Unit -1

Introduction to Surveying:

Definition of surveying:

Surveying is that the art of creating measurements of objects on, above or beneath the
ground to indicate their relative positions on paper. The relative position needed is either
horizontal or vertical. The term Surveying is used to the operations directed to the
measurements of objects in their horizontal position. Art of measurements to determine
their relative vertical positions is known as Levelling.

Objectives of surveying:

To determine the relative position of any objects or points on and above or below the earth.

To determine the distance and angle between different objects or points

To prepare a map or plan to represent an area on a paper

To develop methods through the knowledge of modern science and the technology and use
them in the field.

To solve measurement problems in an optimal way.

Overview of plane surveying:

Plane surveying could be a specific form of surveying wherever the surface of the Earth is
taken (into account) as plane and therefore the curvature of the earth isn't taken into
account. The line connecting any two points is considered line and therefore the angles of
polygons are plane angles. Plane surveying is used survey for small and flat areas and its
degree of accuracy is relatively low. The limit for treating a surface as a plane is close to 250
km2.

Principles of surveying:

Surveying is the process of finding the relative position of various points on the surface of the
earth by measuring distance among them and setting up a map to any reasonable scale. Various
methods of surveying are established on very simple primary principles. The surveying
basic principles can be stated under two aspects.

To locate the position of a point by measurement from two reference points

To work from whole to part

 To locate the position of a point by measurement from two reference points:

According to this principle, the relative position of a point to be surveyed should be located by
measurement from at least two points of reference, the positions of which have already been fixed.

If P and Q are the two reference points on the ground, any other point, such as R, can be located by
any of the direct methods shown in the above figures. But, although a single method is sufficient to
locate the relative position of ‘R’ with respect to reference points P and Q, it is necessary to adopt at
least any two methods to fix the position of point ‘R’.

While the measurements made in the either of the first method or second method will be helpful in
locating the point ‘R’, the measurements made in the other method will act as a check.

To work from whole to part:

According to this principle, it is always desirable to carryout survey work from whole to part.
This means, when an area is to be surveyed, first a system of control points is to be
established covering the whole area with very high precision. Then minor details are located
by less precise methods. Idea of working this way is to prevent the accumulation of errors
and to control and localize minor errors which, otherwise, would expand to greater
magnitudes if the reverse process is followed, thus making the work uncontrolled at end.

Classification of Surveying:

Primary classification of Surveying:

 1. Plane surveying

Plane surveying is conducted by state agencies as well as private agencies. As we know earth
is spherical in shape but its diameter is big enough to consider plane in small dimensions. It
is that type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane and
the spheroidal shape is neglected. All triangles formed by survey lines are considered as
plane triangles. The level line is considered as straight and plumb lines are considered
parallel. Plane surveying is done of the area of survey is less than 250 km2.

2. Geodetic surveying

Geodetic survey is conducted by survey department of the country. It is that type of

surveying in which the curved shape of the earth is taken in to account. The object of
geodetic survey is to determine the precise position on the surface of the earth, of a system
of widely distant points which form control stations in which surveys of less precision may
be referred. . Line joining two points is considered as curved line and angles are assumed as
spherical angles. It is carried out if the area exceeds over 250 km2.

Secondary classification of Surveying:

Surveying based on Nature of Survey:

a) Topographical Surveys

They are carried out determine the position of natural features of a region such as rivers,
streams, hills etc. and artificial features such as roads and canals. The purpose of such
surveys is to prepare maps and such maps of are called topo-sheets.

b) Hydrographical Survey

Hydro-graphic survey is carried out to determine M.S.L. (Mean Sea Level), water spread area, depth
of water bodies, velocity of flow in streams, cross-section area of flow etc.

c) Astronomical Survey

d) Engineering Survey

This type of survey is undertaken whenever sufficient data is to be collected for the purpose
of planning and designing engineering works such as roads, bridges and reservoirs.

e) Archaeological Survey

This type of survey is carried out to gather information about sites that are important from
archaeological considerations and for unearthing relics of antiquity.

f) Photographic Survey
 In this type of survey, information is collected by taking photographs from selected points
using a camera.

g) Aerial Survey

In this type of survey data about large tracks of land is collected by taking photographs from an aero-
plane.

h) Reconnaissance Survey

In this type of survey, data is collected by marking physical observation and some measurements
using simple survey instruments.

2) Surveying based on Type of Instruments

a) Chain Surveying

Chain surveying is the basic and oldest type of surveying. The principle involved in chain
survey is of triangulation. The area to be surveyed is divided into a number of small
triangles. Angles of triangles must not be less than 30 degree and greater than 120 degree.
Equilateral triangles are considered to be ideal triangles. No angular measurements are
taken, tie line and check lines control accuracy of the work.This method is suitable on level
ground with little undulations and area to be survey is small.

b) Compass Surveying

Compass survey uses the principle of traversing. This method does not requires the need to
create triangles. It uses a prismatic compass for measuring magnetic bearing of line and the
distance is measured by chain. A series of connecting lines is prepared using compass and
measuring distances using chain. Interior details are located using offset from main survey
 lines.They suitable for large area surveying crowded with many details. It can be used to
survey a river course

c) Plane Table Surveying

The principle of plane table survey is parallelism. They are plotted directly on paper with
their relative position. The rays are drawn from station to object on ground. The table is
placed at each of the successive station parallel to the position of the last station.They are
basically suitable for filling interior detailing and is recommended when great accuracy is not
required.

d) Theodolite Surveying

The theodolite is an instrument used mainly for accurate measurement of the horizontal and
vertical angles. They are accurate to measure up to 10″ or 20″ angles.
 Theodolite can be used to measure:

Horizontal angles

Vertical angles

Deflection angle

Magnetic bearing

Horizontal distance between two points

Vertical height between two points

Difference in elevation

Now a days theodolite is shadowed and replaced by the use of Total Station which can perform the
same task with greater ease and accurate results

e) Tacheometric Surveying

Tacheometry is a branch of surveying in which horizontal and vertical distances are

determined by taking angular observations with an instrument known as a tacheometer.
Tacheometer is nothing but a transit theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm and an
anallatic lens. There is no need for chaining in such survey. The principle of Tacheometer is
based on property of isosceles triangle, where ratio of the distance of the base from the
apex and the length of the base is always constant.
 Different form of stadia diaphragm commonly used:

f) Photographic Surveying

Photographic survey is based on technique of taking photographs from different angle to

prepare topographic details with relative high speed.

There are two type of photographic surveying

i). Terrestrial or ground photogrammetry

In terrestrial photogrammetry maps are prepared from ground photographs from different points on
the earth surface for measurement purpose.

ii). Aerial photogrammetry

In aerial photogrammetry maps are produced from air from an airplane or helicopter.

Photogrammetry encompasses two major area of specialization.

Metrical photogrammetry

Interpretive photogrammetry

Metrical photogrammetry is of principal interest to surveyors since it is applied to determine

distances, elevations, areas, volume, etc. to compile topographic maps made from
measurements on photographs.

Intuitive photogrammetry involves objects from their photographic image and their
significance. Critical factors considered in identifying object of shape, sizes, patterns,
shadow.

Surveying Errors

Errors in surveying may arise from three main sources:

1. Instrumental: Surveying error may arise due to imperfection or faulty adjustment of the
instrument with which measurement is being taken. For example, a tape may be too long or an angle
measuring instrument may be out of adjustment. Such errors are known as instrumental errors.

2. Personal: Error may also arise due to want of perfection of human sight in observing and of touch
in manipulating instruments. For example, an error may be there in taking the level reading or
reading and angle on the circle of a theodolite. Such errors are known as personal errors.

3. Natural: Error in surveying may also be due to variations in natural phenomena such as
temperature, humidity, gravity, wind, refraction and magnetic declination. If they are not properly
observed while taking measurements, the results will be incorrect. For example, a tape may be 20
meters at 200C but its length will change if the field temperature is different.

Types of Surveying Errors

Ordinary errors in surveying met with in all classes of survey work may be classified as:

Mistakes

Accidental errors

Systematic or cumulative errors

Compensating errors

Mistakes: Mistakes are errors which arise from inattention, inexperience, carelessness and poor
judgment or confusion in the mind of the observer. They do not follow any mathematical rule (law of
probability) and may be large or small, positive or negative. They cannot be measured. However,
they can be detected by repeating the whole operation. If a mistake is undetected, it produces a
serious effect upon the final result. Hence, every value to be recorded in the field must be checked
by some independent field observation. The following are the examples of mistakes:

Erroneous recording, e.g. writing 69 in place of 96

Counting 8 for 3

Forgetting once chain length

Making mistakes in using a calculator

Accidental Errors: Surveying errors can occur due to unavoidable circumstances like variations in
atmospheric conditions which are entirely beyond the control of the observer. Errors in surveying
due to imperfection in measuring instruments and even imperfection of eyesight fall in this category.
They may be positive and may change sign. They cannot be accounted for.

