Module 1

Course Plan
Semester
Module Contents Hours Examination
Marks
Introduction to metal cutting: Tool nomenclature – Attributes
of each tool nomenclature – Attributes of feed and tool 1 15%
nomenclature on surface roughness obtainable
Orthogonal and oblique cutting - Mechanism of metal
1
removal – Primary and secondary deformation shear zones
Mechanism of chip formation – Types of chips, need and
1
types of chip breakers – Merchant’s theory
Analysis of cutting forces in orthogonal cutting– Work done,
I 1
power required (simple problems)
Friction forces in metal cutting – development of cutting tool
1
materials
Thermal aspects of machining -Tool wear and wear
1
mechanisms
Factors affecting tool life– Economics of machining (simple
1
problems)
1
Cutting fluids.
Introduction to metal cutting
Machining or Metal Cutting
Process of removing unwanted material to get desired shape using sharp wedged tool.
Advantages of metal Cutting features compared to casting/forging (other shaping process):
 Closer dimensional accuracy
 Better Surface texture/finish
 Economical
 Complex shape and size
Disadvantages
 Wasteful of material: Chips generated in machining are wasted material
 Time consuming or low material removal rate: A machining operation generally takes more
time to shape a given part than alternative shaping processes, such as casting, powder
metallurgy, or forming
Elements of Metal Cutting:

Cutting speed refers to the speed at which the tool point of the cutter moves with respect to the
work measured in meter per minute.
In turning, it is given by the surface speed of the work piece,
V = π DoN in m/min
where Do is the diameter of the work piece in meter
N is the RPM of work or spindle speed
Feed – advancement of tool through the work piece in one rotation of spindle, (f mm/rev)
Depth of cut – distance by which tool penetrates in the work-piece (d, mm)
(Do-Df)/2
Df= dia of finished work piece
Cutting rate or MRR = volume / time
Volume of material removes = length * width * depth of the chip
In orthogonal cutting
Thickness of cut= feed
Width of cut= depth of cut
MRR = v f d mm3/min
Where v = cutting speed;
f = feed and d = depth of cut
Processes parameters (Independent variables)
 Work material
 Tool material
 Tool geometry
 Cutting parameters
o Cutting velocity
o Feed
o Depth of cut
o Cutting fluid etc.
Performance parameters (Dependent variable)
 Material removal rate
 Surface finish
 Tool wear rate/tool life
 Dimensional accuracy
 Power requirement
 Cutting temperature etc.
Types of cutting tools Cutting tools may be classified according to the number of major cutting
edges (points) involved as follows:
1. Single point: e.g., turning tools, shaping, planning and slotting tools and boring tools.
2. Double (two) point: e.g., drills.
3. Multipoint (more than two): e.g., milling cutters, broaching tools, hobs, gear shaping
cutters etc.
Geometry of single point cutting (turning) tools Both material and geometry of the cutting tools
play very important roles on their performances in achieving effectiveness, efficiency and overall
economy of machining
Geometry /nomenclature/signature of Single Point Tool (Basic tool angles)
Tool geometry is basically referred to some specific angles or slope of the salient faces and edges
of the tools at their cutting point. The geometry defines the seven basic angles of tool.

1. Back rake: It is defined as the angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel to the
base
2. Side rake angle: It is the angle by which the face of the tool is inclined sideways.

3. Front clearance angle / End relief angles: The angle between front surface of the tool & line
normal to base of the tool is known as a front clearance angle. It avoids rubbing of work piece
against tool.
4. Side clearance /side relief angle: Angle formed by the side surface of the tool with a plane
normal to the base of the tool. It avoids rubbing between flank and work piece when tool is fed
longitudinally. It also provides easy entering and leaving off from the work.
5. End cutting edge angle: This is the angle between end cutting edge and line normal to tool
shank. Large cutting angle weakens the tool. Large angle weakens the tool also. It prevents
rubbing or drag between machined surface & the trailing part of cutting edge.
6. Side cutting edge angle (lead angle): It is the angle between side cutting edge & side of tool
flank. With lager side cutting edge angle the chips produced will be thinner & wider which
will distribute the cutting forces & heat produced more over cutting edge.
7. Nose radius: It is curvature of the tool tip expressed in “mm” or angle
Machine reference system also called co-ordinate system
This system is also called ASA system (American Standards Association). In this System, the
three planes of reference and the coordinates are chosen based on the configuration and axes of
the machine tool concerned. Angle is specified in a particular order
Effect of tool geometry angle on cutting performance characteristics
Tool geometry of the cutting tools play very important roles on their performances in achieving
performance, efficiency and overall economy of machining. Angles means inclination of some
faces with respect to some reference planes. Rake and clearance angles are most important.
Geometry or angles of a cutting tool is determined by factors:
 Properties of the tool material
 Properties of the work piece
 Processes parameters like feed, cutting speed and depth of cut, temperature etc.
 Performance like finish, MRR and accuracy and economy required
Rake angle:
The side rake angle and the back-rake angle combine to form the effective rake angle. This is also
called true rake angle. Rake angle can be defined as the inclination tool surface with the plane
perpendicular to cutting velocity vector. It makes the cutting easier.

