Gioachino , 5 , 7, 20-2, 25 , 30,
Templario, II , 1 8 37, 46 , 55 , 59 , 89, 95, 99 , 102-3 , 106 ,
Novaro, Michèle , 49, 330 I I O , I2O , 123 , 139 , 1 5 5 , 163—6 , 169-73 ,
Nuitter, Charles , 121 , 130- 1 177, 2O5 , 202 , 290 , 3 I I — 2 , 316 , 318 , 329 ,
333, 35 9
Offenbach, Jacques, 233, 243 Barbiere d i Siviglia, II, 5 , 18 , 105 , 155 , 170 , 17 3
Cenerentola, La, n, 30 , 17 2
Pacini, Giovanni , 15 , 24, 156—7, 165—6 , Gazza ladra, La, 262
251, 3°9 Guillaume Tell, 68 , 70 , 106 , 155 , 210 , 223,
Paganini, Niccolo , n, 180 , 224 , 315 241, 24 5
Paisiello, Giovanni , 8 Moïse e t Pharaon, 22, 172 , 17 4
Palestrina, Pierluig i da , 125 , 135 , 139 , 154 , Rota, Nino, 324
352-3, 35 9 Royer, Alphonse, 45, 206
Pantaleone, Romilda, 13 4 Rubini, Giovann i Battista, 16 6
Parker, Roger, 3i2n Rusconi, Carlo , 40 , 19 5
Pasqua, Giuseppina , 140, 302
Penco, Rosina , 62 Salvi, Lorenzo , 1 6
Pergolesi, Giambattista , 359 Salvini-Donatelli, Fanny , 63-4, 23 6
Perrin, Emile, 95-6, loo , 12 2 Sandey, Charles , 43, 76 , 15 2
Petrella, Enrico, 103 , i n, 15 7 Sassaroli, Vincenzo, 114
Piave, Francesc o Maria, 23-5, 29 , 30 , 32, 34—7 , Sasse, Marie , 97
39-41, 49-50, 54, 55-8, 62-4 , 69 , 72-4 , Scalaberni, Pietro , 102 , 104 , 12 0
85—8, 92 , 93 , TOO , 123 , 129 , 156 , 185 , Scarlatti, Domenico , 92 , 296
186, 195 , 32 4 Scherchen, Hermann, 35 3
Piazza, Antonio, 1 2 Schiller, Friedrich , 30, 40 , 51—2 , 88 , 95 , 188 ,
Pini-Corsi, Antonio , 307 203, 213-15 , 261 , 271-82 , passim
Pió Nono, Pope , 37 , 48, 50 Schubert, Franz , 151 , 214, 316-17 , 325 , 359
Piroli, Giuseppe, 86, 96, 110 , 120 , 123 , 135 , 322 Scribe, Eugène, 67, 70, 77-8, 25 5
Pizzetti, Ildebrando , 33 5 Scott, Walter , 24
