drones

Article
Using a Drone to Search for the Ivory-Billed
Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis)
Michael D. Collins
Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC 20375, USA; michael.collins@nrl.navy.mil; Tel.: +1-202-767-2191

Received: 24 February 2018; Accepted: 9 March 2018; Published: 11 March 2018

Abstract: During the past several decades, there have been many reports of sightings of the
ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis), but nobody has managed to obtain a clear photo,
which is regarded as the standard form of evidence for documenting birds. A study was conducted
in the Pearl River swamp in southeastern Louisiana to test the feasibility of searching for this elusive
species and surveying its habitat using a DJI Phantom 3 Professional drone with a 4 K video camera.
Drone images are of much higher quality than images that were previously obtained at much greater
expense during flights in a Cessna 172. The approach was found to be effective for searching for
and inspecting trees that are potential foraging sites for woodpeckers and that might be suitable for
nest and roost cavities. Large woodpeckers in flight are identifiable in video footage obtained from
an altitude of 40 m, which was found to be sufficient to reliably avoid collisions with trees in the
study area.

Keywords: ivory-billed woodpecker; conservation; photography; documentation; endangered species

1. Introduction
The ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) is an exceptionally elusive species that
has been thought to be extinct only to be rediscovered several times during the past hundred
years [1–3]. The most recent rediscovery in Arkansas [4] motivated searches in Florida and Louisiana,
where additional sightings were reported [5–7], but the issue became controversial when nobody
managed to obtain a clear photo, which is regarded as the standard form of evidence for documenting
birds. An analysis based on factors related to habitat and behavior suggests that the expected waiting
time for obtaining such evidence for the persistence of the ivory-billed woodpecker is several orders
of magnitude greater than it would be for a more typical baseline species of comparable rarity [7].
These factors include the wariness of the ivory-billed woodpecker (which is documented in historical
accounts), the vastness of its habitats (typically covering several tens of square kilometers), the difficulty
of moving along a search path in its habitats (which contain thick vegetation, waterways and flooded
areas) and the lack of visibility in a forest (typically limited to a few tens of meters).
During searches that were carried out in the previous decade, attempts to document this species
involved strategies such as drifting through appropriate habitat in a kayak, observing from a vantage
point that provides a view out over the treetops and deploying autonomous cameras and audio
recorders. The feasibility of searching for the ivory-billed woodpecker and surveying its habitat with a
drone is explored here. With this approach, it is possible to cover a much larger area per unit time than
can be covered by a single person on the ground. A drone provides an unobstructed view when the
camera is aimed over the treetops, and the view of the dorsal field marks of a bird in flight is favorable
when the camera is aimed downward. By tilting the camera slightly forward from vertical, it may be
possible to obtain video footage of a wary bird that flushes as the drone approaches.
One of the potential uses of a drone would be to search for signs of foraging that are consistent
with the ivory-billed woodpecker, which has a massive bill that gives it an advantage over other

