Teacher education

It refers to the policies and procedures designed to equip prospective teachers with the
knowledge, attitudes, behaviors and skills they require to perform their tasks effectively in the
classroom, school and wider community. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher_education)
9.5.13

Meaning of Teacher Education

Dictionary of education—C. V. Good (1973), defines teacher education as “All formal

and informal activities and experiences that help to qualify a person to assume the responsibility
most effectively”.

Encyclopedia of Educational Research: (1941), Walter S. Monroe qualifies, teacher

education as, “The total education experiences which contribute to the preparation of a person
but the term is completely employed to designate the programme for courses and other
experiences offered by an educational institute for the announced purposes of preparing persons
for teaching and other educational service and for contribution to their growth in competency for
such service. Such teacher education programmes are offered in teacher colleges, normal schools
and colleges and universities”.(Aggarwal J. C.1995)

Although ideally it should be conceived of, and organized as, a seamless continuum, teacher
education is often divided into these stages:

 initial teacher training / education (a pre-service course before entering the classroom as
a fully responsible teacher);
 induction (the process of providing training and support during the first few years of
teaching or the first year in a particular school);
 Teacher development or continuing professional development (CPD) (an in-service
process for practicing teachers). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher_education)
Phases of Teacher Education

Farrant, J. S. (1990) observed that since the dawn of the twenty first centuryteacher
education in developed countries remained divided into three phases:

1. Initial Teacher Education

2. Induction

3. Continuing Teacher Education or training.

4. These phases had been a “sine quo none” for the improvement ofeducational standards.

1. Initial Teacher Education

This phase of education, which is also the focus of this study, pertains to thetraining that
is undertaken by prospective teachers before formally starting theteaching profession. It is a pre-
service course taken before entering the classroomas a fully responsible teacher. It is usually
provided in Education Colleges,Institutes and Education Departments of Universities where
prospective teachersare introduced to the knowledge and skills needed for professional teachers.

2. Induction
This informal phase begins when a student teacher changes from being a part
time,visiting student teacher working on placement/teaching practice as required by theteacher
education college/university, to a full time adequately responsibleprofessional. Basically
induction refers to the process of providing on the jobguidance and support to the teachers during
the first few months of teaching or thefirst year of the professional career, as NQT or Newly
Qualified Teacher.

3. Teachers’ Continuous Professional Development

It is an in-service process for professional refinement of practicing teachers. It is alife

long process in which efforts are made to improve and polish up the potentialsof the teachers, at
regular and frequent intervals. It includes professional trainingslike workshops, short courses and
seminars. This is usually arranged by goodschools or can be self directed through reading of
professional books, discussionswith colleagues, benefiting from on line courses, or attending
professional training workshops on self grooming basis, attending relevant conferences,
andsymposiums.

History of teacher Education

Teacher education has changed quite a bit over the last few hundred years. Teachers have
gone from scholars to men and women in a schoolroom to trained educators from specific
schools. Over time though, the gift of being able to teach stayed true in those teachers.

No formal teacher training organization existed among the primitive people. The
institution of teaching known to history is stated to have started first in Egypt, while the idea of
teacher training originated in France in 1672.The first normal school was found in 1685 by
AbbdeSaile at Rheims. Subsequently Pestalozzi developed formal pedagogical methods and
Germany adopted numerous between 1872 to 1933 to safeguard the professional interests of
teachers. Other European countries came only gradually to realize the significance of trained
teachers. In England such training dates back to the 19th century when the monitorial system was
adopted. It was replaced by pupil teacher system by 1840. (Hamidi,1962)

Teacher education in Pakistan can be traced back to 1804 when two teacher training
institutes were established in Karachi and Lahore and these training institutes provided non
formal training programmes. In 1854, the institution at Karachi was made a Normal School and
it began to offer J.V (Junior Vernacular) certificate. The institution at Lahore was made a
Normal School in 1856 and offered J.V. certificate.

Teacher Education in U.S.A., started in the beginning ofnineteenth century, developed

through private AcademicColleges of Education etc. Samuel R. Hall set up first Normal School
for teachers in 1823 at Concord, Vermont. His efforts got support from Horace Mann, Edmund
Dwight, Cyprus Pierce, Charles Brookes and others, who got inspiration from European system
of teacher education. The curriculum ofthe training included following six areas:
(1) A thorough review of the common subjects — spelling, reading, writing, geography and
arithmetic.
(2) Some secondary school academic subjects — geometry, algebra, philosophy etc, but no
ancient languages.
(3) The physical, mental and moral, development of children.
(4) The principles and methods of teaching the common subjects.
(5) The art of school government.
(6) Practice teaching.

History of teacher Education inthe Twentieth Century

By the beginning of the twentieth century, there came about the idea to make teaching
more of a profession, with specific standards for certification. At this point, every state had
different standards. There also was dispute because, since the creation of graduate programs,
teachers wanted to be considered a profession, just like law and medicine, but they were not
considered such to the professional world. This was mostly because it was such a new idea for it
to be a profession, and also there were no specific standards yet. So the American Council on
Education established a National Teacher’s Examination in the 1930s (Ravitch 2007). This was
very controversial. There was a large setback with this test because of World War II. There was a
teacher shortage, and school systems did not have the luxury of caring if a teacher was properly
certified or not. After World War II, though, it became more received. The requirements for
having the testing became more rigorous (Angus 2001 p. 21).