Poggi, Antonio, 15 , 23, 53 Seletti, Giuseppe , 7, 1 1
Ponchielli, Amilcare, 290—1, 292 Severi, Giovanni, 322
Praga, Emilio, 24 , 91-2 Sgambati, Giovanni , 292
Provesi, Ferdinande , 4-6, 9 Shakespeare, William, 22 , 26, 34 , 36, 39-41,
Puccini, Giacomo, in , 133 , 136-7 , 140 , 293 55,91, 93 , 127 , 129 , 135 , 153-4 ,
Villi, Le , 13 3 l88, 190 , 196 , 2OI , 219 , 221-2 ,
Pugni, Cesare , 206 261, 292-3, 301 , 305 , 337
Shaw, George Bernard, 153 , 181 , 183 , 239, 351
Radetzky, Fieldmarshal , 50 Shaw, Mary, 16 , 19 , 31 0
Ranieri-Marini, Antonietta , 16 , 1 9 Smetana, Bedrich, 154 , 33 3
Reyer, Ernest , 96-7 Sole, Nicola , 322
Ricci, Federico , loo, 16 7 Solera, Temistocle, 16 , 19 , 21, 25, 30, 36, 69, 87,
Ricci, Luigi , 45.56 , 167, 17 1 178, 181 , 188-90 , 192 , 195 , 31 8
Ricordi, Giovanni , 15 , 16 , 30-1 , 34—5 , 50 , 55 , Somma, Antonio, 69, 72, 77-9, 8 l
172, 309 , 31 3 Sonzogno, Edoardo, 34 , 133 , 141— 2
Ricordi, Giulio , 12 , 16 , 24 , 34-5, 75 , 94, 96, Souvestre, Emile, 55
toi, 102-3 , 106-7 , "L I I 2 . H3 > I I 6 . Stanford, Charle s Villiers, 140 , 304 , 307, 359
119, 125 , 127-8 , 131 , 134 , 135 , 138 , Steffani, Giuseppe , 32 2
141-4, 147 , 156 , 290 , 299, 308 , 328 Stehle, Adelina , 140
Ricordi, Tito , 34 , 70-2, 74n, 94, 96, no, i l l , Stendhal (Henr i Beyle), 16 3
119, 134 , 282 , 291 Stolz, Teresa, io , 1-2, 105 , 112-13 , n? , 120-1 ,
Ristori, Adelaide, 69, 87, 93, 20 1 127, 147 , 157 , 33 1
Rivas, Angel Saavedra, Duk e of , 88 , 100 , 26 1 Strauss, Richard , 144 , 15 9
Rolla, Alessandro , 6— 7 Stravinsky, Igor , 29 3
Index • 41 1
Strepponi-Verdi, Giuseppina , 15, 20 , 22 , Pater Noster, 124 , 128 , 179 , 35 2