Rake angle functions

1. It allows the chip to flow in convenient direction and provide easy cutting.
2. It reduces the cutting force required to shear the metal and reduce the power consumption.
3. It improves the surface finish.
Rake angle can be positive or negative
 Positive: reduce cutting forces and less deflection of work and machine
 Negative: Negative rake is used to increase edge-strength and life of the tool. Used to
machine harder metals and where heavy cuts require with strong cutting edge.
 Zero rake to simplify the design and manufacture of the form tools.
Positive rake angles are recommended under the following conditions
 Machining low strength material
 Low power machine
 Long shaft of small diameter and low cutting speed
Negative rake angles are recommended under the following conditions
 Machining hard material which requires high cutting force
 High speed cutting and feed
Clearance angle (γ)
It is essentially provided to avoid rubbing of the tool (flank) with the machined surface which
causes loss of energy and damages of both the tool and the job surface. If clearance angle increases,
it reduces flank wear but weaken the cutting edge.
Side cutting edge angle
The following are the advantages of increasing this angle,
1. Provides gradual entering of tool to the work for smoothness of cut
2. Reduces the tool wear for the same depth of cut; as the cutting force is distributed on a
wider surface (increases tool life)
3. It dissipates heat quickly for having wider cutting edge and increases tool life
4. Large side cutting edge angles cause the tool to chatter.
Nose radius
It provides strengthening of the tool nose and better surface finish. Increase of nose radius
increase the friction also which increases the cutting force. Slight nose radius is usually
provided to increase the surface finish. Too large nose radius makes vibration/chatter.
Slight increases of nose radius
1. Improves surface finish
2. Higher tool life (Stronger edge)
3. Heavy feed rates and large depths of cut can be given
End cutting edge angle
The function of end cutting edge angle is to prevent the trailing front cutting edge of the tool from
rubbing against the work. A large end cutting edge angle unnecessarily weakens the tool. It varies
from 8 to 15 degrees.
Factors of metal cutting affecting the Roughness of product
1. Cutting parameters
 High cutting speed
 Low feed improves the surface finish
 Low depth of cut
 Cutting fluid
2. Tool geometry
 Nose radius improves the surface finish
 rake angle – high rake angle improves the finish
Factors affecting Cutting forces of metal cutting
Tool geometry: positive rake angle, low nose radius reduces the cutting force requirement. Also
low feed, low depth of cut and application of cutting fluid recues the cutting force requirement. It
is found cutting forces is less depending on cutting speed
Types of metal cutting
Principally there are two types of metal cutting:
1. Orthogonal cutting, and
2. Oblique cutting.
Orthogonal Cutting
This orthogonal cutting is also known as Two Dimensional (2-D) Cutting.
1. The cutting edge of the tool remains at 900 to the cutting velocity vector or feed movement
2. The chip flows in a direction normal to the cutting edge of the tool (chip flow orthogonally)
3. The tool life is lower than oblique cutting (for same conditions of cutting).
4. Orthogonal cutting involves only two forces, (cutting and feed force). Also called two
dimensional cutting.
5. Tool life is less
6. Examples are facing a pipe, slot cuttings in lathe and straight broaching process etc.

Oblique Cutting
1. The cutting edge of tool is inclined at an acute angle to the direction of feed/ velocity vector
2. The direction of the chip flow is not normal to the cutting edge.
3. Here three components of forces are acting: cutting force, radial force and thrust force. So
metal cutting may be considered as three dimensional cutting.
4. The cutting edge being oblique, the shear force acts on a larger area and tool life is
increased. In actual machining, majority of the cutting operations (turning, milling, etc.)
are oblique cutting.
Mechanism of chip formation/cutting
 During continuous machining the uncut layer of the work material just ahead of the cutting
tool is subjected to compression.
 Due to such compression, shear stress develops,
 If shear stress reaches or exceeds the shear strength of that work material in the deformation
region, yielding or slip takes place resulting shear deformation in that region
The formation of chip takes place in zone extending from the tool cutting edge to the junction
between the surfaces of the chip and work piece: This zone is known as primary deformation zone.
To deform the material in this manner the forces must be transmitted to chip across the interface
between the chip and tool are sufficient to deform the lower layers of chip as it slides along the
tool face (secondary deformation zone)
Piispanen modeled the shear process of chip formation mechanism as a deck of cards where one
card at a time slides forward with cutting tool progresses as shown in figure shows.

only for understanding the concept of shearing

Due to compression, shear stress develops within that compressed region in different magnitude,
in different directions and rapidly increases in magnitude. Whenever and wherever the value of
the shear stress reaches or exceeds the shear strength of that work material resulting shear
deformation in that region along the plane of maximum shear stress. But the forces causing the
shear stresses in the region of the chip quickly diminishes and finally disappears while that region
moves along the tool rake surface towards and then goes beyond the point of chip-tool engagement.
As a result, the slip or shear stops propagating long before total separation takes place. In the
meantime, the succeeding portion of the chip starts undergoing compression followed by yielding
and shear. This phenomenon repeats rapidly resulting in formation and removal of chips in thin
layer by layer.
Shear zone
During metal cutting the work material ahead of the too tip suffers plastic deformation and also
while sliding on the rake face of the tool, goes to form chip. Two plastic deformation zones, namely
the primary shear zone and the secondary shear zone have been commonly accepted.
 Primary shear zone- where shearing of chip from parent materials takes place.
 Secondary shear zone- chip - tool interface deformation due to friction between tool and chip

At high velocity it is found that shear plane is a narrow (thin) plane and at low velocity metal
shear plane is thick

Shear plane and shear angle

As the tool is forced into the material, the chip is formed by shear deformation along a plane called
the shear plane, which is oriented at an angle Ф with the surface of the work. Shear plane separates
the deformed and un-deformed work material.
If all other factors remain the same, a higher shear angle results in a smaller shear plane area. Since
the shear strength is applied across this area, the shear force required to form the chip will decrease
when the shear plane area is decreased.