History of teacher education in Australia

As Hyams (1979) dulyacknowledged, the platform for Australian teacher education in

the twentieth century was built on the coexistence of the normal schools and the pupil-
teacher or apprenticeship models of teacher training.Central to both was a commitment to
learning in the field. Basic teaching competencies were modeled by Master teachers and then
reproduced by the apprentices in ever greater degrees of complexity until the point was reached
when the apprentice was decreed job-ready for admission into the profession. By the mid 1890S,
however, teacher organizations were being formed across Australia, and they uniformly opposed
the pupil teacher system as a form of cheap labour (Anderson, 1960).
The turn of the century and a shift towards the craft of Teaching

In 1920, an argument was made for the establishment of teacher training colleges in all
the former colonies, now states of Australia, and fledgling state departments of education
identified the need for an expansion of teacher education. Across Australia, prior to 1939,
there was a significant growth in the number of teacher training colleges, although the pupil
teacher system still continued to operate in some states For example, in Victoria in 1906, only
one fifth of the state's teachers had trained at the Melbourne Teachers' College (Education
Report, Victoria, 1906). By the 1920s the number of former pupil teachers was steadily
declining (Browne, 1927) as the number of teacher training institutions increased. The key
responsibility of teacher training institutes was to provide programs to develop professional
teachers for a rapidly growing nation experiencing an economic boom. In South
Australiastate teachers' colleges provided initial training for both junior and senior
teachers. In Victoria, studentscompleted one year at a teachers' college and then progressed
to university for further study. By 1914 universities had made a commitment to the
professional preparation of teachers by acknowledging the need for educational theory, and
there were even suggestions for teachers' colleges to be absorbed into universities (Hyams,
1979), although this did not take place formally until 1988. Hindering this process for many
years was the conflict between the educational values of universities and the professional,
practical concerns of colleges (Hyams, 1979).
Changing Patterns of Teacher Education in Australia
Teacher training now became the responsibility of teachers' college lecturers, most of
whom were former school teachers, and the curriculum comprised a course for entry into the
ranks of the teaching profession. Initially, training colleges across Australia trained primary and
secondary teachers together. This was because there was little distinction drawn between training
for the different sectors. The key focus was on teaching content and teaching methods, as well as
genericbodies of knowledge deemed appropriate for all age groups of students. College training
increased greatly in popularity but there were frequent concerns expressed about the quality of
teaching staff and the many and varied number of subjects which it was claimed was often taught
in an inadequate manner (Penny, 1966, in Hyams, 1979). Despite these common concerns,
teacher training programs developed independently across all the states of Australia. The
curriculum was determined in eachstate by the demands of each government education system.
The centralized nature of state control of the curriculum emphasized the need for children to
reach set standards of achievement. This left littleflexibility for teachers; however, during the
19S0s and 40S colleges began introducing more components of educational theory, psychology
and methods of teaching (Turney, 1964,). Despite this diversification, teacher training programs
remained essentially conservative (Hyams,1979). As Vick (200S) states in his work, the
functions of teachers' colleges' were two-fold, one of which was to develop techniques and skills
of teaching. It was this emphasis on the 'craft of teaching' thatcharacterized the work of teacher
training colleges in Australia from the turn of the century until the late1980s. Teaching was
claimed to be a 'calling' (Schultz, 1925) and it was the brief of the colleges to extend the skills,
personal qualities and capacities of student teachers and to nurture the teacher in preparation for
entry into the profession of teaching. Nevertheless, an investigation of the literature at that time
suggests that teacher development was still craft oriented with the curriculum more concerned
with teaching methods and content than with the promotion of the on-going personal
professional qualities of the trainees.
The work of the late Cliff Turney from Sydney Universityexemplifies the strong practical focus
evident during the 1970s and 80s.Teacher education programs across. Australia adopted his ideas
withgusto and there was barely a training program in Australia that did nothave a 'Turney
influence' involving 'micro-teaching'. The SydneyMicro-Skills documents and videos (1975)
celebrated the fact thatteaching was a craft that could be learned through the teaching ofdiscrete
skills such as questioning and reinforcement. It was argued thatthese skills could be emulated,
practised and reviewed to the point thatthey were successfully acquired prior to entering the
teaching force.
By this time, the Universities ofMelbourne, Sydney and Western Australia had introduced
diplomas inEducation but most training colleges remained independent ofuniversities until well
into the 1970s.Thereafter, state governmentsacross Australia transformed teacher training
institutes into AdvancedColleges of Education: multipurpose organizations that were governedby
independent councils or boards (Dyson, 1995). This move ostensiblyreleased teacher
development from government control but it failed toshift the curriculum away from state
government school syllabusrequirements. Consequently teachers' colleges and
universitiescontinued to coexist as partners in 'training teachers' for local statebased education
systems.