Drones 2018, 2, 11; doi:10.3390/drones2010011 www.mdpi.com/journal/drones

 Drones 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 7

slightly forward from vertical, it may be possible to obtain video footage of a wary bird that flushes
as the2018,
Drones drone
2, 11approaches. 2 of 7
One of the potential uses of a drone would be to search for signs of foraging that are consistent
with the ivory-billed woodpecker, which has a massive bill that gives it an advantage over other
woodpeckers within its range in accessing rich food sources beneath tightly adhered bark [5]. Shortly
woodpeckers within its range in accessing rich food sources beneath tightly adhered bark [5].
before a sighting in 2008 that is supported by video evidence [7], several trees that had recently been
Shortly before a sighting in 2008 that is supported by video evidence [7], several trees that had
stripped of bark were discovered in the area. When the leaves are down in winter, a drone could be
recently been stripped of bark were discovered in the area. When the leaves are down in winter, a
used
droneto could
rapidlybesurvey
used atovast tract of
rapidly hardwoods
survey a vast for such
tract of foraging sites.for
hardwoods This approach
such foragingcould beThis
sites. used
toapproach
assess ancould
area for the presence of the ivory-billed woodpecker prior to beginning a dedicated
be used to assess an area for the presence of the ivory-billed woodpecker prior to search
effort. A drone
beginning is capablesearch
a dedicated of providing
effort. Adetailed images
drone is of individual
capable trees,
of providing whichimages
detailed could reveal foraging
of individual
patterns that seem to be inconsistent with other woodpeckers and/or are suggestive of
trees, which could reveal foraging patterns that seem to be inconsistent with other woodpeckers the ivory-billed
woodpecker, such as the
and/or are suggestive of examples appearing
the ivory-billed in Figuresuch
woodpecker, 1. as the examples appearing in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Left: Unusual pattern of bark stripping in a photo obtained by James Tanner in 1939 during
Figure 1. (Left) Unusual pattern of bark stripping in a photo obtained by James Tanner in 1939 during
a study near the last known nest sites of the ivory-billed woodpecker (this photo is in the possession
a study near the last known nest sites of the ivory-billed woodpecker (this photo is in the possession
of the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service). Right: A similar foraging pattern appears in a photo that was
of the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service); (Right) A similar foraging pattern appears in a photo that was
obtained by the author just to the east of the Pearl River in Mississippi.
obtained by the author just to the east of the Pearl River in Mississippi.

2. Materials and Methods

2. Materials and Methods
The study involved more than a hundred flights with a DJI Phantom 3 Professional drone,
which Thehas
study involved
a 4K more than
video camera a hundred
with an f/2.8 flights
lens andwitha agimbal
DJI Phantom
mount 3for Professional drone,
stability. The DJIwhich
GO
has a 4K video camera with an f/2.8 lens and a gimbal mount for stability. The
application [8] was used during manually-controlled flights. The Litchi application [9] was used DJI GO application [8]
was
duringusedautonomous
during manually-controlled
flights, which were flights.
doneTheat aLitchi application
cruising speed of[9] was Appearing
8 m/s. used duringinautonomous
Figure 2 is
flights,
an image of the main study area in the Pearl River swamp in southeastern2 is
which were done at a cruising speed of 8 m/s. Appearing in Figure an imagewhere
Louisiana, of the
main study area in the Pearl River swamp in southeastern Louisiana, where
sightings of ivory-billed woodpeckers have been reported since the 1990s. Relatively few trees sightings of ivory-billed
woodpeckers
exceed 30 m in have
thisbeen reported
habitat, whichsince the 1990s.
has only Relativelyinfew
small variations trees exceed
elevation, 30 mare
and there in this
many habitat,
sites
which has only small variations in elevation, and there are many sites where
where a drone may be launched and landed that provide access to most of the hardwood zone, a drone may be launched
and
which landed
is thethat provideforaging
preferred access to most of
habitat of the
the hardwood
ivory-billedzone, which is Additional
woodpecker. the preferred foraging
flights werehabitat
done
ofinthe
theivory-billed woodpecker.
Choctawhatchee Additional flights
and Apalachicola Riverwere donein
swamps in Florida
the Choctawhatchee and Apalachicola
and in the swamp that lies
River
between swamps in Florida
the Mobile andand in theRivers
Tensaw swamp inthat lies between the Mobile and Tensaw Rivers in Alabama.
Alabama.
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Figure 2. National Agriculture Imagery Program image of the study area in the Pearl River swamp in
Figure 2. National Agriculture Imagery Program image of the study area in the Pearl River swamp
Louisiana. Asterisks mark the locations of encounters with ivory-billed woodpeckers [7]. Green: first
in Louisiana. Asterisks mark the locations of encounters with ivory-billed woodpeckers [7]. Green:
sighting in 2006. Red: six sightings and video evidence obtained along a short segment of English
first sighting in 2006. Red: six sightings and video evidence obtained along a short segment of English
Bayou later in 2006. Orange: first sighting in 2008. Blue: sighting and video evidence obtained later in
Bayou later in 2006. Orange: first sighting in 2008. Blue: sighting and video evidence obtained later in
2008. North is up. The area shown is 12 km × 12 km.
2008. North is up. The area shown is 12 km × 12 km.