46-9, 51 , 53-4 , 58-60 , 65, 71 , 73 , 76, Pietá, Signar!, 143 , 35 5
80—2, 87—8 , 94, 96-9 , 102 , 105 , 107—8 , Quattro pezzi sacri, 135 , 147 , 352- 3
112-13, 115-16 , 118—21 , 123 , 128 , 136 , Ave Maria sulla scala enigmática, 135 , 353- 5
141, 146 , 148-9 , 152 , 156 , 175 , 32 2 Laudi alla Vereine Maria, 138 , 352— 3
Stabat Mater, 145 , 358-61
Tadolini, Eugenia, 33, 201 Te Deum, 144 , 145 , 147 , 353 , 355~9
Tamagno, Francesco , 130 , 134 , 253 Suona l a tromba, 49 , 329—3 0
Tamberlick, Enrico , 87 , 89, 90, 267 Tantum ergo, 11 , 32 9
Tamburini, Antonio , 43
Tchaikovsky, Pyot r Ilyich , 246, 282 Miscellaneous operatic compositions
Thomas, Ambroise , 96, 10 0 Ah Riccardo, al mió ragione (Oberto), 31 0
Tietjens, Thérèse , 8 9 Comepoteva un'angelo ( l Lombardi), 31 1
Torelli, Vincenzo, 77, 82 D'innocenza i cari inganni (Oberto), 31 0
Toscanini, Arturo, 113 , 146-50 , 224, 31 4 Dove corrí, o sciagurata (Oberto), 31 0
Tovey, Donal d Francis , 344 , 348, 359 Infin ch e un brando vindice (Oberto/Emani), 31 1
Toye, Francis , 201 , 300 lo l a vidi (¡ I solitario e d Elodia), 31 0
Odi U voto, O grand' Iddio (Emani), 31 1
Umberto I , Kin g of Italy, 96, 140 , 14 7 Oh dolare! e d io vivea (Attila), 31 2
Oh dischiuso è il firmament o (Nabucco), 310
Vaez, Gustave , 45, 206 O toi qu e j'ai chéri (Vêpres), 90 , 31 3
Varesi, Felice, 40, 58, 62, 64, 197 , 198 , 201, 239 Overture, Aida, III, 313-14
Vasselli, Antonio (Totô) , 8 1 Overture, H Barbiere di Siviglia, 5
Verdi, Carlo , 2 , 6 , 45, 59 , 98 Potrei lasciar l a margine (Giovanna d'Arco), 31 2
Verdi, Giusepp a Francesca, 2 Prends pitié d e sa jeunesse (Rigoletto), 321- 2
Verdi, Giusepp e Fortunino Francesco Pria che scenda sull'indegno (Oberto),
16, 16 8
WORKS Sentó Iddio che mi chiama (1 due Fosean),
Chamber compositions 43, 31 2
'Abandonnée, L' , 322 Sinfonía i n D , 31 3
'Brigidino, II' , 322-3 Sventurato! alia mía vita (Attila), 31 2
'Chi i bei di m'adduce ancora' , 31 9
'Esule, L', 31 8 Operas
'Fiorellin ch e sorge appena', 322 Aída, 107-9 , 112-14 , 115-19 , 122-3 , 128 ,
Notturno a 3 yod: Guarda che blanca luna, 139, 146-7, 154 , 158 , 171, 188 , 260, 274,
13, 3i 8 283-91, 292-3, 325 , 330-1, 345
'Poveretto, U' , 44, 32 1 Alzira, 31—2 , 190-1 , 194 , 203 , 207, 26 7
'Preghiera del poeta. La', 322 Aroldo, 72, 75^7, 253-4
Romanza senza parole, 32 4 Assedio d i Firenze, L', (unrealised) , 50, 5 1
'Seduzione, La' , 31 9 Attila, 35-7, 42, 72, lio, 192-5 , 198 , 201 ,
Sei Romanze (1838), 13 , 316— 7 203, 206-7 , 2I 3, 249, 267, 307
Sei Romanze (1845), 31 , 47 , 32 0 Bailo i n Maschera, Un , 77-82, 83 , 86 , 93, 101 ,
Stornello, loo, 323 128, 158 , 254-60, 270, 297
String Quartet in E minor, 115-16 , 122 , Battaglía d i Legnano, La, 50-1, 55 , 69, 70-2,
325 77, 95, 209-13, 216, 243
Valzer, 324— 5 Corsaro, //, 22, 39, 42, 45, 56 , 6o, 169 , 207-9,
216
Choral and religious Don Carlos, 95-8, 99 , 101 , 113 , 115 , 120 ,
Ave Maria for soprano and strings, 351-2 125-6, 130-1 , 152 , 207 , 245, 264,
Cinque Maggio, II, 1 1 270-86, 289, 293, 304, 307, 311, 335,
Deliri ai Saul, I, ¡ 340, 343-5 , 358, 359
Inno delle Nazioni, 45 , 89 , 330-1 Due Foscari, I , 23 , 29-30, 33 , 35 , 43,
Libera m e (for the Rossini-Requiem) , 102—3 , 185-88, 192 , 208 , 219, 236 , 284,
116, 33 6 311-12, 359
Messa d a Requiem, 45, 116-21 , 123 , 127 , Falstaff, 136—40 , 141-5 , 157 , 262, 293,
139, 197 , 270 , 285 , 292, 297, 304 , 325, 299-308, 324, 326
331-51 Finta Stanislao, II. See Giorno di régna, Un
412 • INDE X
Operas (continued) Trovatore, II , 48 , 59-63 , 67, 71,73, 100 , 140 ,