In the 1950s and thereafter teachers were in high demand as thepopulation and the Australian
economy expanded at a rapid rate. Theearly 1970s saw the extension of most two year teacher
educationcollege diplomas into three-year programs which included somediscipline-based
electives, for example sociology, in addition to thetraditional curriculum based on methods and
psychology. Due to the acute shortage of teachers throughout Australia in the 1960sand 70s, the
quality of teacher education fell prey to the high demand forongoing training and the mass
production of teachers within a systemthat focused mainly on acculturation and promulgation of
like mindedteachers rather than on the quality of the programs. In many waysteacher
development during this period sustained the discourse oftraining and the acquisition of the craft
of teaching. There was littlerecognition of research-based practice or the balance between
deepcontent and pedagogical knowledge, and little regard for teaching as aprofession.

Teaching as scholarly pursuit

By the 1980s many universities had introduced diplomas in educationwhereby graduates

were admitted into secondary schools as teachers ofspecific disciplines. This introduced a new
dimension to teachereducation in which content knowledge was prioritized. It was argued by
Universities, that it was through the acquisition of deep contentknowledge in discipline areas that
the quality of secondary teachingwould be enhanced. There was little interest from universities
inprimary school trainee students who were perceived to have poor entryqualifications which led
to high failure rates. By contrast, universitybasedteacher education courses for secondary
students enhanced thebelief that secondary teachers held a higher status than their primary
colleagues within the teaching profession.
A widespread public concern with the status of the teaching professionwas reflected in
initiatives taken by state governments to regulate theteaching profession and the accreditation of
teacher education courses.For example, the Queensland government funded the establishment
ofan inter-systemic Teacher Registration and Accreditation Authority -the first of its type in
Australia. In 1974, the Board of TeacherRegistration (BTR) was established in Queensland to
heighten thequality of teacher education and the status of the teaching profession.The Board was
authorized to monitor entry into teaching and toregulate ongoing registration of teachers in
Queensland. The BTR hasmonitored the development and accreditation of all teacher
educationprograms within Queensland for the past 32 years. Only graduates fromBTR
accredited programs are eligible for registration as professionalslicensed to teach in the state of
Queensland. Other states in Australiahave taken a long time to follow this model (up to thirty
years in somecases). The accrediting role of a statutory body such as the BTR placednew
demands on teachers' colleges and universities. For example, theBTR mandated that every
teacher education course must comprise thefollowing components:
 Professional studies (including sociology and educational psychologyat introductory and
advanced levels)
 Discipline or content studies
 Curriculum studies and
 Professional practice consisting of a mandated number of daysincluding at least 80
supervised days of teaching and 20 days of widerfield experiences.

Teacher Education in Contemporary Australia

During the 1980s, Australia experienced a major political change ofheart which had far-reaching
implications for education (Lingard,Knight and Porter, 1995). Higher Education was a major
focus of debateat a time when economic rationalism was shaping the discourse onpolitical
intervention in health, education and business at all levels ofdecision making. In particular,
educational changes instigated bygovernment reforms (Dawkins, 1987, 1988) resulted in a
confluence ofeducation, marketing and reform in the university sector which resultedin a unified
national system of higher education in Australia. The mainoutcomes of the Dawkins reforms
included:the amalgamation of 4<7 Colleges of Advanced Education (CAE) with19 existing
universities to create thirty-eight universities (two ofwhich are privately funded);the introduction
of a Higher Education Contribution Scheme thatrequires all domestic students who gain a place
in a university courseto pay a uniform charge to the Commonwealth government oncompletion
of their course and when financially capable of doing so;encouragement of universities, mainly
due to funding reductions, tobecome increasingly financially autonomous by generating
increasedprivate funding through competition for students, research grants, andentrepreneurial
business initiatives.These reforms, which drew marketisation and modernization together within
the university sector (Marginson, 1997) have had a longterm impact on the context in which
university academics and teachereducators now operate (Coaldrake and Steadman, 1998)
therebyeffectively changing the shape of higher education in Australia. Allteacher education
programs are now conducted within universities as aresult of the establishment in 1988 ofa
unified national system of highereducation. This change resulted in the demise of teacher
trainingcolleges and the repositioning of teacher education programs withinfaculties of education
in established universities or newly amalgamateduniversities and teachers' colleges.

History of teacher education in USA

In the colonial period in America, the only requirements for teaching in the lower schools
were a modicum of learning and a willingness to work in what was then an ill-paid, low-prestige
occupation. By the 1820s and 30s, however, teacher training became common in the academies,
the equivalent of today's secondary schools. Many women, excluded from men's preparatory
schools, could obtain an education only in such academies. The nation's first private normal
school, a two-year post–high school training institute for elementary-school teachers, was
opened by Samuel R. Hall (1823); the first state-supported normal school was created by
Massachusetts (1839).

With the assistance of Henry Barnard and Horace Mann, the number of normal schools in
the United States increased rapidly during the latter half of the 19th cent. Since their sole purpose
was professional instruction of elementary-school teachers, an especially strong emphasis was
placed on the psychology of child development. Preparation for secondary-school teaching,
which demanded a larger academic component, was still left to liberal arts colleges.
Nevertheless, by the turn of the century many normal schools had expanded into four-year
degree-granting teachers colleges, and by the 1920s and 30s these teachers colleges, generally
supported by the public, were training substantial numbers of the nation's public-school teachers.