3. Results
3. Results
The initial focus of the study was to survey habitat with manually-controlled flights. Images
The initial
obtained focus
with this of the study
approach are ofwas
much to higher
surveyquality
habitatthan withimages
manually-controlled
that were previously flights. Images
obtained
obtained
(at muchwith this expense)
greater approach by arethe
of much
authorhigher
during quality
flightsthanin aimages
Cessnathat
172were previously
(at much higherobtained
altitudes, (at
much greater expense) by the author during flights in a Cessna 172 (at much higher
without a gimbal to stabilize the camera and with a restricted view from inside the aircraft). The altitudes, without
adrone
gimbalimage
to stabilize the camera
of habitat appearing andinwith a restricted
Figure 3 showsview from inside
the bayou wherethetheaircraft).
author had The sightings
drone image in
of2006
habitat appearing in Figure 3 shows the bayou where the author had sightings
and 2008 and dead trees that are potential foraging sites for woodpeckers. Additional drone in 2006 and 2008
and deadoftrees
images thatin
habitat arethe
potential
main studyforaging
areasites for woodpeckers.
appear in Figures S1–S5. Additional drone of
Drone images images
habitatof habitat
in the
inChoctawhatchee
the main study and areaApalachicola
appear in Figuresswamps S1–S5. Drone
appear images of
in Figures habitat
S6–S11. in the
Areas Choctawhatchee
that have been logged and
Apalachicola swamps appear in Figures S6–S11. Areas that have been logged
are visible in an image of the Mobile-Tensaw swamp in Figure 4, which was obtained from high are visible in an image
ofaltitude.
the Mobile-Tensaw
The drone imagesswamp in in FigureS12–S14
Figures 4, which was obtained
provide a better from
view high
of thealtitude.
impact of The drone in
logging images
that
inriver
Figures S12–S14
basin. Appearingprovide a better
in Figure 5 isview of the impact
an example of logging
that illustrates in that
how river basin.
discolored leavesAppearing
can make itin
Figure
easy to5 locate
is an example
a potential that illustrates
foraging tree how
with discolored
a drone during leavesthecan make it
summer. easy to locate
Appearing a potential
in Figures S15–
foraging tree with a drone during the summer. Appearing in Figures S15–S19
S19 are some of the many possible foraging trees that were discovered during the winter. In part of are some of the many
possible
its range,foraging trees thatwoodpecker
the ivory-billed were discovered during
is known the winter.
to nest In part
and roost of its range,
in cypress the ivory-billed
trees. The drone was
woodpecker is known
used to inspect to nest and(some
large cypresses roost that
in cypress
exceedtrees.
30 m)The drone was
appearing used to6,inspect
in Figure which large cypresses
are part of an
extensive grove located in the lower half of the area appearing in Figure 2.
Drones 2018, 2, 11 4 of 7

(some that exceed 30 m) appearing in Figure 6, which are part of an extensive grove located in the
lower half of the area appearing in Figure 2.
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Figure 3. View of the Pearl River swamp that shows part of English Bayou and dead trees that are
Figure 3. View of the Pearl River swamp that shows part of English Bayou and dead trees that are
Figure 3. woodpecker
potential View of the Pearl River
foraging swamp that shows part of English Bayou and dead trees that are
sites.
potential woodpecker foraging sites.
potential woodpecker foraging sites.

Figure 4. National Agriculture Imagery Program image of the swamp that lies between the Mobile
Figure
and 4. National
Tensaw RiversAgriculture
in Alabama.Imagery Program
There are image of theareas
many rectangular swampthatthat
havelies between
been theNorth
logged. Mobile
is
Figure 4. National Agriculture Imagery Program image of the swamp that lies between the Mobile
andThe
up. Tensaw Rivers is
area shown in 13
Alabama.
km × 10 There
km. are many rectangular areas that have been logged. North is
and Tensaw Rivers in Alabama. There are many rectangular areas that have been logged. North is up.
up. The area shown is 13 km × 10 km.
The area shown is 13 km × 10 km.
Drones 2018, 2, 11 5 of 7
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Figure 5. A tree with discolored leaves (that had recently been killed by lightning) stands out among
Figure 5. A tree with discolored leaves (that had recently been killed by lightning) stands out among
Figure
the 5. A tree with
surrounding treesdiscolored leaves (that had recently been killed by lightning) stands out among
in this image.
the surrounding trees in this image.
the surrounding trees in this image.