The value of shear angle depends on

 Work piece material
 Cutting condition
 Tool material
 Tool geometry
Chip thickness ratio
thickness of uncut
chip thickness ratio (r ) 
thickness of chip

t=cut thickness -
tc =chip thickness after the cut
Derive expression for velocities in metal cutting
(Velocity relationship in orthogonal cutting)
Types of chips produced during the metal cutting
There are three different types of chips
1. Continuous chips,
2. Discontinuous chips
3. Continuous chips with built up edge
Types of chip formation depends on work material, tool materials, tool geometry and cutting
condition (velocity, feed rate, depth, cutting fluid etc.).
Continuous chip: when machining ductile materials at high speeds with low feeds and positive
rake angle long continuous chips are formed. Example mild steel
Favorable factors for continuous chip formation
 work material – ductile
 Cutting velocity – high
 Feed – low
 Rake angle – positive and large
 Cutting fluid – both cooling and lubricating
Discontinuous chips:
Discontinuous chip: when machining relatively brittle materials at low cutting speeds, the chips
often form into separated segments. Discontinuous chip formation may cause vibration, surface
roughness and reduced tool life. Machining brittle material with medium or large feed and negative
rake angles favours discontinuous chips
 work material- brittle
 feed – large
 tool rake – negative
 cutting fluid – absent or inadequate

Continuous chip Discontinuous chip Continuous chips with BUE

Continuous chips with BUE:
 Built Up Edge (BUE) is the accumulation of work piece material onto the rake face of the
tool. This material welds under pressure, and is separate from the chip.
 While machining ductile materials with medium cutting speed and large feed, due to high
temperature, pressure and friction at the tool chip interface, there are possibilities of work
material to weld to the cutting edge of tool and thus forming built up edges (BUE).
 Successive layers are added to the build-up edge. When this edge becomes large and unstable
it is broken and part of it is carried up the face of the tool along with chip while remaining
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is left in the surface being machined. Thus, contributing to the roughness of surface. Built
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up edge protects the cutting edge of tool, thus changing the geometry of the cutting tool.

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 Factors favourable to form BUE
1. work material – ductile
2. cutting velocity – medium
3. feed – medium or large
4. Cutting fluid – inadequate or absent.

Effects of BUE formation (Harmful effect)

 It unfavourably changes the rake angle at the tool tip causing increase of cutting force
 Repeated formation and dislodgement of the BUE causes vibration.
 Poor surface finish.
Good effect: BUE protects the cutting edge of the tool ie. increases tool life.
Elimination of BUE by increasing the speed, reduce the feed and depth of cut, sharp cutting edge
and also by using cutting fluid etc.
Chip breakers:
Continuous machining of ductile metals produces continuous chips, which leads to their handling
and disposal problems. The problems become acute when ductile but strong metals like steels are
machined at high cutting velocity for high MRR. The function of chip breakers is to reduce the
radius of curvature of chips and thus break it.
1. becomes dangerous to the operator and the other people working in the vicinity
2. may cause damage to work piece surface and machine tool
3. creates difficulties in easy collection and disposal of chips
There are three principle methods to produce the favorable discontinuous chip:
1. proper selection of cutting conditions
2. use of chip breakers
3. change in the work material properties
The principles and methods of chip breaking are generally classified as follows:
a. Self-breaking: accomplished without using a separate chip-breaker
b. Forced chip breaking by additional tool geometrical features or devices:
Self-breaking
1. By natural fracturing of the strain hardened chip after sufficient cooling and spring back
2. By striking against the cutting surface of the job
3. By striking against the tool flank after each half to full turn as indicated 2

Clamped chip breaker

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Forced chip breaker
1. In-built type
2. Clamped or attachment type
In-built breakers are in the form of step or groove at the rake surface near the cutting edges of the
tools. Clamped chip breaker is also used as shown in figure to reduce the radius of curvature and
made to break.
Forces acting in orthogonal cutting
The forces acting during a metal cutting process are the following
1. Fs =shear force acting along the shear plane
2. Fn= force acting normal to shear plane
3. F= Frictional force acting against the chip flow acting along the tool
4. N= force normal to tool face (friction force)
For the chip to be in equilibrium, the resultant force R and R’ should be equal in magnitude,
opposite in direction and collinear.

Vector addition of F and N = R (resultant force that work exerts on chip)

Vector addition of Fs and Fn = R' (resultant force that tool exerts on chip)
The resultant force R is due to the cutting force applying externally through the tool. Now these
resultant force components can be resolved horizontally and vertically called cutting forces.
Fc = cutting force acting along the cutting velocity
Ft = axial feed force or thrust force indirection of feed

The circle(s) drawn taking R or R1 as diameter is called merchant circle which contains all the
force components concerned as intercepts. The two circles with their forces are combined into one
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circle having all the forces contained in that as shown by the diagram called Merchant’s Circle
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Diagram.