Training for secondary-school teachers remained primarily a function of liberal-arts

colleges until after World War II, when growing numbers of students, a strong rise in the average
age of leaving school, and the growing need for technical skills in the nation's workforce led to a
demand for secondary education that traditional colleges could not meet. Since 1945,
consequently, most teachers colleges have expanded their educational missions and become
liberal-arts colleges offering a broad general education in addition to specialized courses in
pedagogy.

In the United States, the first graduate program in education was established at New York
Univ. (1887). In the following year the teacher-training school that is presently known as
Teachers College, Columbia Univ., was founded. Since the establishment of those two
institutions, graduate study in education has expanded rapidly.

http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/society/teacher-training-history-united-
states.html#ixzz2eystpfiC

http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/society/teacher-training-history-united-states.html

The Teacher Education (1910 onwards)

The beginning oftwentieth century marked a turning point in the history of

teachereducation in U.S.A. Since 1910, there has been the rise of dominanceof graduate faculties
of education making vigorous effortsfor raising the professional standard of teachers. The
leadingeducationists and psychologists, G.Stanley Hall, J. MckeenCatteIl,Edward Tichener,
Hugo Munsterberg, Edward L. Thorndike andCharles H. Judd showed the way.
In the early years of the Century there were following three closely related movements in
U.S.A.
(i) The Educational Psychology Movement.
(ii) The Child Study Movement
(iii) The Educational Measurement Movement
The combination of these three movements gave rise to“Scientific approach to the
educational process.” The naturaloutcome of this new thinking was the gradual replacement
ofNormal School by 4-year Teachers Colleges. By the end of 1920there were 45 such colleges in
different parts of the country. Duringthe year 1948-49 as many as 218 teachers colleges were
existing,with only a sprinkling of Normal Schools. Teacher training” wasreplaced by Teacher
Education”, while the former meant only theimparting of certain teaching skills the later implied
theunderstanding of basic principles. Teachers colleges undertook thepreparation of elementary
as well as secondary school teachers.They provided general education along with professional
training.
Following results were significantly visible.
(i) Teacher training Institutions had gained in status. They werethen placed on equal footing with
the Liberal Arts Colleges.
(ii) The period of training had been increased from one year to fouryears, thereby preparing
better oriented and more skilledteachers.
(iii) Teacher training had been replaced by Teacher Education, thusproviding more broad-based
education, comprising general aswell as professional education.
TYPES OF TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTIONS

Teacher Training schools or colleges in America may bedivided into two categories (i)
Public and (ii) Private. The Publicinstitutions are financed and controlled by the Government
while the
Private institutions are run and managed by private organizations.Most of the institutions are
Public since because of heavy cost ofsuch institutions a large number of private bodies have
withdrawnfrom this activity.
From the point of view of management and organization,there are following four distinct types
of teacher educationinstitutions.
Normal Schools
Normal School movement gained a lot ofmomentums during the 19th century. These
were mainly concernedfor the training of elementary school teachers. The duration of thetraining
was about one year. Their curriculum was narrow andlimited to the following
(i) The review of common school subjects like languages, Geometry,Algebra, Arithmetic,
Geography etc.
(ii) Mental and moral development of children, and
(iii) Principles and methods of Teaching.
Recently the Normal Schools have undergone much change.They have become more
progressive, now the duration of training toprepare teachers for elementary schools is three
years.
Teacher’s Colleges

During the second quarter of 20thcentury, some Normal Schools were replaced by
Teachers Collegeswith more progressive and modern teacher training institutions. As ithad the
support of the teachers, teacher educators and numerouspublic organizations, including that of
National EducationalAssociation the movement gained momentum. These Colleges
areExclusively devoted to the training of teachers, offering 4 or 5 yearsintegrated courses, both
for elementary and secondary school. Theyfunction as degree granting institutions.
Departments of Education

Departments of Education were created as a part of bigger liberal Arts Colleges and
Universities. The Iowa University was the first to create a separate department, named,
“Department of Pedagogy”, for training teachers in the art of teaching. Its success inspired many
other universities and liberal Arts Colleges to follow suit.
Schools or Colleges of Education

The establishment of university Departments of Education and liberal arts colleges started a new
movement of creating autonomous Schools of Education in different universities and Colleges of
Education. The University of Michigan gave a lead by setting up “Chairs of Education.”
Following the example of Michigan University many more universities established their own
Schools of Education for the purpose of conducting research in the theory and practice of
pedagogy and for the intensive study of the problems of Teacher Education.

History of Teacher Education in England and Wales

With the beginning of 20th century the syllabus headingsincluded ‘Theory of Teaching’,
‘Principles of Education’, along with newterritories of Psychology, ‘Sociology’ and
‘Philosophy’. Thisexpansion of the teacher education curriculum also led to the alliance
ofUniversities and Teacher Education colleges. Efforts were made to build up stronglinks
between the professional and the academic, and between the professional andthe liberal aspects
of educationPolicy, theory and practice in initial teacher education in England has a long history.