Figure 6. Part of a grove of large cypresses (some that exceed 30 m) that is located to the south of the
Figure 6. Part
hardwood zoneofin
a grove of large
the Pearl Rivercypresses (some that exceed
Wildlife Management Area.30 m) that is located to the south of the
Figure 6. Part of a grove of large cypresses (some that exceed 30 m) that is located to the south of the
hardwood zone in the Pearl River Wildlife Management Area.
hardwood zone in the Pearl River Wildlife Management Area.
Most of the manually-controlled flights were done at 120 m in order to optimize transmissions
Mostthe
between of controller
the manually-controlled
and the drone.flights
It waswerefound done
thatateven
120 large
m in order
birds toareoptimize
difficult transmissions
to identify in
Most
between of
the the manually-controlled
controller and the drone. flights
It was were
found done
that at 120
even m
large
video footage from that altitude. The Litchi application makes it easy to do flights in order
birds to
are optimize
difficult transmissions
to
at lower identify in
altitudes
between the
video footage
along controller
prescribed from and the drone.
that altitude.
routes. It was
The Litchi
Factors that found that even
applicationin
were considered makeslarge birds
it easy
selecting are difficult
thetocruising
do flights to identify
at lower
altitude in video
altitudes
include the
footage
heights from
along prescribed that altitude.
of potential routes. Theuncertainties
Factors
obstacles, Litchi
that application
in GPSmakes
were considered initselecting
navigationeasyandto do theflights
the toatresolve
cruising
need lower altitudes
altitude include
field marksalong
the
in
prescribed
heights of routes.
potential Factors that
obstacles, were considered
uncertainties in in
GPS selecting
navigationthe cruising
and the altitude
need to include
resolve
the video. It was found that 40 m is a sufficient cruising altitude to avoid collisions with trees in the the
field heights
marks inof
potential
the video.
main obstacles,
study Itarea
waswhile uncertainties
found atthat
the 40 minis
same GPS navigation
a sufficient
time providing andfootage
cruising
video the need
altitude intoto resolve
avoid
which field
collisions
large birdsmarks
with in theinvideo.
trees the
are identifiable.
main
was study
ItVideo found
footagearea
thatofwhile at athe
40pileated
m is same time
sufficient providing
cruising
woodpeckers video
altitude
(Dryocopus to footage
avoid that
pileatus) in which
collisions largetrees
with
was obtained birds inare
theidentifiable.
during main study
the study
Video footage
appears in Movies of pileated
S1 and woodpeckers
S2. Those birds (Dryocopus
are easilypileatus) thaton
identified wastheobtained
basis of during
the overallthe study
black
appears in Movies S1 and S2. Those birds are easily identified on the basis of the overall black
Drones 2018, 2, 11 6 of 7

