PEC

 PEC scope limited to ferromagnetic materials. E.g. - carbon steel and low alloyed steel.
 Ferromagnetic material is material with magnetic permeability of µr»1
 PEC method based on Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction
 Lenz law- an electrically conductive object when subjected to change in magnetic field will produce
eddy current that oppose change in magnetic field.
 ‘Lift-off’- Distance between probe and steel surface.
 After primary field has been switched off, eddy current decay and at same time diffuse into the steel.
 Change in sec. field inside receiver coil induces voltage over its terminal, this voltage as function of
time is called ‘PEC signal’.
 Point between straight section and curved section in PEC signal is called ‘transition point’. Occurs
when PEC signal reaches back wall of steel.
 ‘Amplitude’(A)- signal strength at the beginning of PEC signal
 ‘Slope’ (n) - rate of decay at the straight section. Slope parameter n≈1.5; n>1.5
 ‘Transition Time (τ) – onset of fast decay.
 PEC signal is displayed on log-log graph.
 𝑊𝑇 = √𝜏 ÷ 𝜎𝜇, 𝜎- electrical conductivity, 𝜇- permeability of steel is electromagnetic properties of
steel.
 The velocity of diffusion is higher for a thin wall than for a thick wall.
 If the wall thickness at reference spot is unknown the readings can be presented as percentage relative
to reference measurement and are ‘relative wall thickness reading.’
 If the wall thickness at reference spot is known then it can be expressed in mm (inches) and wall
readings are ‘absolute.’

 Above equation valid only if σ1µ1=σ ref µref.

 Electromagnet properties may vary across test specimen if one part of test sample has received heat
treatment different than other (e.g. furnace tube).
 Variation of electromagnetic properties limits accuracy of PEC, to typically ±10% of wall thickness.
 PEC does not show internal or external wall loss, it is only sensitive only to wall thickness.
 Time scale is expressed in milliseconds (ms).
 Limiter line method- for the determination of transition time 𝜏 ref
 Starting point at normalisation time is 30% below the reference signal, with amplitude of 0.7V ref.
 Normalisation means multiplying the PEC signal with a factor.
 The strength of the primary field is largest when the PEC sensor is closest to the surface.
 Lower lift-off- higher amplitude and vice versa.
 Real PEC signals are lift-off dependence.
 Degree of lift-off dependence varies with wall thickness and geometry.
 Typical dependence varies from 0.1% decrease to 0.25% increase in PEC reading per mm lift-off.
 PEC readings vary strongly with distance.
 Insulation covers
 Material between lift-off can affect PEC signals if they are electrically conductive or magnetic.
Aluminium covers
 Electrical conductivity of aluminium 5 times higher than steel. Therefore strong contribution of
aluminium covers.
 Aluminium covers results in early tail in time in the PEC signal.
 Strength of early tail depends on the thickness of insulation cover.
 If less than 0.2mm it will hardly influence
 If 1mm thick then will influence signal.
 The effect is stronger where there is an insulation overlap.
Steel reinforcement bars
 Inside concrete, have same effect as aluminium covers.
 Strength of early tail depends on the density of the reinforcement mesh.
 For both aluminium covers and steel bars, the normalisation time should be chosen after the early tail.
 For Al covers, the norm time should be chosen when effect of Al has become weaker and signal is
straight again. It is after 6-8ms.
 Prolonged and strong tail- for thick Al sheet over lap and dense reinforcement.
S.S covers
 Electrical conductivity of Stainless steel 5 times less than steel. Are weakly magnetic.
 No noticeable effect on PEC signal.
Galvanised insulation sheeting
 Made of carbon steel.
 Magnetic and good electrical conductor.
 Distorts PEC signal
Chicken wire mesh
 No influence to signal if made of S.S.
 No influence if made of carbon steel but if it is properly fixed that it does not move.
 Influence signal if magnetic and free to move i.e. loose.
Corrosion product
 Ferrous oxide (Fe2O3) - highly magnetic but do not conduct electric current.
 Magnetised by primary field but no eddy currents are generated.
 Instead field decays very slowly
 Corrosion product results tail very late in time.
 Fe3+ (Fe2O3) are magnetic, Fe2+ (FeS) are non magnetic.
 Corrosion product thinner than 5mm can be ignored.
 Stand off – distance between bottom of PEC probe and corrosion product.
 Used for suppressing the influence of corrosion product by placing plastic shims in between.
 Contribution of corrosion product strongly reduced by higher stand offs (at least 20mm).
 Insulation components ensures this stand offs.
 Such case observed when inspecting annular ring of tank floor from outside.
 Corrosion product on far side of the steel has no effect on the signal
 PEC signal are sensitive to corrosion thickness layer above 5mm, ensure a standoff of at least 20mm or
if the insulation thickness exceeds 40mm.
 ADC sample time at least 600ms if corrosion product more than 5mm and lift-off less than 40mm.
Clipping or Saturation
 ADC has max input amplitude.
 ADC output is max for a signal with max signal input amplitude.
 ADC output will not increase if signal input increased above the max output. It will remain max
 This is referred as clipping.
 PEC signal cannot be used before clipping time.
 Gain of amplified signal inside probe adjusts such clipping occurs around 1.5ms
High frequency noise
 Always superimposed on PEC signal.
 This noise comes from amplifiers, environment and steel itself.
 High frequency noise can be reduced by HF filters.
50/60 pick up
 PEC probes picks up mains-related signals.
 This pick comes from electromagnetic fields from power cables, electric motors of pumps or other
electrical equipment.
 Frequency 50Hz in Europe and 60Hz in USA.
 Pick up is often accompanied in harmonics of 100, 150, 200Hz etc, for 50Hz and 120Hz, 180Hz,etc for
60Hz
 Filter used in software that uses frequency analysis (Fourier filter) to remove 50/60 and higher
harmonics.
 Fourier filter suppress mains related noise provided it is symmetrical.