Two important themes emerge from the history of teacher training in the past two
hundred years. The first, frequently described in the literature using the metaphor of a swinging
pendulum, refers to the dominance at different times of a school-based/apprenticeship or
acollege- or university-based model of training. The movement betweenthese approaches, largely
chronological, with school based/apprenticeship models dominating in the nineteenth century
and college- and university-based models dominating for much of the twentieth century, has
witnessed a clear return to a more school-based approach in the past twenty years, with some
transitional overlapping in between. This fluctuation raises important questions about the balance
between educational theory and practice and shifting priorities in teacher training policy and
practice over time. (Gardner 1993)

The Early Period

Monitorial System –
In the beginning of nineteenth century there was no formal system of teacher training in
U.K. The first crude attempt was made to produce teachers through the Monitorial System.
Under the system, a number of senior pupils, called ‘monitors’, were first taught a number of
elementary facts or words to be spelt by heart. Each of these then assembled in the great hall
with a group of other children to whom he taught what he had just learnt. As the system suffered
from a number of defects, it was abandoned and replaced by ‘pupil-teacher system’.
The Pupil-Teacher System –
Criticizing the Monitorial System Mr. Kay Shuttleward advocated a new arrangement,
called pupil-teacher system. According to this arrangement “Pupil-teachers” were chosen at the
age of thirteen from among the most promising pupils in an elementary school. They were
formally apprenticed to the headmaster for a term of five years, and were examined on a
prescribed graded syllabus at the end of each year. If they acquitted themselves creditably, the
Government paid the headmaster a grant of 5 pounds for one pupil-teacher, 9 pounds for two,
and 3 pounds for each additional one. At the end of the apprenticeship i.e., at the age of eighteen,
the pupil-teacher could appear for departmental examination. The successful candidates were
awarded the Queen’s Scholarship, which entitled them for a three-year course at a training
college. At the end of it, they qualified as “certificated teachers”.
The Bursar and Student-Teacher System –
According to this system the pupil in a secondary school was allowed to remain there up
to the age of seventeen or eighteen as a ‘bursar’ and then proceed direct to a training college or
alternatively he could become a ‘student-teacher’ spending half of his time in actual practice in
an elementary school and continue his studies in the secondary schoolduring the other. This
system of preliminary training of teachers has been continuing even these days with some
modifications.
The Modern Period

Report of the McNair, Committee (1944)

In their report titled “Teachers and Youth Leaders” (1944) recommended the following
regarding the system of teacher training;
(i) Central ‘Training Council - A Central ‘Training Council for England and Wales be formed
“Charged with the duty of advising the Board of Education about bringing into being that form
of area, training service, recommended in this Report which the Board may decide to adopt.”
(ii) Alternatives - One of the following two alternative schemes of the new pattern of teacher
training be adopted
(a) ‘A’ type Scheme - According to it each University should be a sort of ‘organic federation of
approved training institutions.’ The school should look after the trainingarrangements as well as
the examinations of the students seeking to be certificated qualified teachers.
(b) ‘B’ type Scheme - It aimed at the continuation of the Joint Board System with closer
representation of the University on it. The University Department of Education and the
constituent colleges should maintain identity to be linked together through the joint board of
Education and the Central ‘Training Council.
(iii) The Area ‘Training Organization - It should be responsible for the approval of syllabus of
all levels of training.
(iv)The Board of Education - It should approve certificate on the basis of recommendations and
assessment by the Area Training Authority.
(v) The Area ‘Training Authority - It should also function as inspectorial body for all training
institutions within its jurisdiction.
(vi) Declaration - The students should not be required to sign declarations committing them to
teach in publicly run or aided schools for minimum specified period of time, to compensate for
the money spent on them.

(vii) Duration - The duration of training course should be extended to three years.
(viii) Basic Scale - A basic scale should be introduced for qualifiedteachers in primary and
secondary schools with additions forspecial qualification or experience.
The Follow-up Action As a follow-up of the recommendations ofMcNair Committee, the
following set-up of teacher was established:
(1) Area Training Organizations - These were formed incollaboration with different
Universities. Most of these trainingCenters were “Institutes of Education” while the remaining
wereknown as, “School of Education”. The functions performed by them, were asfollows:
(i) Supervision of the courses of training in their constituentcolleges, including the University
Department of Education.
(ii) Maintenance of Standards
(iii) Conducting of examinations and assessment of student’s work.
(iv) Recommendation of successful students for the award ofqualified Teachers Certificate.
(v) Planning ‘for the development of training facilities at variouslevels in their areas.
(vi) Provision of opportunities for further study and encouragementof research in professional
studies.
(vii) Arrangement of educational centers for in-service education ofteachers already working in
schools.
(2) National Advisory Council on the Training and Supply of
Teachers - It consisted of representatives of the Area TrainingOrganizations, Local Education
Authorities and NationalAssociation of Teachers.