area while at the same time providing video footage in which large birds are identifiable. Video footage
of pileated woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus) that was obtained during the study appears in Movies S1
and S2. Those birds are easily identified on the basis of the overall black plumage, small white patches
on the dorsal surfaces of the wings and flap style in which the wings are folded closed during the
Drones 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 7
middle of each upstroke. From comparable video footage, it would be easy to identify an ivory-billed
woodpecker,
plumage,which is slightly
small white larger
patches and
on the has surfaces
dorsal prominent white
of the patches
wings that
and flap extend
style along
in which the the trailing
wings
edgesare
offolded
the dorsal surfaces of the wings.
closed during the middle of each upstroke. From comparable video footage, it would be
easy to identify an ivory-billed woodpecker, which is slightly larger and has prominent white
4. Discussion
patches that extend along the trailing edges of the dorsal surfaces of the wings.
The 94 degree lens of the video camera covers a swath that is about 80 m wide from an altitude of
4. Discussion
40 m. Four square kilometers of habitat could therefore be covered with ten flights of 5 km, which could
be done in The 94 degree
about lens ofat
two hours the8 video
m/s. camera
On thecovers
ground,a swath
it canthat
takeis about
a few 80 m wide
hours from ana altitude
to follow search path
of 40 m. Four square kilometers of habitat could therefore be covered with ten flights of 5 km, which
for just a few kilometers through the dense vegetation and flooded areas in such habitats. It would
could be done in about two hours at 8 m/s. On the ground, it can take a few hours to follow a search
take only a few days for a small team of drone operators to search tens of square kilometers for
path for just a few kilometers through the dense vegetation and flooded areas in such habitats. It
signswould
of foraging and assess the area for the presence of ivory-billed woodpeckers. When there are
take only a few days for a small team of drone operators to search tens of square kilometers
indications
for signs of foraging and woodpeckers
that ivory-billed assess the areaareforpresent, dedicating
the presence resources
of ivory-billed to a large number
woodpeckers. of search
When there
missions might eventually
are indications pay offwoodpeckers
that ivory-billed with a favorable encounter
are present, similar
dedicating to the ones
resources involving
to a large numberpileated
of
woodpeckers in Movies
search missions mightS1eventually
and S2. Inpayorder
offto fully
with exploit the
a favorable capability
encounter of a drone
similar to the for
onesthis application,
involving
pileatedneed
one would woodpeckers
to acquirein Movies
a permit S1 and S2. missions
to fly In order tobeyond
fully exploit the capability
the line of sight of a drone
over for this and
the remote
application, one would need to acquire a permit to fly missions beyond the line
uninhabited habitats that are appropriate for ivory-billed woodpeckers. Another possible approach of sight over the
remote and uninhabited habitats that are appropriate for ivory-billed woodpeckers.
would be to launch missions from vantage points that provide views out to long ranges. There are Another
possible approach would be to launch missions from vantage points that provide views out to long
many trees within the main study area that could serve this purpose, including some that have been
ranges. There are many trees within the main study area that could serve this purpose, including
used as observation platforms [7]. The unobstructed view from 24 m up one of those trees appears in
some that have been used as observation platforms [7]. The unobstructed view from 24 m up one of
Figure 7. trees appears in Figure 7.
those

Figure 7. View from 24 m up a tree in the Pearl River swamp from which a drone would remain in
Figure 7. View from 24 m up a tree in the Pearl River swamp from which a drone would remain in
view out to longer ranges than it would to an operator on the ground.
view out to longer ranges than it would to an operator on the ground.
Drones 2018, 2, 11 7 of 7

5. Conclusions
One approach for reducing the expected waiting time for documenting an elusive species is to
increase the rate of data acquisition. In habitats that are appropriate for ivory-billed woodpeckers,
it is possible to cover a much greater area per unit time with a drone than a person can cover on the
ground, and a drone continuously obtains high-quality video footage from a favorable vantage point.
A drone also has advantages over other approaches for surveying habitat. A drone can be used to
obtain wide views of habitat from 120 m and close-ups from lower altitudes that reveal cavities and
signs of foraging. Few trees in lowland swamp forests exceed 30 m, and a cruising altitude of 40 m
was found to be safe within the main study area. At that altitude and a cruising speed of 8 m/s, it was
found that 4 K video provides sufficient resolution for identifying large woodpeckers.

Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at www.mdpi.com/2504-446X/2/1/11/s1,

Figures S1–S5: Drone images of habitat in the Pearl River swamp in Louisiana, Figures S6–S8: Drone images
of habitat in the Choctawhatchee River swamp in Florida, Figures S9–S11: Drone images of habitat in the
Apalachicola River swamp in Florida, Figures S12–S14: Drone images of habitat in the swamp that lies between
the Mobile and Tensaw Rivers in Alabama, Figures S15–S19: Images of possible foraging trees in the Pearl River
swamp in Louisiana, Movies S1 and S2: Video footage of pileated woodpeckers in flight that was obtained from a
drone flying at 8 m/s and an altitude of 40 m over the Pearl River swamp (it is best to view these 4 K videos on a
computer with a large monitor).
Acknowledgments: The author is a scientist at the Naval Research Laboratory, but the work was privately funded.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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