Systematic or Cumulative Errors: A systematic or cumulative error is an error that, under the same
conditions, will always be of the same size and sign. A systematic error always follows some definite
mathematical or physical law and correction can be determined and applied. Such errors are of
constant character and are regarded as positive or negative according as they make the result great
or small. Their effect is, therefore, cumulative. For example, if a tape is P cm short and if it is
stretched N times, the total error in the measurement of the length will be P´N cm.
The systematic errors may arise due to (i) variations of temperature, humidity, pressure, current
velocity, curvature, refraction, etc. and (ii) faulty setting or improper leveling of any instrument and
personal vision of an individual. The following are the examples:

Faulty alignment of a line

An instrument is not levelled properly

An instrument is not adjusted properly

If undetected, systematic errors are very serious. Therefore, (1) all surveying equipment must be
designed and used so that, whenever possible, systematic errors will be automatically eliminated,
and (2) all systematic errors that cannot be surely eliminated by this means must be evaluated and
their relationship to the conditions that cause them must be determined.

Compensating Errors: This type or surveying error tends to occur in both directions, i.e. the error
may sometimes tend to be positive and sometimes negative thereby compensating each other. They
tend sometimes in on direction and sometimes in the other, i.e. they are equally likely to make the
apparent result large or small. The following are a few examples:

The discrepancy between chain and tape measurements when both are used simultaneously

Inaccuracy in marking chain lengths on the ground

Inaccurate cantering

Inaccurate bisection of an object

They obey the laws of chance and therefore, must be handled according to the mathematical laws of
probability.

Instrumental errors

Error may arise due to imperfection or faulty adjustment of the instrument with which
measurement is being taken.

For example:

A tape may be too long or an angle measuring instrument maybe out of adjustment. Such
errors are known as Instrumental errors.

Personal Error

Error may also arise due to want of perfection of human sight in observing and of touch in
manipulating instruments.

For example:

An error maybe taking the level readings or reading an angle on a circle of theodolite. Such
errors are known as Personal errors.
Natural errors

Errors may also be due to variations in natural phenomena such as temperature, humidity, wind,
refraction and magnetic declination. If it is not properly observed while taking measurements, the
results will be incorrect.

Measurements and Errors A.

The purpose of this section is to discuss the different types of surveying measurements,
identify error sources, and describe procedures to minimize errors. Using common sense
and developing sound surveying practices cannot be over-emphasized. In addition to specific
surveying procedures, the surveyor will often be required to use their judgment to make
important decisions affecting the survey. Different types of surveying instruments used or
the methods in which they are employed will result in measurement differences.

The defined error tolerances of the survey will usually dictate the equipment or
methodology required to achieve the best possible results. Often, surveys involving critical
elevations will require the use of a digital level or optical total station over GPS equipment.
The field conditions encountered will also influence the survey. For example, excessive heat
waves or strong winds may make it nearly impossible to accurately perform some
operations. Refer to Section VIII, Survey Standards, in this manual for specific error
tolerances for each feature code. B. Surveying Measurements Measuring distances and
angles from a known reference are fundamental surveying operations.

Through the use of trigonometric calculations, the distance and angle measurements are
used to establish three dimensional (3-D) coordinates for each surveyed point. The
coordinates are then plotted to create plan metric maps and digital terrain models (DTM’s).
The five common types of survey measurements are horizontal distances and angles, vertical
distances and angles, and slope distances.

Errors of measurement are of three kinds:

(i) mistakes
(ii) systematic errors

(iii) accidental errors

Mistakes.

Mistakes are errors that arise from inattention, inexperience, carelessness and poor
judgment or confusion in the mind of the observer. If a mistake is undetected, it produces a
serious effect on the final result. Hence every value to be recorded in the field must be
checked by some independent field observation. (ii) Systematic Error. A systematic error is
an error that under the same conditions will always be of the same size and sign.

A systematic error always follows some definite mathematical or physical law, and a
correction can be determined and applied. Such errors are of constant character and are
regarded as positive or negative according as they make the result too great or too small.
Their effect is therefore, cumulative. If undetected, systematic errors are very serious.
Therefore: (1) All the surveying equipments must be designed and used so that whenever
possible systematic errors will be automatically eliminated and (2) all systematic errors that
cannot be surely eliminated by this means must be evaluated and their relationship to the
conditions that cause them must be determined.

For example, in ordinary levelling, the levelling instrument must first be adjusted so that the
line of sight is as nearly horizontal as possible when bubble is centered. Also the horizontal
lengths for back sight and foresight from each instrument position should be kept as nearly
equal as possible. In precise levelling, everyday, the actual error of the instrument must be
determined by careful peg test, the length of each sight is measured by stadia and a
correction to the result is applied. (iii) Accidental Error. Accidental errors are those which
remain after mistakes and systematic errors have been eliminated and are caused by a
combination of reasons beyond the ability of the observer to control. They tend sometimes
in one direction and some times in the other, i.e., they are equally likely to make the
apparent result too large or too small.

An accidental error of a single determination is the difference between (1) the true value of
the quantity and (2) a determination that is free from mistakes and systematic errors.
Accidental error represents limit of precision in the determination of a value. They obey the
laws of chance and therefore, must be handled according to the mathematical laws of
probability. The theory of errors that is discussed in this chapter deals only with the
accidental errors after all the known errors are eliminated and accounted for. The law of
accidental errors . Investigations of observations of various types show that accidental errors
follow a definite law, the law of probability.

This law defines the occurrence of errors and can be expressed in the form of equation
which is used to compute the probable value or the probable precision of a quantity. The
most important features of accidental errors which usually occur are: (i) Small errors tend to
be more frequent than the large ones; that is they are the most probable. (ii) Positive and
negative errors of the same size happen with equal frequency; that is, they are equally
probable. (iii) Large errors occur infrequently and are impossible.
Chain & Tape:

Define chain surveying. What is the fundamental principle of chain surveying? Chain
surveying is the type of surveying in which only linear measurements are made in the field.
The main principle of chain surveying or chain triangulation is to provide a framework
consist of number of well-conditioned triangles or nearly equilateral triangles. It is used to
find the area of the field.

What is a well-conditioned triangle? What is its specific advantage? A triangle is said to be

well- conditioned or well proportioned when it contains no angle smaller than 300 and no angle
greater than 1200 .The main principle of chain surveying is chain triangulation. It consists of frame
work of triangles. To plot the network of triangles accurately, the triangles must be nearly equal to
equilateral or well-conditioned. The distortion due to errors in measurement and plotting should be
minimum.

What are the operations involved in chain survey? (i). Ranging: The process of locating
intermediate points on a straight line between two end points in a straight line. (ii).
Chaining: The process of measuring the distance with a chain or tape. (iii). Offsetting: The
process of measuring the lateral distance of the object from the survey line to the left or
right according to their positions.

What are the instruments required for a chain survey? Chain or tape, Arrows, Pegs, Ranging
rods, Offset rods, Laths or whites, Plumb bob, Cross staff and Mallet. Write the different
types of Chain. (i). Metric chain (ii). Non-Metric chain (a).Gunter’s chain or Surveyor’s chain
(b). Engineer’s chain (c). Revenue chain (d). Steel band.

Differentiate between Gunter’s chain and Engineer’s Chain S.No. Gunter’s chain or
Surveyor’s chain Engineer’s chain 1. It is 66 feet long and divided in to 100 It is 100 feet long
and divided in links. 1link = 0.66 feet to 100 links. 1link = 1 feet 2. Measurements are in miles
and furlongs. Measurements are in feet and decimals

Define the terms: (a).Main stations: Main station is a prominent point on the chain line and
can be either at the beginning of the chain line or at the end or along the boundary. (b).
Subsidiary stations: The stations located on the main survey lines are known as Subsidiary
stations.

(c).Tie stations: These are also subsidiary stations taken on the main survey lines to locate
the details of the object. Distinguish between a check line and a tie line. S.No Check line Tie
line 1. Check lines or Proof lines are the The main object of running a tie line lines which are
run in the field to is to take the details of the objects. Check the accuracy of the work 2. The
length of the check line Tie line is a line which joints measured in the field must agree
subsidiary stations or tie stations on with its length of the plan. The main line. What are the
instruments used for setting out right angles to a chain line? (i). Cross staff. a. Open cross
staff b. French cross staff c. Adjustable cross staff (ii). Optical Square (iii). Prism square (IV).
Site square.
 What are offsets? Classify them. An offset is the lateral distance of an object or ground
feature measured from a survey line. The two types of offsets are, (i). Perpendicular offset:
The angle of offset from a point on a chain line is 900 (ii). Oblique offset: When the angle of
offset is other than 900 . Perpendicular offset Oblique offset

What is the use of a line Ranger? The line Ranger is a small reflecting instrument used for fixing
intermediate points on the chain lines. Without going to either end, we can fix the intermediate
points.