Forza de l Destino, La, 23 , 88-90, 95, loo-i , 157-8, 182 , 207, 228-34 , 241 , 251, 263 ,
106, 112-13 , '22 , I2 8, 254, 260-70, 293, 317 , 32 0
2
97, 3 23 Vêpres Siciliennes, Les , 59, 67-71, 72 , 79 , 90 ,
Giomo di Regno, Un , 17—19 , 26 , 164-7 , 143, 207, 210, 241-6, 269, 271, 282, 313
169-72 Verdi, Icilio , 12-1 3
Giovanna d' Ano, 30-1 , 33 , 35, 37 , 50 , 101 , Verdi, Giuseppin a Strepponi . Se c
188-90, 199 , 213 , 31 2 Strepponi-Verdi
Giovanna de Guzman. See Vêpres Verdi, Luigj a Uttini, 2 , 45, 58
Siciliennes, Les Verdi, Margherit a Barezzi , 6 , 10-13 , J 8
Jérusalem, 45 , 48 , 205—7 , 241 , 246 , 28 2 Verdi, Virginia , 1 2
Lombardi alla prima crodata, I, 21—3 , 25, 30 , 37 , Victor Emmanue l II , King of Italy, 68, 8o 83- 4
42, 45 , 53 , 178-81, 189 , 205-7, Victoria, Quee n of England, 4 5
311, 318 , 348 , 352 Vietti, Carolina , 24
Luisa Miller, 51—2 , 54 , 186 , 213-16, 217 , Vigna, Cesare, 74, n6
236, 34 2 Villaret, 90 , 31 3
Macbeth, 24 , 36 , 40, 42, 48, 76 , 93, 98 , 113 , Visconti, Luchino , 32 4
15°, 157-8, 195-202, 205, 207, 223, 288, Vittorelli, Jacopo, 31 8
293, 297 , 313,237 , 359 Voltaire, François , 32 , 19 0
Masnadieri, I , 42—4 , 119 , 202-6, 24 9
Nabucco, 5n , 19-22 , 25-6, 29 , 37, 47, 172-8 , Wagner, Richard , 26 , 35, 75, 90, 98, 100 ,
180, 182 , 183 , 185 , 203, 318-19 106-7, "O, U3, "6, 119 , 121 , 131 , 134 ,
Oberto, Conte d i San Bonifacio, 16-18 , '39, 151 , I S4-6, !59 , l6 4, l88 > 221 ,
47, 135 , 151 , 168—70 , 215 , 292-3, 293 , 303 , 335 , 345, 35 1
310—11, 31 8 Lohengrin, 101 , 110-12 , 114 , 156 , 228 , 250,
Otello, 127-34, 139-40, 141-3 , 146,157, 159 , 292-3, 348
223, 251 , 254 , 292-301, 307 , 337 , 341, Meistersinger, Die, 134 , 136-8 , 156 , 295 , 304 ,
359 341-2
Re Lear (unrealised), 23, 25, 37, 55-6, 59 , 69, Parsifal, 30 6
72, 77-8 , 141 , 263 Tannhäuser, 90 , 95 , 11 9
Rigoletto, 24 , 26, 35 , 56-9, 60, 73 , 100 , 107 , Tristan un d ¡solde, 134 , 254 , 29 5
158, 194 , 215 , 217 , 221-9, 234 , 241, Waldmann, Maria, 112 , 115 , 117 , 119 , 12 7
264, 295 , 313 , 32 1 Walker, Frank , 3 , 47, 139 , 319 , 322
Rocester, 12-13 , 16-17 , 16 8 Weber, Car l Mari a von, 45 , 75, 165 , 167 , 216 ,
Simon Boccanegra, 48, 73—5 , 77, 80 , 84 , 233, 304- 6
129-31, 157-8 , 188 , 244-54, 259, Werner, Zacharias, 35 , 19 2
292, 297 Wolf, Hugo , 324
Stiffelio, 56-7 , 72, 217—21 , 248—9 , 253— 4 Wolf-Ferrari, Ermanno , 14 4
Traviata, La , 24, 62—5 , 67-8 , 72—4 , 76-7, 93 ,
134, 158 , 186 , 234-40, 241 , 252 , 313, Zanardini, Angelo , 13 1
320, 322 , 325 Zecchini, Giuseppina , 31 0
Trouvère, Le , 71 , 73 , 20 7 Zilli, Emma, 14 0