Robbins Committee Report (1963)

It made the following recommendations regarding teacher training :

(i) Scheme A System of McNair Committee — It should beimplemented but proposed that the
logical next step should betaken, first, by uniting the Departments of Education of thecolleges
and the Institutes into Schools of Education, andsecondly by instituting a block grant for all the
Colleges in eachschool, to be administered by the University, which would thusundertake not
only academic supervision of the Colleges butalso financial responsibility for their maintenance.
(ii) The Council for National Academic Awards — It should beestablished though this was not
the best route for the Colleges.
(iii) Academic and financial authority for the Colleges of
Education — They should go together and that the Collegesshould become an integral part of a
University School ofEducation, being financed through the University GrantsCommittee. Some
of the bigger Colleges might becomeindividually constituent parts of a University or to become
partof one.
(iv) The Teacher-training Colleges — they should be known infuture as Colleges of
Education.Most of these recommendations were implemented. TheColleges were renamed as
Colleges of Education. The’ degree ofbachelor of Education was instituted.

Central Advisory Council Report (1967)

Titled “Children and their Primary Schools’ the ‘report of theCentral Advisory Council
was published in 1967. It, recommendedthe’ following:
(i) The newly established B. Ed. degree ought to be, a major,source of supply of graduates for
Primary Schools;
(ii) There should be full enquiry into the system of teacher training,an enquiry which is long
overdue;
(iii) All primary schools teachers needed to be numerate as well asliterate and efforts should be
made to improve theirqualifications.

The James Report (1972)

It made following recommendation for the training of teachers for anemerging scheme of
universal secondary education.
(i) Teacher Education should become part of higher education andentrance requirements should
be the same as for Universities.
(ii) The general education of all teachers should be broadened andextended.
(iii) The present three year certificate programme should become afour-year - programme of
education and training leading to adegree. The present four-year course should become a five
yearcourse. In each pattern an internship of one year should. be anintegral part.
(iv) The teacher’s professional education should continuethroughout his life.
(v) Teacher Education should be divided into following threecycles:
(a) The First Cycle — It would be provided by a Universityor Council for National Academic
Awards Committee.
(b) The Second Cycle — It would be a common course ofprofessional training extending Over
two years. The firstyear would be within the Colleges or Department ofEducation and the
emphasis would be on preparation forwork appropriate to a teacher at the beginning of hiscareer
rather than, on formal courses in educationaltheory. The second year would put the student as
alicensed teacher and he will begin to receive a salary.
(c) The third Cycle — It will start with registration fortraining and cover a wide spectrum of
training, educationand activities. There will be long courses leading toadvanced qualifications
and requiring the release ofteachers for full-time attendance in schools.
TYPES OF TRAINING COLLEGES

In England the training Colleges are of two categories

(1) Old training Colleges — These were originally opened andfinanced by private bodies to a
denominational character, but arenow almost wholly maintained by public money.
(2) Those started by Local Education Authorities — These werefrom the early years of the
20th century and wholly financed bylocal authorities.
The Ministry of Education financially assists both the abovecategories of training ‘colleges’. The
Ministry bears about fiftypercent of expenditure of Private Colleges particularly for purpose
ofimprovement, extension and or replacement of their buildings; therest is borne by the voluntary
agencies themselves.

History of Teacher Education in India

Government of India resolution on education policy 1904

This is one of the most important educational documents which laid down the policies for
the future educational system. It made some vary vital suggestion for their movement of teacher
training program as mention below.

Training colleges

Resolution enunciated that secondary education was to be improved when the teachers
should be trained in the art of teaching. The resolution endorsed the views of the Hunter
commission emphasizing the training program. There were 5 teacher training colleges in all at
places like Madrass, Kurfeong, Alabad, Lahore and Jabalpur. Intermediate or graduates could
seek admission to these colleges. The resolution listed the general principle upon which the
training institutions were to be developed for example;

1. To enlist more men of ability and experience in the work of higher training
2. To equip the training colleges well
3. To make the duration of the training programs 2 years and for graduate for 01 year. The
course would compromise knowledge of the principles which underlie the art of teaching
and some degree of technical skill in the practice of the art.
4. The course would culminate in a university degree or diploma
5. There should a close link between theory and practice and practicing school should be
attached to each college. These schools should be fully equipped with well trained
teachers whose examples the students should emulate. Training schools

The resolution recommended opening of more training schools, particularly in Bangal.

The normal schools were mostly boarding schools where students with vernacular education
come for training and were given stipends. They received general education combined with the
instructions in the methods of teaching and practice in teaching.

The resolution recommended a minimum course of two years it mentioned courses of

training specially suited for teachers of rural schools. There teachers would be motivated in the
study of rural things so that they could relate their teaching with the objects which are familiar to
the students in the country schools. Various methods were being tried for this.

Thus, it can be observed that recommendation and suggestions of the resolution were of
far reaching importance. Some of the suggestions of the resolution were not implemented and
several recommendations were implemented, some changes took place in the field of teacher
training. Universities instituted B. T. degrees for graduate teachers rethinking on the syllabus
improvements in facilities etc. were the outcome of the resolution.

The government of India resolution on education policy 1930

The second resolution on education policy was again a very important document. It pin
pointed the weakness of the system and suggested many useful measures with regard to
improvement primary education, the resolution suggested that teachers should be drawn from the
class of the boys whom they will teach and they should have pass the middle vernacular
examination and undergone a year’s training. It suggested periodical repetition and improvement
courses for teachers. The resolution expressed the importance of training program in these
words. Few reforms are more urgently needed than the extension and improvement of the
training of teachers for both primary and secondary schools. The resolution emphasized that no
teacher should be allowed to teach without a certificate. It mentioned that there are 15 colleges,
providing training to 1400 students who would teach through the English medium and 550
schools or classes for the training of vernacular teachers (11000). The courses varied from 1 to 2
years.