What are the different sources of errors in chain surveying? (i). Instrumental errors: incorrect length
of the chain (Cumulative Errors).

What are the stages of fieldwork in chain surveying? Or what are the steps involved in chain survey?
Reconnaissance: It is the preliminary inspection of the area to be surveyed. Marking and fixing
Survey lines. Running survey lines. Taking Offsets.

What are the different tape corrections? Correction for absolute length or standardisation.
Correction for temperature. Correction for pull or tension. Correction for sag. (- ve) Correction
for slope. (- ve)

What are the errors in chaining? (i). Compensating Errors: Which are liable to occur in either
direction and tend to compensate. (ii). Cumulative Errors: Which occur in the same direction and
tend to add or subtract. It may be positive (measured lengths more than the actual length) or
negative (measured lengths less than the actual length). (iii). Personal error: Bad ranging (Cumulative
Errors). Careless holding (Compensating Errors). Bad straightening (Cumulative Errors). Non-
horizontality (Cumulative Errors). Sag in chain (Cumulative Errors). Miscounting and misreading and
booking. (iv). Natural Errors: Variation in temperature. (Cumulative Errors).

Enumerate the instruments used for measurement of lengths of survey lines. (i). Chain or tape.
(ii)Passometer. iii). Pedometer (iv). Odometern (v). Speedometer.

Types Chains in surveying:

Parts of Chains used in Surveying:

The chain consists of many small parts used for handling or reading the measurements.

At the ends chain is provided with brass handle with swivel joint so that it can be easy to roll or unroll
the chain without twisting and knots.

At every 10th link is provided with a tally of one teeth, 20th link with a tally of two teeth and so on till
40th link. This is provided for the easy reading of measurements.

At the center of the chain is provided with a circular talley used for easy reading.
 Types of Chains used in Surveying

Depending upon the length of the chain, these are divide into following types,

Metric chains

Steel band or Band chain

Gunter’s chain or surveyor’s chain

Engineer’s chain

Revenue chain

A. Metric chains
Metric chains are the most commonly used chain in India. These types of chains comes in many
lengths such as 5, 10, 20 and 30 meters. Most commonly used is 20m chain. Tallies are provided at
every 2m of the chain for quick reading. Every link of this type of chain is 0.2m. The total length of
the chain is marked on the brass handle at the ends.

B. Steel band or Band chain

These types of chain consist of a long narrow strip of steel of uniform width of 12 to 16 mm and
thickness of 0.3 to 0.6 mm. this chain is divides by brass studs at every 20cm or instead of brass
studs, band chain may have graduated engraving as centimeter.

For easy use and workability band chains are wound on steel crosses or metal reels from which they
can be easily unrolled. These steel bands are available in 20m and 30m length and the width of
about 12-16mm.

C. Gunter’s chain or surveyor’s chain

Gunter chain comes in standard 66ft. These chain consists of 100links, each link being 0.66ft or
7.92inches. The length 66ft is selected because it is convenient in land measurements.

10 square Gunter’s chains = 1 Acre

10 Gunter chains = 1 Furlong

80 Gunter chains = 1 mile

D. Engineer’s chain

This chain comes in 100ft length. Its consist of 100 links each link being 1ft long. At every 10 links a
brass ring or tags are provided for indication of 10 links. Readings are taken in feet and decimal.

E. Revenue Chain

The standard size of this type of chain is 33ft. The number of links are 16, each link being 2 ft.
This chain is commonly used in cadastral survey.

Testing and Adjustment of Chain

As the chain is a metal made, it may undergo many changes due to temperature effect or human
error and etc. So for all lengths of chain a tolerance is given,

5m chain = + or – 3mm

10m chain = + or – 3mm

 20m chain = + or – 5mm

30m chain = + or – 8mm

Chain length shorten due to

Bending of links.

Sticking of mud in the rings

Chain length increases due to

Opening of small rings.

Wearing of surfaces.

Chains may be tested with respect to

Steel tape

Permanent test gauge

Pegs driven in the field at required distances

Permanent test gauge made with dressed stones

If chain is found long, then

Close the joins of the rings

Reshape the elongated rings

Remove one or two rings

Replace worn out rings

If chain is found short, then

Straighten the links

Replace the small rings with big one

Insert additional rings

Flattening the circular rings

Errors in chain Surveying

Errors in chaining may be classified as:

Personal errors

Compensating errors, and

Cumulating errors.

Personal Errors

Wrong reading, wrong recording, reading from wrong end of chain

etc., are personal errors. These errors are serious errors and cannot be detected easily. Care should
be taken to avoid such errors.

Compensating Errors

These errors may be sometimes positive and sometimes negative. Hence

They are likely to get compensated when large number of readings are taken. The magnitude of such
errors can be estimated by theory of probability. The following are the examples of such errors:

Incorrect marking of the end of a chain.

Fractional part of chain may not be correct though total length is corrected.

Graduations in tape may not be exactly same throughout.

In the method of stepping while measuring sloping ground, plumbing may be crude.

Cumulative Errors

The errors that occur always in the same direction are called cumulative errors. In each reading the
error may be small, but when large numbers of measurements are made they may be considerable,
since the error is always on one side. Examples of such errors are:

Bad ranging

Bad straightening

Erroneous length of chain

Temperature variation

Variation in applied pull

Non-horizontality

Sag in the chain, if suspended for measuring horizontal distance on a sloping ground.

Errors (i), (ii), (vi) and (vii) are always +ve since they make measured length more than actual.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Chains in Surveying

Advantages of Chains in Surveying

Chain survey is simplest and commonest method used in surveying exercises

The equipment used to conduct chain survey are simple to use,

The equipment used in chain survey can easily be replaced. For example measuring rods can be replaced
with measuring tape.

This method does not involve complicated mathematical calculation. I know this is the relief to those
who are afraid of mathematics

In chain survey few people are needed to conduct the survey. Normally chain survey team has three
people Booker, leader and follower.

Disadvantages of Chains in Surveying

Simple chain survey cannot be conducted in built up areas and large areas.

Simple chain survey is subject to several chances of errors of accumulation which may cause by problem
of chain. The chain linkage may fail to stretch up properly and result in inaccurate data. Also clogging of
chain may read to error in reading.

It is time consuming

It may not be conducted in areas with steep slopes or water logged areas. Chain survey is usually
conducted in dry areas with gentle slopes. It becomes more complicated when survey is conducted in
areas that are too wet.

Chain survey becomes more complicated method when there are raised points (obstacles) in between
areas to be surveyed

Here are the steps to be followed for carrying out Chain Surveying:

Reconnaissance Survey

Marking stations

Running survey lines

Taking offsets

Instruments used in Chain Survey

Chain, 20m or 30m long

Tape

Arrows

Ranging rods

Wooden or Iron Pegs

Plumb bob

Cross staff
Arrows

Arrows also known as making pins or chaining pins are made of tempered steel wire 4mm in
diameter and generally 10 arrows are supplied with a chain.

Usually the arrow mark the end of chain during process of chaining. An arrow is inserted into the
ground after the chain length is measured on the ground. Usually the length of an arrow is 40cm and
one end of it is made sharp and the other end is bent into a circle for facility of carrying.

They are made up of good quality hardened and tempered steel wire of 4mm in diameter. The
arrows are made 400 mm in length. They are pointed at one end of inserting in to the ground. The
other end is in to a ring.

Pegs

Pegs are made of hard wood or iron and are 40 mm square by 50 cm in length and are used for
permanently marking positions during survey.

These rods are tapered at one end, generally 25mm or 30mm square and 150mm long wooden pegs
are used to mark the position of the station on. In soft ground 40 to 60 cm long and 4 to 5 cm square
is suitable.

They should be driven in the ground with about 4 cm lengths, projecting above the ground.

Ranging Rods
The ranging rods are used for making the intermediate positions / points of stations and for ranging
the lines. They are made of seasoned straight grained timber of teak, blue pine, sisov or deodar.
They are circular or octagonal in cross section with 3cm diameter and have a length of either 2 or 3
m. They are painted alternatively black and white or red and white.

They are shod at the bottom with a heavy iron points. In order to make them visible at a distance,
they are pained alternatively black and white or red and white. When they are at considerable
distance, red and white or white and yellow flags about 25 cm square should be fastened at the top.

Offset Staff / Rods

Similar to the ranging rod, they are usually 3 m long and is divided into parts each 0.2 m length. On
top open ring for puling or pushing the chain through a wedge.

The offset rod is used for measuring the offset of short lengths. It has two short narrow vertical slots.
It is used for aligning short offsets.