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T H E M A S T E R M U S I C I A N S

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Copyright © 2008 by Oxford Universit y Press

Published by Oxford Universit y Press, Inc.

All rights reserved. N o par t of this publication ma y be reproduced ,

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publicatio n Dat a

S INCE TH E APPEARANC E O F THI S VOLUME' S PREDECESSOR , VERD I

censorial interference . I f such experiment s ad d little t o th e composer' s

Julian Budde n passed away on 2 8 February 2007, while thi s edition wa s

F EW COMPOSER S HAV E BEE N A S SPECTACULARL Y REVALUE D OVE R

bear t o hea r mentioned . I n th e meantim e Fran k Walker' s Th e Ma n

For th e ne w America n editio n (1996 ) I have take n th e opportunit y o f

1 Earl y Lif e a t Busseto i

2 Succes s and Failur e in Mila n 1 4

4 Florence , London an d Paris 3 9

11 Verd i a s Man an d Artis t 15 1

13 Fro m Oberto t o Ernani 16 8

16 Toward s Gran d Opera 24 1

18 Miscellaneou s Operatic Composition s 30 9

20 Chora l an d Religious Work s 32 9

Between pages no and in

AGV F . Abbiati Giuseppe Verdi ( 4 vols Milan, 1959 )

GVIM G.G . Varesi 'L'interpretazione di Macbeth' i n

TGV F . Toy e Giuseppe Verdi, hi s life & works

Early Life at Busseto

'. . . BUT ALAS! BOR N POOR , I N A POOR VILLAGE , I HADN' T TH E MEANS

opportunity fo r developin g it . Hi s patron woul d sen d hi m a t hi s ow n

ease an d comfort . Hi s contemporarie s remembere d hi m a s a solemn ,

Siebengebirge an d the romanti c Drachenfel s of Turner's famou s paint -

6 violins, i cello, i viola, 2 double-basses, 8 clarinets, 2 oboes, 2 flutes, 5

AIVS, newsletter no. I (Ma y 1976), p. 10 .

derived fro m such an ambienc e wa s that sense o f rough-and-ready ef -

But th e conservatoir e wa s overcrowded; Verd i himsel f at eighteen was

Lavigna was very strong on counterpoin t an d a bit o f a pedant, and had n o

Taken ou t o f context thi s sounds reproachful, not t o sa y ungracious.

I wa s fres h fro m m y studie s an d certainl y no t a t al l embarrasse d b y a ful l

January a compromise was reached whereby Ferrari was allowed to retain

But alread y a far more ambitiou s project was in view. I n August of th e

surviving infant t o th e car e of a wet-nurse an d set out fo r Milan, Verd i

Success and Failure in Milan

I N HI S 'STORI A D I MILAN O DA L 1 8 3 6 A L 1848 ' ANTONI O GHISLAN -

zoni, futur e librettis t of Aida, gives a pungent description of the cit y

Samoyloff, wh o i s said , lik e Poppea , t o hav e bathe d i n asses ' milk ,

a dramatic mezzo soprano and a deep English contralto , an d Ronconi's

with fa r mor e difficult y tha n a t Oberto. H e suffere d bout s o f throa t

Un giomo di regno had bee n t o cance l all further schedule d performances

up an d rea d th e librett o no t once , bu t tw o o r thre e times , s o that b y th e

According to Lessona, writing ten years earlier, Verdi began with th e

7 Letter to A. Vasselli, 4.3.1842, G. Zavadini, Donizetti— Vita, Musiche, Epistolario (Bergamo ,

Merelli to com e t o an arrangement wit h th e chie f of police, Torresani ,

The correspondenc e wit h Mocenig o bega n durin g Verdi' s visi t t o

11CBM, pp. 55-9.

libretti wer e availabl e at ever y performanc e and , a s house light s wer e

good-hearted, Muzi o was a mediocrity, poorl y educate d and hampere d

To tel l you th e trut h I shoul d b e extremel y sorry to hav e t o abando n the

A sentiment tha t does much credi t t o the m both .

Rossini's L a Genérentela, Donizetti' s Torquato Tasso an d many lesse r

could comfortabl y manage . Meanwhile a rumour ha d reache d Busseto

That th e othe r journalist s shoul d spea k badl y o f m e i s i n perfec t order ;

as hi s prim a donn a Eugeni a Tadolini , th e sopran o wh o ha d create d

Filippo Colett i an d Gaetan o Fraschini , hi s favourite tenor fo r th e nex t