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Merchant represented various forces in a force circle diagram in which tool and reaction forces
have been assumed to be acting as concentrated at the tool point instead of their actual points of
application along the tool face and the shear plane. The horizontal cutting force Fc and vertical
force Ft can be measured in a machining operation using a force dynamometer. Rake angle of the
tool can be measured and shear angle is calculated after found the chip ratio.

2
R  Fn  Fs 2  F 2  N 2  Fc 2  Ft
2

Equations can be derived to relate the forces that cannot be measured to the forces that can be
measured. Based on these forces, shear stress, coefficient of friction, and certain other relationships
can be defined. Following relation between the forces is obtained from merchant circle

Ft
tan(    ) 
Fc
F
  tan  
N
  co  efficient of friction
  frictional angle
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Known factors of orthogonal cutting
1. Cutting speed, feed, depth of cut
2. Rake angle of tool
3. Chip thickness after machining
4. Cutting forces measured Ft and feed force Fc using dynamometer
Factors to be determined
1. Friction force and Shear force
2. Friction angle  (Normal force to friction force)
3. Normal force to shear force
4. Cutting power determination
Knowledge of the cutting forces is essential for the following reasons:
1. Estimation of cutting power consumption,
2. Structural design of the machine – fixture – tool system
3. Evaluation of role of the various machining parameters (cutting speed, feed, tool
geometry, cutting fluid etc.) on cutting forces
4. Study of behaviour and machinability characterisation of the work materials
Advantages of Merchant’s diagram
 Easy, quick and reasonably accurate determination of several other forces from a
few known forces
 Friction at chip tool interface and dynamic yield shear strength can be easily
determined
 Equations relating the different forces can be easily derived.
Limitations of use of Merchant’s Circle diagram
 MCD is valid only for orthogonal cutting
 It is based on single shear plane theory
 It gives apparent (not actual) coefficient of friction.
Assumptions in merchant circle analysis
Merchant established relationship between various forces acting on the chip during orthogonal
metal cutting with following assumptions
 Thin shear zone
 Continuous chip is formed
 Orthogonal cutting (edge perpendicular to cutting velocity)
 Perfectly sharp cutting edge
 Shearing in a plane
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Theories in metal cutting
Several investigators such as Ernst and Merchant, Merchant, Lee and Shaffer, Palmer and Oxley
have carried out lot of work to establish relationship between rake, shear and friction angles and
proposed their own theories.
Merchant Theory
Merchant’s hypothesis is that the shear plane is located to minimize the cutting force, or where the
shear stress is maximum. Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation could occur, the
work material will select a shear plane angle which minimizes energy. Merchant’s derived an
equation between shear angle, rake angle, and friction angle from the merchant circle diagram.
Assumption in merchant analysis
 Thin shear zone
 Shearing in a plane
 Continuous chip is formed
 Orthogonal cutting (edge perpendicular to cutting velocity)
 Perfectly sharp cutting edge

Finding the maximum of the shear stress where the shearing taking place
As  area of shear plane
A  b * t (cross sec tion area of chip before cutting )
b  width of cut
t  thickness of cut
shear force Fs
shear stress   
shear area As
From the merchant diagram
Fs  Fc cos  Ft sin 
A
As 
sin 
( Fc cos  Ft sin  ) sin 

A
Ft
From merchant diagram, we have, tan (    ) 
Fc
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Apply Ft in terms of Fc
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(𝐹𝑐 (𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ − tan(𝛽 − 𝛼) 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅))𝑠𝑖𝑛∅

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Take derivative of the shear stress with respect to the shear angle and setting the derivative to zero,
then we get Merchant Equation:

0

 
  45       mechant equation
2 2
  rake angle
  friction angle
  shaer angle
The Merchant equation defines the general relationship between rake angle, tool-chip friction,
and shear plane angle.
Conclusions of merchant equation analysis
Rake angle increases, shear angle increases;
Friction decreases, shear angle increases
Work done during metal cutting
We are giving cutting force and feed force
Power  power for cutting  power for feed the tool
Power supplied = cutting force * cutting velocity + feed force (thrust force) * feed velocity
P  Fc * V  Ft * Feed velocity
p  Fc * V
(feed velocity is so small so and its power neglected
compared with cutting power)
Cutting force constitutes about 70~80 % of the total force.
Power required = power required for shearing + power required for the chip flow along the tool
face (friction power)
P  Ps  Pf
Ps  Fs * Vs
Pf  F * Vc
Vc  velocity of chip flow
Fs  shear force
F  frictional force
Vs  velocity of shear
Specific Cutting Energy
The energy consumed in removing a unit volume of material is called the specific cutting energy,
and it is also called unit power.
energy consumed
specific energy 
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volume of material removed

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volume of material  length * width * thickness of chip  l * w * t

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Volume of material removed/sec (MRR) also called cutting rate (m3/sec)
length of chip / sec  velocity of cud *
MRR  V * w * t
ie  V * d * f
in orthogonal cut t  f , w  d
Fc * V Fc * V Fc
specific cutting energy U p   
MRR V * d * f d * f
Shear power Fs * Vs
specific shear energy U s  
MRR V *d * f
Frictional power
specific frictional power U f 
MRR
total specific energy U p  U s  U f

Friction in metal cutting

In metal cutting, it has been observed that co-efficient of friction has properties that are quite
different from the properties of ordinary sliding friction obeying laws of friction.
In metal cutting due to very high normal stress, the real area is almost equal to apparent area where
a law of friction is not valid. It has been observed that these classical laws of friction cannot be
applied to metal cutting process. In metal cutting, high values of coefficient of friction and change
of this co-efficient with respect of cutting parameters is noticed.