Plum Bobs

While chaining along sloping ground, a plumb bobs is required to transfer the points to the ground.
It is also sometimes used for testing the verticality of ranging poles.

Surveyor’s Band

The surveyor’s band is made of a steel strip which is rolled into a metal frame with a winding handle.
It is 30m, 50m or 100m long. It is used in projects where more accuracy measurement is required.

Cross Staff
The cross staff is made of metal or wood with eye slips at right angles and is used to measure right
angles from the line of traverse

Surveyor’s Book

In order to note the readings of chain survey a note book or surveyor’s book is used.

In this post I have enlisted and explained all the tools and instruments used in chain surveying.
Knowing instruments before start of any work is very important as far as success or failure of the
surveying is considered. There are different types of chains that are used in chain surveying all of
these are also enlisted.

Chain used for Surveying

20m chain – 100 links

30m chain – 150 links

1 links – 20cm

Links of chain are made by mild steel wire – 4mm diameter.

Chain Survey is Suitable when

Ground is fairly level and simple

Plans are required on large scale e.g. fields

When area is small in extent

Chain Surveying is Not Suitable

For Large Areas

When too many details are required

Wooded countries

Undulating areas
 Since the triangle is a simple plane geometrical figure, it can be plotted from the measured
length of its sides alone; therefore, the principle of chain survey is Triangulation.

In chain surveying, a NETWORK of TRIANGLES is preferred.

Preferably all the sides of a triangle should be nearly equal having each angle nearly 60 to ensure
minimum distortion due to errors in measurement of sides and plotting.

Generally such an ideal condition is not practical always. Usually attempt should be made to
have WELL CONDITIONED TRIANGLES in which no angle is smaller than 30 and no angle is
greater than 120.

Procedure for Measurement of an Area by Chain Triangulation

PROCEDURE:

Let ABCDE be the given field

whose area is to be measured,
fix the pegs at A, B, C, D & E.

Divide area into three triangles

ADE, ABD and BCD by joining
AD and BD.

Measure the lengths AB, BC ,

CD, DE, EA, AD and BD.

Calculate the area of the

triangles.

The sum of the areas of the

three triangles is the area of
the given field.

RESULT:

The area of the given field = _______

Survey Station:

Survey stations are of two kinds:

Main Stations
 Subsidiary or tie

Main Stations:

Main stations are the end of the lines, which command the boundaries of the survey, and the lines
joining the main stations re called the main survey line or the chain lines.

Subsidiary or the tie stations:

Subsidiary or the tie stations are the point selected on the main survey lines, where it is necessary to
locate the interior detail such as fences, hedges, building etc.

Tie or subsidiary lines:

A tie line joints two fixed points on the main survey lines. It helps to checking the accuracy of
surveying and to locate the interior details. The position of each tie line should be close to some
features, such as paths, building etc.

Base Lines:

It is main and longest line, which passes approximately through the center of the field. All the other
measurements to show the details of the work are taken with respect of this line.

Check Line:

A check line also termed as a proof line is a line joining the apex of a triangle to some fixed points on
any two sides of a triangle. A check line is measured to check the accuracy of the framework. The
length of a check line, as measured on the ground should agree with its length on the plan.

Offsets:

These are the lateral measurements from the base line to fix the positions of the different objects of
the work with respect to base line. These are generally set at right angle offsets. It can also be drawn
with the help of a tape. There are two kinds of offsets:

Perpendicular offsets

Oblique offsets

The measurements are taken at right angle to the survey line called perpendicular or right angled
offsets. The measurements which are not made at right angles to the survey line are called oblique
offsets or tie line offsets.
OBSTACLES IN CHAIN SURVEYING

There are 3 types of obstacles

1. Obstacle to ranging

2. Obstacle to chaining

3. Obstacle to both ranging & chaining.

1. Chaining free but vision obstructed:

In this it is possible to move chain between the two end stations but they

are not visible to each other due to obstructions. There are two cases i) it is not

possible to see both ends from intermediate stations. Ex: a hillock in between

two stations.

ii) It is possible to see both the ends from any intermediate station.

Case (i): In this case, the problem may be overcome by indirect ranging.

Case (ii): This case occurs when a pond, a tree intervenes, preventing the

fixing of intermediate stations. In this case random line method may be used. Let
AB be the line whose length is required. Fig (2.16).From A run a line AB1

called a random line, in any convenient direction. Chain the line to B from A

making BB1 perpendicular to AB1 and measure BB1.

Then AB = AB12 + BB12

Intermediate points such as C can be located on the line AB by measuring

AC1. Thus C can be located.

2. Chaining obstructed but vision free.

This is the case when a pond, river or plantations intervenes. Two convenient

points have to be located on the chain line on either side of the obstacle and the

distance between them found.

There are two cases.

i) In which it is possible to chain round the obstacle e.g. a pond, a bend in

the river etc.

ii) In which it is not possible to chain round the obstacle, e.g. a river.

Case i): Several methods are available; however, a few are described

below.

Let AB be chain line and a pond intervenes.

1) Two convenient points C and D are selected on the chain line on either

side of the obstacle. Erect equal perpendiculars CE and DF and measure the

length EF

Then CD = EF
2) Select a point C on the chain the AB (fig 2.18) on one side of the

obstacle and setout CD to clear the obstacle. At D erect a perpendicular DE to

clear the obstacle, cutting the chain line at E. Measure CD and DE

then CE = CD2 +DE2

3) Select two points C and D (fig 2.19) on either side of the obstacle. Set

out perpendicular CE of length such that DE clears the obstacle. Measure CE

and DE then.

CD = DE2 - CE2

Case ii): The typical example of this class of obstacle is a river. There are several methods, of which a
few are given below.

1) Select two points A and B (fig 2.20) on the chain line PR on opposite

banks of the river. Setout a perpendicular AD and bisect it at C. At D erect a

perpendicular DE and mark the point E in line with C and B. Measure DE.
 Since the triangles ABC and CED are similar. AB = DE

2) As before select two points A and B. Fig (2.21). Set out a perpendicular

AD at A. with cross staff erect a perpendicular to DB at D, cutting the chain line

at C. Measure AD and AC.

Since the triangles ABD and ACD are similar

Chaining and vision both obstructed: In this case the problem consists in prolonging the line
beyond the obstacle and determining the distance across it. A building is a typical example of
this type of obstacle. Point C is chosen the chain line AB as near as possible to the building and
rectangles EFGC, DHJK are setup on either side of the obstruction, JH is ranged in line with FG.

Then EF= CG=DH=KJ, FGHJ is a straight line and GH = CD, the missing portion of the chain line AB.

Compass surveying

Compass surveying is the branch of surveying in which the position of an object is located using
angular measurements determined by a compass and linear measurements using a chain or tape.
Compass surveying is used in following circumstances:

If the surveying area is large, chain surveying is not adopted for surveying rather compass surveying is
employed.
If the plot for surveying has numerous obstacles and undulations which prevents chaining.

If there is a time limit for surveying, compass surveying is usually adopted

Prismatic compass

Compass surveying is not used in places which contain iron core, power lines etc which usually
attracts magnets due to their natural properties and electromagnetic properties respectively.
Compass surveying is done by using traversing. A traverse is formed by connecting the points in the
plot by means of a series of straight lines.

Magnetic compass

Magnetic compass is used to find out the magnetic bearing of survey lines. The bearings may either
measured in Whole Circle Bearing (W.C.B) system or in Quadrantal Bearing (Q.B) system based on
the type of compass used. The basic principle of magnetic compass is if a strip of steel or iron is
magnetized and pivoted exactly at centre so that it can swing freely, then it will establish itself in the
magnetic meridian at the place of arrangement.

Major types of magnetic compass are:

Prismatic compass

Surveyor’s compass

Level compass

Prismatic compass

Prismatic compass is a portable magnetic compass which can be either used as a hand instrument or
can be fitted on a tripod. It contains a prism which is used for accurate measurement of readings.
The greatest advantage of this compass is both sighting and reading can be done simultaneously
without changing the position.
 Major parts of a Prismatic Compass are:

Magnetic needle

Graduated ring

Adjustable mirror

Sliding arrangement for mirror

Object vane

Eye vane

Metal box

Glass cover

Horse hair

Adjustments of prismatic compass

Two types of adjustments:

Temporary adjustment

Permanent adjustment

Temporary adjustments

Centering: it is the process of fixing the compass exactly over the station. Centering is usually done by
adjusting the tripod legs. Also a plumb-bob is used to judge the accurate centering of instruments over
the station.

Leveling: the instrument has to be leveled if it is used as in hand or mounted over a tripod. If it is used
as in hand, the graduated disc should swing freely and appears to be completely level in reference to
the top edge of the case. If the tripod is used, they usually have a ball and socket arrangement for
leveling purpose.

Focusing the prism: Prism can be slide up or down for focusing to make the readings clear and
readable.

