Consumer Behaviour models for tourism

The purpose of consumer behaviour models is to attempt to

give a simplified version of the relationship of the various
factors that influence consumer behaviour. Various models
have been developed to describe consumer behaviour with
the intention of trying to control the behaviour patterns. The
models, however, fall short of these objectives and at best
give the reader an appreciation of interactive factors that influence
behaviour patterns. It is only possible to review some
of the general consumer behaviour models here. One of the
earliest models of consumer behaviour was proposed by
Andreason (1965). This model is shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1

Andreason model of consumer behaviour

The model recognizes the importance of information in the

consumer decision-making process. It also emphasizes the
importance of consumer attitudes although it fails to consider
attitudes in relation to repeat purchase behaviour.
A second model, which concentrates on the buying decision for a
new product was proposed by Nicosia (1966). This model is shown in
Figure 3.2. The model concentrates on the organization’s attempts to
communicate with the consumer, and the consumers’ predisposition to
act in a certain way. These two features are referred to as Field One. The
second stage involves the consumer in a search evaluation process
which is influenced by attitudes. This stage is referred to as Field Two.
The actual purchase process is referred to as Field Three, and the postpurchase
feedback process is referred to as Field Four. This model was
criticized by commentators because it was not empirically tested
(Zaltman, Pinson and Angelman, 1973), and because many of the variables
were not defined (Lunn, 1974).

Figure 3.2

A summary description of the Nicosia model

The most frequently quoted of all consumer behaviour models is the

Howard–Sheth model of buyer behaviour which was developed in
1969. This model is shown in Figure 3.3. This model is important because
it highlights the importance of inputs to the consumer buying
process and suggests ways in which the consumer orders these inputs
before making a final decision.
Figure 3.3

The Howard–Sheth Model of buyer behaviour

The Howard–Sheth model does have limitations, and does not explain
all buyer behaviour. However, it was a comprehensive theory of
buyer behaviour that was developed as a result of empirical research
(Horton, 1984).

More recent research on consumer behaviour has concentrated on

the exchange processes and has attempted to look at the marketer’s
perspective on the process. One example of such an approach is shown
in Figure 3.4. This model was developed by Solomon (1996). He also
suggested that consumer behaviour involves many different actors.
The purchaser and user of a product might not be the same person.
People may also act as influences on the buying processes.
Organizations can also be involved in the buying process. One example
of an organization which may make purchase decisions is the
family.

Figure 3.4

Some issues that arise during stages in the consumption process

The models considered so far are useful in academic research. Foxall

and Goldsmith (1994) suggested that these models mean little in the
absence of a general understanding of how consumers act. They suggest
that consumer behaviour is a sequence of problem-solving stages,
as follows:

* the development and perception of a want or need

* pre-purchase planning and decision-making

* the purchase act itself

* post-purchase behaviour, which may lead to repeat buying, repeat

sales and disposition of the product after consumption.
Much of marketing activity, they suggested, concentrates on adapting
product offerings to particular circumstances of target segment needs
and wants. It is also common to stimulate an already existing want
through advertising and sales promotion, rather than creating wants.
The definitions and models which have been presented so far have
been from general marketing theory. Tourism is, by its very nature, a service
rather than a product which may have a considerable effect on consumer
behaviour. Services have been defined by Kotler and Armstrong
(2004) as: ‘Any activity or benefit that one party can offer to another that
is essentially intangible and does not result in the ownership of anything.
Its production may or may not be tied to a physical product’.

The intangible nature of the service offering has a considerable effect

on the consumer during the decision-making process involved with
purchase. This, coupled with the high-spend aspect of tourism, means
that tourism for the consumer is a high-risk decision-making process.
Therefore the consumer will be highly interested and involved in the
purchase decision. This was recognized by Seaton (1994):
They involve committing large sums of money to something
which cannot be seen or evaluated before purchase. The opportunity
cost of a failed holiday is irreversible. If a holiday
goes wrong that is it for another year. Most people do not
have the additional vacation time or money to make good the
holiday that went wrong.

There is a philosophical question as to whether service marketing is

substantially different to product marketing (Horner and Swarbrooke,
1996). It is clear, however, that tourism products have many distinctive
features which mean that consumer behaviour will be fundamentally
different. To cope with these differences, academics have developed
definitions and models of consumer behaviour, specifically for
tourism. These range from the more general definitions to more detailed
models. Middleton and Clark (2001) presented an adapted model of consumer
behaviour for tourism which was termed the stimulus – response model
of buyer behaviour. The model is shown in Figure 3.5 and is based on four
interactive components, with the central component identified as ‘buyer
characteristics and decision process’.

Figure 3.5 - A stimulus-response model of buyer behaviour

The model separates out motivators and determinants in the consumer
buying behaviour and also emphasises the important effects
that an organization can have on the consumer buying process by the
use of communication channels.

Other models which attempt to explain consumer buying behaviour

in tourism have been advanced. Wahab, Crampton and Rothfield
(1976) suggested a linear model of the decision-making process in
tourism. This is shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6

A ‘linear model of the tourism decision-making process

Mathieson and Wall (1982) suggested a linear five-stage model of

travel buying behaviour, which is shown in Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7
Travel-buying behaviour

Gilbert (1991) suggested a model for consumer decision-making in

tourism, which is shown in Figure 3.8. This model suggests that there
are two levels of factors which have an effect on the consumer.

Figure 3.8

Consumer decision-making framework

The first level of influences is close to the person and include psychological
influences such as perception and learning. The second level
of influences includes those which have been developed during the
socialization process and include reference groups and family influences.

All these models that have been adapted for tourism offer some insights
into the consumer behaviour process involved during the purchase
and post-purchase decision stages. The problem with the models
is that little empirical research has been conducted to test them against
actual consumer behaviour. This is an area which requires further detailed
research. We will return to this discussion later in the article, when
we consider models of consumer behaviour in tourism in more depth.

Conclusions
Most consumer behaviour models in tourism seem to be linear
and rather simplistic when compared to general consumer behaviour
models. Yet, as Figure 3.9 illustrates, the diverse characteristics of
tourism mean that consumer behaviour in tourism will inevitably be
very complex. The inadequacy of models of tourist behaviour is a subject
we will return to in next article.

Figure 3.9

Characteristics of tourism