From merchant analysis of orthogonal cutting, we have

It shows that co-efficient of friction is not constant, it varies with tool angle and cutting forces. It
has been observed that co-efficient of friction increases with the increase in rake angle.

From merchant equation, it shows the relation the relation with shear plane angle and friction
angle. Increase of friction angle, reduces the shear angle which increases the shear force.
 
  45        mechant equation 
2 2
If friction increases between the tool chip face, then cutting force required for metal cutting
increases. Friction conditions at the tool chip interface strongly influence the tool chip contact
length. Also it affects the tool wear, dimensional accuracy, vibration, build up edge formation,
surface roughness and temperature rise etc.
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 Cutting tool
Development of cutting tool
Needs and Chronological Development of Cutting Tool Materials
With the progress of the industrial world it has been needed to continuously develop and
improve the cutting tool materials and geometry;
 To meet the growing demands for high productivity, quality and economy of machining
 To enable effective and efficient machining of the exotic materials that are coming up
 For precision and ultra-precision machining
 For micro and even nano machining demanded by the day and future.

Properties of Cutting Tool Materials

The cutting tool material should possess the following properties
1. Hot hardness
It is the ability of the tool material to retain its hardness and cutting edge at elevated
temperatures.
2. Wear Resistance
Ability of the tool material to resist wear when operating at high speeds can be
increased by adding carbon and alloying elements.
3. Toughness
Ability to resist shock and vibrations without failure is important for interrupted
cuts.
4. High thermal conductivity and specific heat
To conduct the heat generated at the cutting edge.
5. Coefficient of friction
The coefficient of friction between the chip and the tool should be as low as possible
6. Favorable cost, easy to fabricate and easy to grind and sharpen.
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7. It should have low or zero chemical affinity for the work material.

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Selection of Cutting Tool Materials
The selection of cutting tool material will depend on the following factors:
1. Volume of production demanded
2. Cutting condition
3. Type of machining process
4. Physical and chemical properties of materials
5. Rigidity of the machine.
Development of cutting tools
The demand for cost efficiency in production and the development of new products ranging
widely in complexity, material composition, size, and surface finish have required industry
to develop new cutting materials and to adopt new machining strategies for optimization
of the machining process. New materials have also been developed and adopted for cost
and performance optimization in high-speed machining conditions (HSM), especially high
cutting speed and higher feeds.
In addition, and mainly due to the near-net technology, products are machined directly to
final shape and size after heat treatment. This requires hard cutting (HC) of the work piece
and depends especially on the features of the cutting tool materials and cutting conditions.
Global competition
Productivity:
 Cutting Speed
 Reduce Machining Time
 Improve Tool Life
Quality and reliability:
 High accuracy & tolerances
 Better surface finish
Cost:
 Reduce Unnecessary Cost
 Reduce non-productive cost

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Reasons for development of cutting tool

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Classification of Tool Materials
1. High Carbon Steel
2. High Speed Steel
3. Carbide tools
4. Ceramics
5. Cermet
6. Sialon
7. CBN
8. Diamond
Carbon Steel
Carbon steel, also called plain carbon steel, is a metal alloy, a combination of two main
elements, iron and carbon plus small amounts of manganese, phosphorus, sulphur, silicon
to improve the properties. Generally, with an increase in the carbon content from 0.01 to
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1.5% in the alloy, its strength and hardness increases but causes appreciable reduction in
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the ductility and malleability of the steel.

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High Speed Steels
The term `high speed steel' was derived from the fact that it is capable of cutting metal at
a much higher rate than carbon tool steel and continues to cut and retain its hardness even
when the point of the tool is heated to a low red temperature. The alloying elements
increase the strength, toughness, wear resistance and cutting ability
Carbides tools
The Carbides tools are a range of composite materials, which consist of hard carbide
particles bonded or cemented together by a metallic binder. Pure tungsten carbide powder
and carbon is mixed and then mixed with binder at high temperature and manufactured by
powder metallurgy methods. Its unique combination of strength, hardness and toughness
satisfies the most demanding applications.
Ceramics or Oxide tool
Ceramic tool materials consist primarily of fine grained aluminium oxide, cold-pressed
into insert shapes and sintered under high pressure and temperature
Diamond
Diamond has most of the properties (hardest) desirable in a cutting tool material. Diamond
also has high strength, good wear resistance and low friction coefficient.