Permanent adjustments are same as in the Surveyor’s compass.

Permanent adjustments

They are done only in the circumstances where the internal parts of the prism is disturbed or
damaged. They are:

Adjustments in levels

Adjustment of pivot point

Adjustment of sight vanes

Adjustment of needle

Measurement of angles and Computation of area

The observations of a plot using compass surveying will be:

Here the bearings are observed in Whole Circle Bearing (W.C.B) system.

Line Fore bearing Distance measured (m)

AB 40˚ 0’ 10.8

BC 110˚0’ 8.2

CA 280˚0’ 13.1

Surveying Triangular area with compass survey

Included angle = bearing of previous line – bearing of next line

= (280˚-180˚) -40˚ =60˚00’

00’

Sum= 180˚00’

Check: (2n-4) 90˚= (6-4) 90˚=180˚

Where n = number of sides of the traverse

Area Computation
 Surveyor’s compass

Surveyor’s compass consists of a circular brass box containing a magnetic needle which swings freely
over a brass circle which is divided into 360 degrees. The horizontal angle is measured using a pair of
sights located on north – south axis of the compass. They are usually mounted over a tripod and
leveled using a ball and socket mechanism.

Surveyor’s compass (National Museum of American History)

They also have two types of adjustments, temporary and permanent. Temporary adjustments are
same as described in prismatic compass.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Compass surveying

Advantages

They are portable and light weight.

They have fewer settings to fix it on a station

The error in direction produced in a single survey line does not affect other lines.

It is suitable to retrace old surveys.

Disadvantages

It is less precise compared to other advanced methods of surveying.

It is easily subjected to various errors such as errors adjoining to magnetic meridian, local attraction
etc.

Imperfect sighting of the ranging rods and inaccurate leveling also causes error.
 Errors in compass survey

Errors can be arising due to various reasons during the process of surveying, they are classified as:

Instrumental errors

Personal errors

Natural errors

Instrumental errors

As the name suggests they are arise due to the wrong adjustments of the instruments. Some other
reasons are:

If the plane of sight not being vertical, it causes error in sighting and reading.

If the magnetic needle is not perfectly straight or if it is sluggish, readings may not be accurate.

Personal errors

They arise mainly due to the carelessness of the surveyor. They are:

Inaccurate leveling

Inaccurate reading

Inaccurate centering

Natural errors

Natural errors are occurring due to the various natural causes which affect the working of compass.
It has nothing to do with the surveyor and to minimize them, some corrections in calculations
applied. They are:

Local attraction

Proximity to the magnetic storms

declination

CONVERSION OF QUADRATAL BEARING TO WHOLE CIRCLE BEARING

LINE QUADRANT QUADRANT BEARING WHOLE CIRCLE

(Q.B.) BEARING (W.C.B.)

OA I NѲ1E Ѳ1

OB II S Ѳ2E 1800-Ѳ2
OC III S Ѳ3W 1800+ Ѳ3

OD IV N Ѳ4W 3600- Ѳ4

CONVERSION OF WHOLE CIRCLE BEARINGS TO QUADRANTAL BEARING

LINE QUADRANT WHOLE CIRCLE QUADRANT BEARING

BEARING (W.C.B.) (Q.B.)

OA I Ѳ= 00 to 900 NѲE

OB II Ѳ= 900 to 1800 S(1800-Ѳ)E

OC III Ѳ= 1800 to 2700 S(Ѳ- 1800)W

OD IV Ѳ= 2700 to 3600 N(3600-Ѳ)W

PLANE TABLE SURVEY:

General:

In case of plane table survey, the measurements of survey lines of the traverse and their
plotting to a suitable scale are done simultaneously on the field. Following are the cases in which
the plane table survey is found to be useful:

(1) Compass survey cannot be carried out with success in industrial areas of the town. Plane table
survey will be the best alternative in such cases.

(2) For preparing plans on a small scale, plane table survey proves to be speedy, easy and accurate.

(3) The city or town has expanded within two or three decades and it is required to plot the
developed area on the previously plotted plan of the existing area.

Instruments required:

Alidade, Drawing board, Plumbing fork, Spirit level and Trough compass

Temporary adjustments of plane table:

Following three distinct operations at each survey station are carried out for the temporary
adjustments of a plane table.

(1) Centering

(2) Leveling

(3) Orientation
(1) Centering: The legs of tripod are well spread out to get the convenient height for working
on the board. Then, the operation of centering is carried out by means of plumbing fork or
U-frame and plumb bob. This process ascertains the fact that the point on paper represents
the station point on ground. The pointed end of the plumbing fork is kept on point on paper
and at the other end, a plumb bob is fixed. The table or board is shifted bodily till the plumb
bob hangs exactly over the peg of the station.

(2) Leveling: The process of leveling is carried out with the help of spirit level and it consists
of making the table level either by ordinary tilting the board or by ball and socket
arrangement or by adjusting the legs of tripod.

(3) Orientation: The process by which the position occupied by the board at various survey
stations are kept parallel is known as the orientation. Thus, when a plane table is properly
oriented, the lines on the board are parallel to the lined on ground which they represent.

The methods of orientation are:

(i) Orientation by magnetic needle: In this method, the magnetic north is drawn on paper at
a particular station. At the next station, the trough compass is placed along the line of
magnetic north and then the table is turned in such a way that the ends of magnetic needle
are opposite to the zeros of the scale. The board is then fixed in position by clamps. This
method is inaccurate in the sense that the results are likely to be affected by the local
attraction.

(ii) Orientation by back sighting: In this method, the orientation is carried out by the back
sighting of a particular line. Suppose a line is drawn from station A on paper representing
line AB on ground. The table is centered and leveled at station B and then the alidade is
placed along the line ba. The table is turned till the line of sight bisects the ranging rod at A.
The board is then clamped in this position. This method is better than the previous one and
it gives perfect orientation.

Methods of plane table survey:

Following are the four methods by which an object might be located on paper by
plane table:

(1) Radiation

(2) Intersection

(3) Traversing

(4) Resection

RADIATION:
 This is the simplest method and it is useful only when the whole traverse can be
commanded from a single station.

The procedure is as follows:

(i) Select a point P so that all the corners of the traverse ABCD are seen.

(ii) Carry out the usual temporary adjustments of centering and leveling. Mark the north line
on paper.

(iii)Put the alidade on point P and dram a line of sight for station A.

(iv) Measure the distance PA on ground and put this length to a suitable scale on paper
which will give point a.

(v) Similarly, obtain point’s b, c and d on paper by drawing lines of sight for stations B, C and
D and measuring the distances PB, PC and PD on ground respectively.

(vi) Join points a, b, c and d on paper, as shown in figure.

(vii) For checking the accuracy of work, measure the distances AB, BC, CD and DA on ground
and compare them with the lengths ab, bc, cd and da respectively on paper.

INTERSECTION:

This method is useful where it is not possible to measure the distances on ground as in case of a
mountainous country. Hence, this method is employed for locating inaccessible points, the broken
boundaries, rivers, fixing survey stations, etc.

The procedure is as follows:

(i) Select two stations P and Q so that the points to be located on paper are easily seen from them.

(ii) Plot the line pq, which is known as the base line, on paper. This can be done in one of the two
ways:

a. The table can be centered and leveled at station P and then after orienting at station Q, the
distance PQ can be accurately measured and put up to some scale on the paper.

b. The line pq can be drawn to some scale on the paper and then the board can be adjusted from
station P by back sighting at station Q.

(iii) From station P, draw rays for stations A, B, etc.

(iv) Shift the table to station Q and after proper orientation, take rays of stations A, B etc.,

(v) The intersection of rays from stations P and Q will give points a, b etc. on paper, as shown in
figure.

(vi) For checking the accuracy of work, measure the distance AB on ground and compare it with its
corresponding length ab on paper.

Traversing:

This method is suitable for connecting the traversing stations. This is similar to compass
traversing or theodolite traversing. But here fielding and plotting are done simultaneously
with the help of the Radiation and Intersection methods.

The procedure is as follows:

Suppose A, B, C and D are traversing stations.

The table is set up at the station A. A suitable point a is selected on the sheet in such a way that
the whole area may be plotted in the sheet. The table is centered, levelled and clamped. The
north line marked on the right-hand top corner of the sheet.

With the alidade touching point a the ranging rod B is bisected and a ray is drawn. The distance
AB is measured and plotted to any suitable scale.
 The table is shifted and centered over B. Oriented by back-sighting and clamped.

With the alidade touching point b the ranging rod C is bisected and a ray is drawn. The distance
BC is measured and plotted to any suitable scale.

The table is shifted and setup at C and the same procedure is repeated.

In this manner, all station of the traverse are connected.

Resection:

This method is suitable for establishing new station at a place in order to locate missing
details.