Probe movement
 Movement causes erratic signal that is superimposed on the PEC signal.
 PEC signal verified for signal distortion if PEC measurement differ by more than ±10% from the
average over the other PEC readings.
Criteria for an acceptable PEC signal
 A straight and a curved section after smoothing and filtering.
 Amplitude of distortion is less than the signal amplitude at intersection point.
 Amplitude of PEC signal at norm point is within a factor 4 of the amplitude of that of the reference
signal.
 Repeatability of signal should be preferably within 1%.
 Footprint
 Twice of the insulation thickness and steel thickness.
 PEC readings are averages over footprint.
 Time of onset of fast decay, i.e. the transition time, is measure of thickness of test specimen.

Quantitative model for a PEC signal

 Electric resistance experienced by eddy current decreases as eddy current diffuse downwards.
 Gradual decrease of eddy current is due to gradual increase of vertical cross section of eddy current
path.

 Signal Amplitude A depends on:

a) Properties of transmitter coil: diameter, no. of turns and configuration.
b) Excitation of current in transmitter coil
c) Properties of receiver coil: diameter, no. of turns and configuration.
d) Electronics (amplification factor, coil resistance)
e) Lift-off
 (a), (c) & (d) are constant, unless probe breaks down.
 Excitation current is monitored.
 Variation in amplitude (A) is due to lift-off

 PEC wall thickness readings slightly affected by lift-off. Requires lift-off correction.
 PEC footprint size increases with lift-off.

 Slope parameter n depends on:

a) Electromagnetic properties of steel, i.e. σ & µ.
b) Geometry of test specimen (e.g. curvature of pipe).
c) Sensor lift-off.
d) Probe configuration.

 Range of n varies small, 1.4≤n≤1.75, nominal value of n=1.5

 Two PEC signal, difference is slope parameter:

a) Not recorded on same type of steel.
b) Not at the same lift-off.
c) Not at same geometry, e.g. different piece of steel.

 The electromagnetic properties also depend on steel grade and can vary from one batch of steel to next.
 PEC measurement also depends on temperature of steel, because electromagnetic properties σ & µ also
depends on temperature.
 Wall thickness reading decrease by 0.1% per ˚C. This can be ignored for wall thickness mapping but
need to be corrected for corrosion mapping.

 Deviant readings at insulation overlaps, separately calibrate insulation overlaps with normalisation late
in time.
 .
Corrosion product
 Corrosion i.e. iron oxide, poor electrical conductor.
 Does not conduct eddy current.
 Contributes to signal if between probe and steel, due to magnetic permeability of rust.
 Effect is a ‘tail’ on the PEC signal.
 Apparent transition point increased due to it.
 This results in increase in PEC wall thickness reading.
 Magnitude of increase depends on:
a) Thickness of corrosion product.
b) Distance of probe to corrosion product.
 Sampling Time- PEC signal sampled during a pre set time
 Sampling frequency- ADC records PEC signal at a pre set frequency, typically 20Hz, i.e. one ADC
sample every 20µs(micro second)
 Measurement Repeats- referred to as current pulses. Each repeat results in one PEC signal, which can
be added to produce one PEC signal, which is sent to computer.
 Cycle Delay- time between end of one cycle and beginning of next cycle.

 PEC signal from trailing edge (when the current is off) is recorded. Signal from trailing
discarded as its not stable though

INSTRUMENT PROBES
 Four standard PEC probes:
1. CP (contact probe)
2. AP-50 (probe with coils without ferrite, ‘Air probe’)
3. FP-50 (probe with ferrite inside the coils)
4. TB (for tank bottom inspection)

 Selection of probe determined by ‘Lift-off’.

 Preferred to keep lift-off as constant as practical,
1. Within about ±10mm if no lift-off correction can be applied; and
2. Within about ±30mm if lift-off correction can be applied.

 Substantial piece of steel, such as support or nozzle, affects PEC readings if PEC probe is closer than
twice lift-off to the inspection plate.

Notes:
1. The criteria for an acceptable PEC signal are:
a) A straight and a curved section of the PEC signal can be observed after filtering and
Smoothing;
b) No signal clipping after 3ms;
c) The amplitude of any distortions of the PEC signal is less than the signal amplitude at the
Intersection point;
d) The amplitude of the PEC signal at the normalization point is within a factor 4 of the amplitude
Of that of the reference signal, this is automatically verified by the PEC software.