The resolution suggested there should be a constant exchange of ideas amongst the
training college staff members and that they should visit different colleges.

Calcutta university commission 1917

This commission, known as the Sadler commission, studied all aspects of the university
education and presented its voluminous report in 1919. It also touched upon the teacher
education program and made some valuable recommendations.

It pointed out the painful in adequacy of training institutions and the poor quality of
training provided in them. It suggested that the training programs should not only make the
trainee a competence classroom teacher but also a good administrator.

Some of the important recommendations of the commission are;

1. To open a department of education in universities to develop systematic and practical

study of the science and art of education.
2. To equip each department with a professor, a reader and a number of assistants. The
department should consult and collaborate with department of experimental psychology,
history and economics.
3. There should be a demonstration school under the direction of the University for Practical
Trial of new methods of education, new combination of school subjects and new plans of
 schools organization, such a school would serve as a laboratory for educational
experiment.
4. The department should have a good library with good books, report and journals.
5. The department should bring out publications and promote research. It should also work
as a link between boards of education and intermediate colleges and committees of high
schools.
6. The department should facilitate the professional growth of teachers in-service as also
encourage the progress of the new education movement whenever possible.
7. There should be a post graduate degree in education.

Thecommission woefully observed that the three essential components of teacher

education were knowledge of the subject matter, practical training and theoretical training but
under the existing conditions, the first is often unfulfilled, second rarely possible and the third
too little regarded by the university in framing the resolution.It recommended the introduction of
education as an optional subject at the graduation and P. G. level.

The recommendations of the Sadler commission had salutary effect on the teacher
training program in India. Mysore University started the faculty of education in 1925.

The Hartog Committee, 1929

The work initiated by the Sadler Commission was further carried by the Hartog
Committee. The Committee was primarily concerned with primary education but it made far
reaching recommendations for teacher training as well. It rightly observed that the success of
education depended on the quality of the training, the status and the pay of teachers. It suggested
that teachers for rural areas should be inducted from persons who were close to rural society. It
also added that the period of training was too short, the curriculum too narrow and the teaching
staff in adequately qualified.

It suggested that journals for teachers in the vernacular, refresher courses, conferences
and meeting of teacher association can do much to brighten the lives of the teachers and
improves their work.
 For secondary school teachers too, the committee had the same suggestion, i.e.;
“improvement in their pay and conditions of services”. It found that the training courses could
not bet be done in the short space of nine months, which is all that is usually available and too up
root the old methods of teaching to which many of the students are accustomed. It suggested that
many of the teachers should undergo more frequent refresher courses at the training colleges
with great advantage.

Working on the recommendations of the Sadler Commission, 13 out of 18 universities set

up faculties of education. The Lady Irwin College was setup in New Delhi. Andhra University
started a new degree the B.Ed. in 1932. Bombay launched a post graduate degree the M.Ed. in
1936.

Some other important changes in the field of education also took place in the thirties. The
Act of 1935 introduced provincial autonomy under which the Indian Minister of Education had
considerable powers in 1935. The Central Advisory Board of Education was revived. Basic
Education was started by Mahatma Gandhi in 1937, leading to the training of teachers for basic
Schools. In 1938, a Basic Training College was set-up at Allahabad and the Vidyamandir
Training School was started at Wardha in 1938.

The Abbott-Wood Report

This report submitted in 1937 is again a landmark in the field of education. It primarily
analyzed the position of vocational education but also made valuable suggestions about teacher
education. It said,” The normal school should concern itself with the social way of education as
well as with the technical how to teach. If the teacher appreciated his task as an educator, and
realizes the significance of the school in the life of the community, he may become proud of his
vacation and resist temptations to bring discredit upon it.

The duration of training should be 3 years to enable the pupil to continue with general
education along with professional training. It further suggested a refresher course for the teacher
so that he could get a wider experience. Although, there was improvement in the percentage of
trained teachers from 56.8 % in 1937 to 61.3 % in 1942, Yet there was much still to be done for
achieving qualitative improvement. In 1941, there were 612 normal schools out of which 376
were for men and 236 for women. These schools provided one or two years training. There were
25 training colleges for graduates which were inadequate to meet the needs of the time. In 1941,
the VidyaBhawan teacher’s college was started in Rajhistan and the Tilak College of Education
in Poona. Bombay took the lead in starting a doctorate in education the same year.

The Sargent Report, 1944

In 1944, the central Advisory Board of Education presented a scheme of education”Post-

war Educational Development in India”, popularly known as the Sargent Plan”. The scheme was
a broad-based educational plan. It made some practical suggestions for teacher’s training
programme.

It recommended that suitable boys and girls should be inducted into the teaching
profession after High School; Practical training should be provided refresher courses be planned
and research facilities be provided.