The procedure is as follows:

Suppose it is required to establish a station at position P. Let us select two points A and B on
the ground. The distance AB is measured and plotted to any suitable scale. The line AB is
known as “Base line”.

The table is set up at A. It is levelled, centered and oriented by bisecting the ranging rod at B.
The table is then clamped.

With the alidade touching point a, the ranging rod at P is bisected and a ray is drawn. Then
a point P1 is marked on this ray by estimating with the eye.
 The table is shifted and centered in such way that P1 is just over. It is the oriented by back
sighting the ranging rod at A.

With the alidade touching point b, the ranging rod B is bisected and a ray is drawn. Suppose
this ray intersects the previous at a point P. This point represents the position of the station
P on the sheet. Then the actual position of the station P is marked on the ground by U-fork
and plumb bob.

Advantages of Plane Table Survey

Followings are the advantages of plane table surveying

Plane Table Surveying is most suitable for preparing small‐scale maps.

Plane Table Survey is a very swift method of surveying.

The field book is not necessary as plotting is done in the field simultaneously with the field work.
So the possible errors of the field book can be avoided.

The surveyor can compare the plotted work with the actual features of the area surveyed and
thus can ascertain if it represents temporarily.

It is particularly advantageous in magnetic areas where compass survey is not reliable.

Plane table survey is less costly than most of the surveying technique.

It does not require skilled hands.

Disadvantages of Plane Table Surveying

Followings are the disadvantages of plane table surveying

Plane table survey cannot be used in rainy season.

Plane Table Survey instruments are heavy, cumbersome to carry.

The table has to be centered and oriented at every station which is really tiresome.

It never produces accurate results.

If the survey is to be re‐plotted to a different scale or quantities are to be computed, it is a great

inconvenience in absence of the field notes.
Unit –2

THEODOLITE SURVEYING:

COMPONENTS OF A THEODOLITE:

INTRODUCTION:

The theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles. The accuracy with which these
angles can be measured ranges from 5mins to 0, 1 secs. It is a very important instrument in plane
surveying.

Its essential components are:

A telescope which can rotate or transit through 360° about a transverse horizontal axis.

The bearings for this horizontal or trunnion axis are mounted in two vertical pillars or standards.
The standards are mounted on a horizontal upper plate.

The upper plate rotates through 360° about a vertical or alidade axis, the bearing for the alidade
axis is mounted in a lower horizontal plate.

Rotation of the upper plate about the alidade axis is known as traversing the instrument. The
horizontal plates can be levelled by means of three foot screws located beneath the lower plate,
in a similar way to a level.

Simplified Diagram of an Early Vernier Theodolite

Showing Most of the Main Components

DESCRIPTION OF MAIN COMPONENTS:

Telescope: It has the same features as in a level graticule with eyepiece and internal focussing for
the telescope itself. The same precautions for focussing the eyepiece and eliminating parallax
should be applied.

Vertical Scale (or Vertical Circle): The vertical circle is a full 360° scale. It is mounted within one of
the standards with its centre co-linear with the trunnion axis. It is used to measure the angle
between the line of sight (collimation axis) of the telescope and the horizontal. This is known as the
vertical angle.

Note: that the side of the instrument where the standard containing the scale is found is referred to
as the face of the instrument.

Vertical Clamp and Tangent Screw: In order to hold the telescope at a particular vertical angle a
vertical clamp is provided. This is located on one of the standards and its release will allow free
transiting of the telescope. When clamped, the telescope can be slowly transited using another fine
adjustment screw known as the vertical tangent screw.

Upper Plate: The upper plate is the base on which the standards and vertical circle are placed.
Rotation or transiting of the upper plate about a vertical (alidade) axis will also cause the entire
standards/telescope assembly to rotate in an identical manner. For the instrument to be in correct
adjustment it is therefore necessary that the upper plate must be perpendicular to the alidade axis
and parallel to the trunnion axis. Also, before the instrument is used, the upper plate must be
"levelled". This is achieved by adjustment of three foot screws and observing a precise tube bubble.
This bubble is known as the plate bubble and is placed on the upper plate.

The Lower Plate: The lower plate is the base of the whole instrument. It houses the foot screws and
the bearing for the vertical axis. It is rigidly attached to the tripod mounting assembly and does not
move.

Horizontal Scale (or Horizontal Circle): The horizontal circle is a full 3600 scale. It is often placed
between the upper and lower plates with its centre co-linear with the vertical axis. It is capable of
full independent rotation about the trunnion axis so that any particular direction may be arbitrarily
set to read zero.

It is used to define the horizontal direction in which the telescope is sighted. Therefore a horizontal
angle measurement requires two horizontal scale readings taken by observing two different targets.

The difference between these readings will be the horizontal angle subtended by the two targets at
the theodolite station.

The Upper Horizontal Clamp and Tangent Screw: The upper horizontal clamp is provided to clamp
the upper plate to the horizontal circle. Once the clamp is released the instrument is free to traverse
through 360° around the horizontal circle. When clamped, the instrument can be gradually transited
around the circle by use of the upper horizontal tangent screw. It is the upper clamp and tangent
screw which are used during a sequence or "round" of horizontal angle measurements.

The Lower Horizontal Clamp and Tangent Screw: The lower horizontal clamp is provided to clamp
the horizontal circle to the lower plate. Once the clamp is released the circle is free to rotate about
the vertical axis. When clamped, the horizontal circle can be gradually rotated using the lower-
horizontal tangent screw. The lower clamp and tangent screw must only be used at the start of a
sequence or "round" of horizontal angle measurements to set the first reading to zero (if so desired).

Circle Reading and Optical Micrometre: Modern instruments usually have one eyepiece for reading
both circles. It is usually located on one of the standards. The vertical and horizontal circles require
illumination in order to read them. This is usually provided by small circular mirrors which can be
angled and rotated to reflect maximum light onto the circles.

Optical Plumb: Unlike optical levels, theodolite must be set up over fixed control stations, often
defined by wooden pegs and nails. Positioning of the instrument must be achieved to nail head
accuracy. Modern instruments have an optical plumb to achieve this. It consists of an eyepiece set in
the lower plate. The line of sight through the eyepiece, which is reflected vertically downwards
beneath the instrument by means of a prism, is precisely in line with the vertical axis.

Horizontal Clamps and Tangent Screws: Great care must be taken not to confuse the upper and
lower horizontal clamps and tangent screws. With the upper clamp released, the instrument rotates
around the horizontal circle. With the lower released the instrument and circle rotate around the
lower plate.
The upper tangent screw moves the instrument relative to the circle; the lower tangent screw moves
the instrument and circle relative to the lower plate. Tangent screws only work when the clamps are
tightened; they have limited travel and must not be forced. Instrument Station: Since the function of
the instrument is to measure vertical and horizontal angles subtended at the instrument, the
position of the instrument is important (unlike the position of a level). Theodolites are therefore set
up over control stations which are permanent locations. The art of setting up a theodolite over a
station <to nail head accuracy) and getting it level is best demonstrated rather than described.

OPERATION OF A THEODOLITE: Before operating, the theodolite needs to be placed directly over the
station (so called nail accuracy), and then level it. This has to be done at the same time as described
below. (This is better done in practice than describe in words!).

Precise levelling and positioning of theodolite:

1. Set tripod and instrument with optical plumb almost over the station.

2. Unclamp one of the horizontal clamp (either will do) and traverse the instrument so that the plate
bubble is parallel to two of the foot screws.

3. Adjust those two foot screws until the plate bubble is level.

4. Traverse the instrument so that the bubble is perpendicular to the already adjusted foot screws.

5. Re-level using the third foot screw.

6. Traverse the instrument in the same direction and re-align parallel to the first two foot screws.

7. Repeat stage 3 and then traverse as in 4. Then repeat stages 5-7, until the best mean level bubble
is obtained (to one division accuracy).

8. Unclamp the base of the instrument and while viewing through optical plumb, slide the
instrument across the tripod base until it is exactly over the station. Do not rotate the instrument
about the tripod base. (Note that it might be necessary to repeat stages 1-7!!).
These two foot screws are turned until the plate bubble is brought to the centre of its run. The
levelling foot screws should be turned in opposite directions simultaneously, remembering that the
bubble will move in a direction corresponding to the movement of the thumb. The instrument is
turned 90°and the bubble centred again but using the third foot screw only.

This process is repeated in both positions until the plate level bubble is central in both positions.
The instrument is now turned until the plate is in a position180°from the first. If the plate level
bubble is still in the centre of its run, the theodolite is level and no further adjustment is needed.

B. Zeroing the Horizontal circle:

1. Unclamp the Upper Horizontal clamp.

2. Traverse the instrument until the horizontal circle reads approximately zero.

3. Re-clamp the Upper Clamp.

4. Adjust the Upper Horizontal Tangent Screw until the reading is approximately zero.

5. Select a target whose direction you wish to assign a zero scale reading.

6. Unclamp the Lower Horizontal clamp.7. Traverse the instrument (and circle) until the telescope is
pointing approximately at the selected target.