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 Thermal aspects of machining

Heat generation in metal cutting

Almost all (90%-100%) of the mechanical energy consumed in a machining operation
finally convert into the thermal energy that in turn raises the temperature in the cutting
zone. Heat has critical influences on machining. To some extent, it can increase tool wear,
reduce tool life, get rise to thermal deformation and cause to environmental problems, etc.
Elevated temperatures generated in machining operations Cutting temperature has a controlling
influence on the rate of tool wear and friction between tool and chip. It significantly influences
the chip formation mechanics, the process efficiency and the surface quality of the machine parts.
Sources of heat generation
The main heat sources of heat generations are shear zones.
1. Primary shear zone where the shearing of material takes place due plastic
deformation. (The energy required for shearing is converted into heat 80 to 85%)
2. Secondary deformation zone (chip – tool interface) where secondary plastic
deformation is due to the friction between the heated chip and tool takes place.
3. Tool-work interface -due to rubbing between the tool and finished surfaces (1 to 3%)

Dissipation of heat generated during the machining is as follows

 Discarded chip carries away about 60~80% of the total heat (q1)
 Work piece acts as a heat sink drawing away 10~20% heat (q2)
 Cutting tool will also draw away ~10% heat (q3).

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Effects of heat generation in machining
1. Affects tool life and wear rate
2. It affects strength and hardness of tool
3. Surface roughness (oxidation of machined surface and deformation)
4. Deformation of work and machine
5. Lower dimensional accuracy
6. Forms build up edge
Cutting temperature distribution
Cutting temperature is not constant through the tool, chip and work piece. It is observed,
that the maximum temperature is developed not on the very cutting edge, but at the tool
rake some distance away from the cutting edge.
Factors influencing Cutting temperature
1. Work material
2. Tool geometry
3. Cutting condition
a. Cutting speed – most significant factor (Increases with speed)
b. Feed has less influence on cutting temperature
c. Depth of cut has least influence
d. Cutting fluid reduces the temperature (reduces the friction)

From this figure is obvious, that any reduction of the cutting temperature will require
substantial reduction in either the cutting speed or cutting feed, or both (the effect of depth
of cut can be neglected). But cutting time and therefore production rate will decrease. To
avoid the problem, application of cutting fluid (coolants) is the solution.
Tool failure or tool life
Cutting tools generally fail by:
1. Gradual wear of the cutting tool at its flanks and rake surface.
2. Mechanical breakage and chipping due to excessive forces and shocks.
3. Plastic deformation of cutting edge due to intensive stresses and temperature.
The last two modes of tool failure are very harmful and need to be prevented by using
suitable tool materials and geometry depending upon the work material and cutting
condition. But failure by gradual wear, which is inevitable, cannot be prevented but can be
slowed down only to enhance the service life of the tool.
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It is considered that the tool has failed or about to fail by one or more of the following
conditions:
1. Excessive increase in cutting forces or vibration
2. Excessive vibration and or abnormal sound (chatter)
3. Dimensional deviation beyond tolerance
4. Rapid worsening of surface finish
Tool wears mechanism / mode of wear
For controlling tool wear one must understand the various mechanisms of wear that the
cutting tool undergoes under different conditions.
The common mechanisms of cutting tool wear are:
1) Mechanical wear
a. abrasion,
b. adhesion,
c. chipping
d. fatigue
2) Thermo-chemical wear
a. diffusion wear
3) Chemical wear
a. corrosion
b. oxidation
Abrasive wear: wear due to the abrasive action between the chip and tool as the chip passes
over the rake surface of tool.

Adhesive wear: the tool and the chip weld together at contacts, and wear occurs by the
fracture of these welded junctions.
Welding is due to Friction, high temperature and pressure
Fatigue wear: Due to friction while cutting, compressive force will be produced in one
side and tensile force on other side. This causes the crack formation on the surface of tool
and fails.
Chipping of tool: It refers the breaking away of small chips from the cutting edge of tool
Diffusion wear: When a metal is in sliding contact with another metal the temperature at
the interface is high. The high temperature allows the atoms of hard material to diffuse into
softer material matrix. At high temperature, there is an intimate contact between the chip
and the tool rake face. Atoms of the softer metal may also diffuse into harder medium, thus
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weakening the surface of harder material. Diffusion phenomenon is strongly dependent on

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Oxidation wear: Oxidation wear is the result of reaction between tool face material and
oxygen present in the vicinity.
Corrosion wear: may be included in wear phenomenon
Gradual or progressive tool wear / (types of wear)
a) Flank wear
b) Crater wear
c) Nose wear
d) Plastic deformation of tools
The main wears in cutting tool are
1) Crater wear –occurs on top rake face due to diffusion and friction between tool and
chip. Crater wear dominates at high speeds.
2) Flank wear –occurs on flank (side of tool) due to abrasive rubbing between the tool
flank and the newly generated work surface. Flank wear dominates at low speed
3) Nose wear is the rounding of a sharp tool due to mechanical and thermal effects

The tool wear depends on several factors such as:

1. Hardness and type of tool material.
2. Cutting tool geometry.
3. Feed and depth of cut.
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4. Cutting fluid.
5. Material and condition of work-piece.
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6. Dimensions of the work-piece.