8. Re-clamp and, sighting through the telescope, align the vertical graticule precisely onto the target
using the Lower Horizontal Tangent Screw. It is important that you approach the target in the
direction in which you intend to continue to traverse to the next target. This is to minimize errors
and is dealt with in more detail later.

The instrument is now correctly sighted onto the target and is reading zero. The lower horizontal
clamp and lower tangent screw should not be touched again until this particular ‘round’ of readings
has been completed.

C. “FACE” and “SWING”:

 As defined earlier in the subject, the standard which houses the vertical circle is called
the Face of the instrument. If, when sighting through the telescope, this standard (the
face) is on your left, then FACE LEFT is recorded for all readings taken. If on the right,
then we record FACE RIGHT.

Face Left

If the vertical circle of the instrument is on the left side of the observer while taking a
reading ,the position is called the face left

The observation taken on the horizontal or vertical circle in this position, is known as the
face left observation

Face Right

If the vertical circle of the instrument is on the right side of the observer while taking a reading ,the
position is called the face right

The observation taken on the horizontal or vertical circle in this position, is known as the
face right observation.

The Swing of the instrument is defined as the direction in which the theodolite is
traversed (i.e. rotated about vertical axis). If, when traversing, the telescope lens moves
to the left we record readings as SWING LEFT. If on the right, we record readings as
SWING RIGHT.

Every horizontal circle reading must be booked with the face and swing identified.
Usually it is conventional to work with opposite face and swing, i.e. FL/SR and FR/SL.

D. Taking a round of Horizontal readings:

The following procedure would normally be adapted to measure the horizontal angle subtended at
the theodolite station T by the two targets A and B.

1. Set Horizontal scale to zero and ensure both clamps are tightened.

2. Select F ace (L or R) by transiting the telescope (if necessary).

3. Release the lower horizontal clamp. Traverse the instrument to approach target A using the
appropriate Swing direction (L or R) stopping just short of the target.

4. Clamp the lower clamp.

5. Adjust the lower horizontal tangent screw to complete the swing movement and bring the
graticule cross precisely in line with target A. Do not “overshoot”!

6. Read and book the horizontal scale reading (which should be zero).
7. Now unclamp the Upper horizontal clamp. Traverse the instrument to approach target B using the
same swing as before, stopping just short of target. Re-tighten (clamp) the upper clamp.

8. Adjust the upper horizontal tangent screw to complete the swing movement and bring the
graticule cross in line with target B.

9. Read and book the horizontal scale reading.

• Now if we transit the telescope by approximately 180º, this will be facing away from target B. By
repeating stages 8-10 above (opposite swing now), another reading is recorded for target B and then
at A (continuing traverse).

• This round of readings is now complete and will give us two versions of the same angle. Depending
on the nature of the work and the accuracy required we may produce more rounds of readings,
using opposite faces and swings or different positions on the horizontal circle producing 4 or even 8
versions of the same angle.

• The reason for this systematic approach using different combinations of face, swing and position
on the horizontal circle is to minimise systematic errors.

E. Booking Horizontal Angle Readings:

An example, based on the description in D, is given below. Note that face left and face right readings
on the same target differ by approximately 180º, if the instrument is in precise adjustment.

Instrument Target Face/Swing Horiz.Circle Reduced Angle

Station (I.S.) (º ′ ″) (º ′ ″)

T A L/R 000-00-00

136-34-20

T B L/R 136-34-20

T B R/L 316-34-40

136-34-30

T A R/L 180-00-10

The mean value is 136º- 34′-25″. Note that the horizontal scale is always graduated so that
readings increase in a clockwise sense. Also, the reduced angle is clockwise from A to B (i.e.
reading at B minus reading at A or say RB-RA).

However, consider the case of reducing as RA-RB .This would have represented the
clockwise rotation from B to A and the booking should have been as follows.
 Both reductions are equally acceptable, but the important question is: which angle has been
obtained? It is easy to work out with common sense by visualizing the real situation. This
approach is good enough when angles are close to 90º but will not necessarily work for
angles close to 180º

Instrument Target Face/Swing Horiz.Circle Reduced Angle

Station (I.S.) (º ′ ″) (º ′ ″)

T A L/R 360-00-00

136-34-20 223-25-40

T B L/R

T B R/L 316-34-40

223-25-30

T A R/L 180-00-10

The mean value is 223º- 25′-35″.

Measurement of horizontal angle:

Measurement of Angle ABC

The instrument is set over B.

The lower clamp is kept fixed and upper clamp is loosened.

Turn the telescope clockwise set vernier A to 0° and vernier B to approximately 180°.

Upper clamp is tightened and using the upper tangent screw the vernier A and B are exactly set to 0°
and 180°.

Upper clamp is tightly fixed, lower one is loosened and telescope is directed towards A
and bisects the ranging rod at A.

Tightened the lower clamp and turn the lower tangent screw to perfectly bisect ranging
rod at A.

Loose the upper clamp and turn the telescope clockwise to bisect the ranging rod at C
tightened the upper clamp and do the fine adjustment with upper tangent screw.
 The reading on vernier A and B are noted. Vernier A gives the angle directly and vernier
B gives the reading by subtracting the initial reading (180°) from final reading.

Read these two method

Repetition method

Reiteration method

Vertical angle measurement:

The theodolite is set up at O. it is centred and levelled properly. The Zeros of the verniers are set
at 00– 00 mark of the vertical circle (which is fixed to the telescope). The telescope is then
clamped.

The plate bubble is brought to the center with the help of foot screws (in the usual manner).
Then the altitude bubble is brought to the center by means of a clip screw. At this position the
line of collimation is exactly horizontal.

To measure the angle of elevation, the telescope is raised slowly to bisect the point A accurately.
The reading on both the verniers are noted, and the angle of elevation recorded

The face of the instrument is changed and the point A is again bisected. The readings on the
verniers are noted. The mean of the angles of the observed is assumed to be the correct angle of
the elevation.
 To measure the angle of depression, the telescope is slowly lowered and the point B is bisected.
The readings on the verniers are noted for the two observations (face left and face right). The
mean angle of the observation is taken to be the correct angle of depression.

Computation of latitude and departure:

Latitude of a line is the distances measured parallel to the north south of the North-South
direction

Departure of the line is the distance measured parallel to the east-west direction

Balancing of traverse:
Bowditch’s rule:

Total error is distributed in proportion to the lengths of the traverse legs.

Calculation of traverse area:

Problem:

Calculate the latitudes, departures and closing error for the following traverse
conducted at Allahabad. Adjust also the traverse using Bowditch’s rule.
TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING:

Tacheometry or tachemetry or telemetry is a branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal

and vertical distances of points are obtained by optical means as opposed to the ordinary slower
process of measurements by tape or chain.

The method is very rapid and convenient.

 It is best adapted in obstacles such as steep and broken ground, deep ravines, stretches of
water or swamp and so on, which make chaining difficult or impossible,

The primary object of tacheometry is the preparation of contoured maps or plans requiring both
the horizontal as well as vertical control. Also, on surveys of higher accuracy, it provides a check
on distances measured with the tape.

Tacheometry (from Greek, quick measure), is a system of rapid surveying, by which the
positions, both horizontal and vertical, of points on the earth surface relatively to one another
are determined without using a chain or tape or a separate leveling instrument.

Uses of Tacheometry:

The tacheometric methods of surveying are used with advantage over the direct methods of
measurement of horizontal distances and differences in elevations. Some of the uses are:

Preparation of topographic maps which require both elevations and horizontal distances.

Survey work in difficult terrain where direct methods are inconvenient

Detail filling

Reconnaissance surveys for highways, railways, etc.

Checking of already measured distances

Hydrographic surveys and

Establishing secondary control.

INSTRUMENTS:

An ordinary transit theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm is generally used for tacheometric
survey.

The stadia diaphragm essentially consists of one stadia hair above and the other an equal
distance below the horizontal cross-hair, the stadia hairs being mounted in the ring and on the
same vertical plane as the horizontal and vertical cross-hairs.

Stadia is a tacheometric form of distance measurement that relies on fixed angle intercept.
Different forms of stadia diaphragm commonly used

The telescope used in stadia surveying are of three kinds:

(1) The simple external-focusing telescope

(2) the external-focusing anallactic telescope (Possor`s telescope)

(3) The internal-focusing telescope.

A tacheometer must essentially incorporate the following features:

The multiplying constant should have a nominal value of 100 and the error contained in this
value should not exceed 1 in 1000.

The axial horizontal line should be exactly midway between the other two lines.

The telescope should be truly anallactic.