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Effects of tool wear
Tool wear causes the tool to lose its original shape and lose its cutting efficiency. Tool
wear is a time dependent process. As cutting proceeds, the amount of tool wear increases
gradually. But tool wear must not be allowed to go beyond a certain limit to avoid tool
failure.
1. Increase the cutting force
2. Increase the surface roughness
3. Decreases dimensional accuracy
4. Increase the cutting temperature
5. Creates vibration
6. Increase the cost and lower the cutting efficiency
Tool wear criteria/tool life criteria
In practical situation, the time at which a tool ceases to produce work-pieces with desired
size, surface quality and acceptable dimensional tolerances, usually determines the end of
tool life. In most cases the tool wears gradually and the roughness of the machined surface
becomes too high, cutting forces rise and cause intolerable deflections or vibrations etc. As
the tool wear rate increases, the dimensional tolerances cannot be maintained. When the
wear reaches a certain size, it will accelerate and may lead to a sudden failure of the edge.
Flank wear is normally the most consistent form of wear which is easy measurable. So
flank wear criteria (ISO test) normally used to assess the tool life. It is measured by the
width of flank wear (VB/FW shown in figure) is used to define the tool life. When the
cutting edge of the tool reaches one of the tool life criterion, the tool should be replaced by
a new one or sending it for regrinding.
Stages of tool wear
Rapid initial wear as the new tool is introduced on to the work. Then wear rate reduces and
takes a uniform rate and finally wear exceeds a limit it gets failed

The width of flank wear land deciding the wear allowable before regrinding or disposal of
tool (measured using tool maker’s microscope).
 Region AB- rapid wear rate due the initial broken down of cutting edge
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 Region BC- uniform wear rate

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 Region CD- increasing rate

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Tool Life
A tool cannot cut for an unlimited period. After using for a certain period, it ceases to cut
satisfactorily unless it is re-sharpened. It has a definite life. The tool life maybe defined as
the time elapsed (actual cutting time) between two consecutive sharpening of the cutting
tool.
Factors affecting Tool Life (same factors of machinability)
1. Tool and Work Material
2. Tool Geometry
3. Cutting Speed
4. Feed and Depth of Cut
5. Cutting Fluid
6. Rigidity of tool, work and machine.
Tool Life Equation (Taylor’s Equation based on Flank Wear)
Tool life of any tool for any work material is governed mainly by the level of the machining
parameters i.e., cutting velocity (VC), feed (f) and depth of cut (t1). Usually flank wear (VB)
is taken as the criteria for fixing the wear limit for tool change and its dependence on cutting
velocity are schematically shown below:
 The tool life obviously decreases with the increase in cutting velocity keeping other
conditions kept constant.
 Life of the tools T1, T2, T3, and T4 are plotted against the corresponding cutting
velocities V1, V2, V3, and V4, a smooth curve like a rectangular hyperbola is found.
 By plotting VC and T and the log scale the following plot was obtained.

Taylor derived the tool life equation,

VTn = C or V1T1n = V2T2n =C Where,
T = tool life in minutes
V = cutting speed in m/min
n = index which depends on tool and work-piece
= 0.1 to 0.5 for HSS tools
= 0.2 to 0.4 for carbide tools
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= 0.4 to 0.6 for ceramic tools

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 C = constant. It is numerically equals to cutting speed that gives a tool life of one
minute. The value of C depends on tool-work material and cutting environment
(feed and depth of cut).

log V1  n log T1  log V2  n log T2

log V1  log V2
n
log T2  log T1
Note: If the higher cutting speed is permitted by a tool for the same life, we can say that
the tool is having better cutting properties and it will be more productive.

Effect of tool life on rake, clearance angle, cutting time and temperature
 Tool life increases with increase of rake angle for the given cutting speed. Increase
of rake angle decreases the cutting force and temperature.
 As the clearance angle increases, the tool chip contact area increases which reduces
the cutting temperature and wear rate ultimately increases the tool life.
 Increases of nose radius also increases the life to a extent
 Wear increases with cutting temperature. All types of wear accelerate with increase
of temperature (mechanical, chemical and diffusion wear)
 Cutting time- tool wear is a time dependent factor. As cutting proceeds, the amount
of tool wear increases gradually.

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There is optimum value of rake and clearance angle which gives maximum tool life
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Machineability
It can be defined as the ease with which a material can be machined by a given tool under
a given set of conditions. Suppose it is states as material A is more machinable than
material B, then it means that:
Economics of Metal Cutting
The primary aim is to produce satisfactory parts at the lowest possible cost and highest
possible production rate. As the cutting speed increases the MRR is high giving low cutting
cost, but the tool life will be shorter and consequently high cutting cost per piece. At some
intermediate cutting speed, the tool cost will be minimum. The tool life corresponding to
this speed is economical tool life.
The total cost per piece is based on:
 Non-productive cost
 Cutting or machining cost
 tool changing cost
The machining cost per component is made up of a number of different costs. Non-
productive cost per component includes the cost of loading and unloading component, and
other non-cutting time costs.

Select speed to achieve a balance between high metal removal rate and suitably long tool
life. Mathematical formulas are available to determine optimal speed

Total cost calculation in detail

Total cost= Cu = Cm + Cn + Cc + Ct
Where Cu = the total unit (per piece) cost
Cm = the machining cost
Cn = the cost associated with non-machining time,
i.e., setup cost, preparation, time for loading & unloading, idle machine time.
Cc = the cost of tool changing
Ct = the tool cost per piece.
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1) Machining cost
Machining Cost Cm can be expressed by

 Where tm = the machining time per piece (including the time the feed is engaged
whether or not the tool is cutting.
 Lm = the labour cost of a production operator per unit time
 Om = the overhead charge for the machine, including depreciation, indirect labour,
maintenance, etc.

2) Cost of non-machining time

The cost of non-machining time Cn is usually expressed as a fixed cost per piece.

3) Cost of tool changing

The cost of tool changing Cc can be expressed by.

Where
 tg = the time required to grind and change a cutting edge
 tac = the actual cutting time per piece
 t = the tool life for a cutting edge
 Lg = the labour rate for a toolroom operator
 Og = the overhead rate for the tool room operation

4) Tool cost per piece

The tool cost per piece can be expressed by

Where Ce is the cost of a cutting edge, and tac/t is the number of tool changes
required per piece.

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Cutting Fluid
During a metal cutting operation heat is generated due to plastic deformation of the metal
and friction of the tool-work interface. Cutting fluid is used to carry away the heat produced
during the machining and reduce the friction between the chip and the tool. Cutting fluids
in the form of a liquid are applied to the chip formation zone to improve the cutting
conditions.
Functions of the Cutting Fluid
1. To cool the tool and work during machining (dissipate heat)
2. To lubricate (to reduce friction)
a. It reduces the power consumption
b. It prevents the formation of BUE
c. Increases tool life
d. Reduces heat generated at the tool chip interface
3. To protect the finished surface from corrosion.
4. To cause the chips break into small pieces.
5. Chips are disposed off easily
6. To improve surface finish
Properties of Cutting Fluid
1. Good lubricating properties to reduce frictional and the power consumption.
2. High heat absorbing capacity (high specific heat)
3. It should high heat conductivity.
4. High flash point.
5. Should be non-corrosive to work and tool.
6. It should have low viscosity to permit free flow of liquid.
7. Should not lose its properties when exposed to heat.
8. It should not react with the work piece
9. Should be economical in use.
Types of cutting fluids
a) Water based cutting fluid
b) Straight cutting oils
c) Synthetic cutting fluid (from chemicals)
Water based Cutting Fluids
To improve the cooling and lubricating properties of water, the soft soap and mineral oils
are added to it. Soluble oils are emulsions composed of around 80% of water, remaining
soap and mineral oils. The soap acts as the emulsifying agent which breaks the oil into
minute particles to disperse them throughout water.
It has got excellent cooling properties at low cost and has got some lubricating effect
between the chip and the tool. By varying the proportion of water cutting fluids with wide
range of cooling and lubricating properties are obtained. Water bases cutting fluids may be
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adopted for medium and high speed applications.

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Straight or oil Based cutting fluids
Straight or oil based cutting fluids means undiluted or pure oil based fluids. These oils have
good lubricating properties but poor heat absorption quality. The heat transfer rates by their
application are the lowest among cutting fluids. Thus, they are only suitable for low cutting
speeds. Used for heavy cutting process like broaching, threading and gear etc. Poor
cooling and smoke formation are the disadvantages
They can be classified into the following groups:
1. Mineral oils
2. Fatty oils
3. Combination and mineral and fatty oils
Oil with additives
a) The beneficial effect of mineral oils can be improved with the help of additives,
which are generally compounds of Sulphur and chlorine.
b) Other additives may also be used to improve stability and anti-rust properties.

Selection of Cutting Fluids: The guidelines for selection of cutting fluids are:
a) Type of machining process
b) Based on tool and work materials
c) Based on cutting condition like speed, feed etc.
d) Method of application of fluid
e) Temperature involved
Methods of application
a) Flooding – cutting fluid is flooded over the cutting area
b) Jet – cutting fluid under pressure with nozzle
c) Mist – mixed with compressed air

The heavy machining processes (for example broaching or screwing with tap) generally
require middle or heavy cutting oils.
In threading operation, the interface between cutting tool and work piece is small, but the
interface is continuous. For this operation cooling characteristic of cutting fluid is required
There fore the cooling effect of cutting fluid is more important in drilling process.
In turning, milling and grinding machining processes water based cutting fluids are more
suitable due to using new cutting tool materials such as hard metals and high cutting speeds.
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 General notes

Cutting forces in oblique cutting

In obilque cutting resul tan t R  P2 x  P2 y  P2 z

In oblique cutting, resultant force R=
Px = feed force in the direction of the tool travel
Py=thrust force in the direction perpendicular to the produced surface
Pz=cutting force or main force acting in the direction of the cutting velocity.

Indexable tool inserts

A tipped tool generally refers to any cutting tool where the cutting edge consists of a separate
piece of material, either brazed, welded or clamped on to a separate body.
The advantage of tipped tools is only a small insert of the cutting material is needed to provide the
cutting ability.
Advantages of tipped tool
1. Small size insert makes manufacturing easier
2. Reduces cost because the tool holder can be made of a less-expensive and tougher material.
3. Easy to handle

Temperature measurements methods

1. De-colourising method – some paint or tape is pasted on the tool or job near the
cutting point and change in colour with variation of temperature may also often
indicate cutting temperature
2. Tool-work thermocouple – simple and inexpensive but gives only average
3. Photo-cell technique
4. Infra rad detection method

Brief description of few methods (Experimental)

Tool-work thermocouple
In a thermocouple two dissimilar but electrically conductive metals are connected at two junctions
at different temperature. The difference in temperature at the hot and cold junctions produce a
proportional current which is detected and measured by a milli-voltmeter (mV). In machining, the
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tool and the job constitute the two dissimilar metals and the cutting zone functions as the hot
junction.

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Problems

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