The telescope should be powerful having a magnification of 20 to 30 diameters.

The aperture of the objective should be 35 to 45 mm in diameter to have a sufficiently bright

image.

For small distances (say up to 100 meters), ordinary levelling staff may be used. For greater
distances a stadia rod may be used.

A stadia rod is usually of one piece, having 3 – 5 meters length.

A stadia rod graduated in 5 mm (i.e. 0.005 m) for smaller distances and while for longer
distances, the rod may be graduated in 1 cm (i.e. 0.01m).
 1
0'
7"

Different systems of Tacheometric Measurement:

The various systems of tacheometric survey may be classified as follows:

The stadia System

(a) Fixed Hair method of Stadia method

(b) Movable hair method, or Subtense method

The tangential system

Measurements by means of special instruments

The principle common to all the systems is to calculate the horizontal distance between two points A
and B and their distances in elevation, by observing

The angle at the instrument at A subtended by a known short distance along a staff kept at B,
and

The vertical angle to B from A.

Subtense Method:

This method is similar to the fixed hair method except that the stadia interval is variable.

Suitable arrangement is made to vary the distance between the stadia hair as to set them
against the two targets on the staff kept at the point under observation.

Thus, in this case, the staff intercept, i.e., the distance between the two targets is kept fixed
while the stadia interval, i.e., the distance between the stadia hair is variable.
 As in the case of fixed hair method, inclined sights may also be taken.

Tangential Method:

In this method, the stadia hairs are not used, the readings being taken against the horizontal
cross-hair.

To measure the staff intercept, two pointings of the instruments are, therefore, necessary.

This necessitates measurement of vertical angles twice for one single observation.

PRINCIPLE OF STADIA METHOD:

The stadia method is based on the principle that the ratio of the perpendicular to the base is
constant in similar isosceles triangles.

A
A
1
A
2
O )
β C C1 C
B 2

2 B1
B

In figure, let two rays OA and OB be equally inclined to central ray OC.

Let A2B2, A1B1 and AB be the staff intercepts. Evidently,

OC2 OC1 OC
= AB = AB
A2B2 1 1
= constant k = ½ cotβ/2

This constant k entirely depends upon the magnitude of the angle β

In actual practice, observations may be made with either horizontal line of sight or with inclined
line of sight.

In the later case the staff may be kept either vertically or normal to the line of sight.

First the distance-elevation formulae for the horizontal sights should be derived.

Horizontal Sights:

f2 f1
A

i c . M
O C s

a
d
D B
Consider the figure, in which O is the optical center of the objective of an external focusing
telescope.

Let A, C, and B = the points cut by the three lines of sight corresponding to three wires.

b, c, and a = top, axial and bottom hairs of the diaphragm.

ab = i = interval b/w the stadia hairs (stadia interval)

AB = s = staff intercept;

f = focal length of the objective

f1 = horizontal distance of the staff from the optical center of the objective

f2 = horizontal distance of the cross-wires from O.

d = distance of the vertical axis of the instrument from O.

D = horizontal distance of the staff from the vertical axis of the instruments.
 M = center of the instrument, corresponding to the vertical axis.

Since the rays BOb and AOa pass through the optical centre, they are straight so that AOB and aOb
are similar. Hence,

f1 s
f2 = i
Again, since f1 and f2 are conjugate focal distances, we have from lens formula,

1 1 1
= +
f f f
Multiplying throughout2by ff1, 1we get f1 = f f + f
1

f1 s f2
=
f2 i
Substituting the values of in the
above, we get

f = f+f
1 the staff is D = f1 + d
Horizontal distance between the axis and

f
D =s + (f + d) i= k . s + C
Above equation is known as the distance equation. In order to get the horizontal distance, therefore,
the staff intercept s is to be found by subtracting the staff readings corresponding to the top and
bottom stadia hairs.

The constant k = f/i is known as the multiplying constant or stadia interval factor and the constant (f
+ d) = C is known as the additive constant of the instrument.

Determination of constant k and C

The values of the multiplying constant k and the additive constant C can be computed by the
following methods:

1st method:

In this method, the additive constant C = (f + d) is measured from the instrument while the
multiplying constant k is computed from field observations:
 Focus the instrument to a distant object and measure along the telescope the distance between
the objective and cross-hairs,

1 1 1
f = f + f
1 2

The distance d between the instrument axis and the objective is variable in the case of external
focusing telescope, being greater for short sights and smaller for long sights. It should, therefore
be measured for average sight. Thus, the additive constant (f + d) is known.

To calculate the multiplying constant k, measure a known distance D1 and take the intercept s1
on the staff kept at that point, the line of sight being horizontal. Using the equation,

D1 = ks1 + C or k=
D1 – C
s

For average value, staff intercepts, s2, s3 etc., can be measured corresponding to distance D2, D3
etc., and mean value can be calculated.

Note:In case of some external focusing instruments, the eye-piece-diaphragm unit moves during
focusing. For such instruments d is constant and does not vary while focusing.

2nd method:

In this method, both the constants are determined by field observations as under:

Measure a line, about 200m long, on fairly level ground and drive pegs at some interval, say 50
meters.

Keep the staff on the pegs and observe the corresponding staff intercepts with horizontal sight.

Knowing the values of D and s for different points, a number of simultaneous equations can be
formed by substituting the values of D and s in equation D = k.s + C. The simultaneous solution of
successive pairs will give the values of k and C, and the average of these can be found.

For example, if s1 is the staff intercept corresponding to distance D1 and s2 corresponding to

D2 we have,
 D1 = k.s1 + C . . . . . (i) and D2 = k. s2 + C . . . . . (ii)

Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get

k=
D2– D1
. . . . . . . . . (1)
s 2 – s1
Substituting the values of k in (i), we get

D2 – D1
C = D1 - s1
s2 – s1

D1s2 – D2s1
= . . . . . . . . . (2)
s2 – s1

Thus equation (1) and (2) give the values of k and C.

Distance and Elevation formulae for Staff Vertical: Inclined Sight

Let P = Instrument station; Q = Staff station

M = position of instruments axis; O = Optical center of the objective

A, C, B = Points corresponding to the readings of the three hairs

s = AB = Staff intercept; i = Stadia interval

Ө = Inclination of the line of sight from the horizontal

L = Length MC measured along the line of sight

D = MQ’ = Horizontal distance between the instrument and the staff

V = Vertical intercept at Q, between the line of sight and the horizontal line

h = height of the instrument; r = central hair reading

β = angle between the two extreme rays corresponding to stadia hairs.

 Draw a line A’CB’ normal to the line of sight OC.

Angle AA`C = 900 + β/2, being the exterior angle of the ∆COA`.

Similarly, from ∆COB`, angle OB`C = angle BB`C = 900 – β/2.

Since β/2 is very small (its value being equal to 17’ 11” for k = 100), angle AA’C and angle BB’C may
be approximately taken equal to 900.

∟AA’C = ∟BB’C = 900

From ∆ ACA’, A’C = AC cos Ө or A’B’ = AB cos Ө = s cos Ө………. (a)

Since the line A’B’ is perpendicular to the line of sight OC, equation

D = k s + C is directly applicable. Hence, we have

MC = L = k. A’B’ + C = k s cosӨ + C . . . . . . . (b)

The horizontal distance

D = L cosӨ = (k s cosӨ + C) cosӨ

 D = k s cos2Ө + C cosӨ . . . . . . (1)

Similarly,V = L sin Ө = (k s cosӨ + C) sinӨ = k s cosӨ. sinӨ + C sinӨ

. . . . . . (2)

Thus equations (1) and (2) are the distance and elevation formulae for inclined line of sight.

(a) Elevation of the staff station for angle of elevation

If the line of sight has an angle of elevation Ө, as shown in the figure, we have

Elevation of staff station = Elevation of instrument station + h + V – r.

(b) Elevation of the staff station for the angle of depression:

Elevation of Q = Elevation of P + h – V – r

Distance and Elevation formulae for Staff Normal: Inclined Sight

Case (a): Line of Sight at an angle of elevation Ө

Let AB = s = staff intercept;

CQ = r = axial hair reading

With the same notations as in the last case, we have

MC = L = K s + C

The horizontal distance between P and Q is given by

D = MC’ + C’Q’ = L cosӨ + r sinӨ

= (k s + C) cosӨ + r sinӨ. . . . . (3)

Similarly, V = L sinӨ = (k s + C) sinӨ. . . . . (4)

Case (a): Line of Sight at an angle of depression Ө

Figure shows the line of sight depressed downwards,

MC = L = k s + C

D = MQ’ = MC’ – Q’C’

= L cosӨ - r sinӨ

D = (k s + C) cosӨ - r sinӨ . . . . . (5)

V = L sinӨ = (k s + C) sinӨ . . . . . (6)

Elevation of Q = Elevation of P + h – V – r cosӨ