It suggested a two-year course for pre-primary and Junior Basic Schools (after high
school) and a three year course for the senior basic schools. The non-graduate teachers in high
schools were to go for two year training and the graduates for one-year training. The first year of
the two years training should be devoted to the study of the general and professional subjects. It
should be supported by school visits, discussions and other experiences to kindle the trainee’s
interest in education. It proposed revised pay scales for all categories of teachers, to attract better
teachers.

The University education commission 1948

The university education was appointed under the chairman ship of dr. F. Radhakrifhnan.

The commission submitted its report in 1949. The commission observed that obviously there was

no difference in the theory papers offered in various teacher training colleges but there was much

difference in practice followed by them. The number of supervised lessons varied from 10 to 60

and the type of practice teaching and student teaching varies from one to another.
 The commission observed that the training colleges had no basic orientation in the

essential. For improvement teacher training, it suggested that the teacher educators must look at

the whole course form a different angle, that the theory and practice should support each other,

that the intelligent following of rule of thumb method should be made; trainees be recruited from

people having a firsthand experience of school teaching that courses in the theory of education

must be flexible and adaptable to local circumstances; that original work by professors and

lecturers in education should not suffer from isolation and lake of inter university planning.

The plan period in 1950s

In 1950 the first conferences of training colleges in India was held at Baroda and it

created a form for exchange of ideas. The conference discussed program and functions o f the

training colleges. In the following year 1951, the second all India conference was held at

Mysore. It discussed the teacher training program in a broader perspective and suggested

substituting the term “education” for again “training” and widened its scope. In the same year a 6

week summer course in education was organized for college teachers at Mysore.

The secondary education commission 1952

The Kothari commission 1964-1966

National Commission on teachers 1983

Challenges for education policy 1985

Annual report 1999

History of Teacher Education in Pakistan

The history of teacher education in Pakistan starts with the establishment of the country.
However, this area has been facing various challenges such as lack of consistent policy,
inconsistency in curriculum, low resources, lack of quality teachers, low quality of teaching
process, lack of standard, etc. Today, a range of public and private institutions are engaged in
preparing school teachers. In Pakistan, like many other countries, public institutions are the main
source for developing teachers through pre-service and in-service programs. However, many
studies have raised the question on the quality of delivery mechanism of the institutions while
forwarding recommendations for improvement.

In 1947 following were the programs for training of teachers for different stages:

1. J.V. (Junior Vernacular) 8+1 for primary classes(1-5)

2. S.V. (Senior Vernacular) 10+1 for classes (1-8)
3. C.T (Certificate in Teaching) 12+1 for classes ( 1-8) including English
4. O.T( Oriental Teacher) One year training after a certificate in Oriental language for
the instruction of oriental languages
5. B.T (Bachelor in Teaching) 14+1 (6-10)

The 1947 Education conference expressed concern about teacher education and
recommended revised teacher education programs to make them compatible with the changing
needs.

Historically, different reforms have been brought to improve the condition of teacher
education in the country. Currently, teacher education in Pakistan is passing through a transition
as an innovation has been initiated by the Government of Pakistan with the support of USAID
through their Pre-Service Teachers Education Programme (STEP) project. This reform is
attempted in order to improve the quality of teacher education by including different innovations.

(http://beta.dawn.com/news/776648/teacher-training-teacher-education-in-transition)
Reflection of Teacher Education in National Education Policies

Teacher education is a very important sub-sector in the area of education. Keeping in

view the importance of it, due consideration has been given to teacher education in the education
policies. In the following lines, this sub-sector is being reviewed in the light of these national
documents:

The First Educational Conference, 1947

The committee on Teacher training agreed that a properly trained and reasonably well
paid teaching professions was essential to the building up of a great state. It therefore suggested
that the provinces should take necessary steps to ensure

1. The proper training of teachers

2. An adequate scale of salary
In Particular, the committee stressed the desirability of adding research departments to
training institutions for the study of special problems relating to teaching (Govt. Of
Pakistan, 1947).
Commission on National Education, 1959
The Commission on National Education, 1959 presented a comprehensive report on
teacher education. The following program seems essential:
1. There should be a staff training college in each wing of Pakistan for
primaryschool teachers training institutions.
2. These colleges should include a research unit where educational problems
relating to primary teacher training can be investigated.
3. Every staff member of these colleges should be selected periodically preferably at
the end to the every five years- to serve as a teacher in a typical school so that he
may keep himself thoroughly acquainted with school needs and problems. (Govt.
Of Pakistan, 1959)
The National Education Policy, 1972-80

In order to meet the massive requirements of teachers at all stages, facilities for teacher
education will be increased by re-organizing teacher education programs and by introducing
innovative techniques. To meet the additional manpower requirements for trained teachers the
study of education as a subject will be introduced in secondary schools and in general colleges
and students passing in the subjects at the matriculation, intermediate or degree level
examinations will qualify as primary, middle or high school teachers, respectively. (Govt.Of
Pakistan, 1972)
The National Education Policy, 1979
Effective teaching demands that besides possessing adequate knowledge of the subject
matter and techniques of teaching, our teacher must also exhibit full commitment to the
ideology of Pakistan. Candidates admitted to the teacher education institutions will be required
to possess strong commitment to the ideology of Pakistan. In order to ensure continuous
professional growth, all teachers will be required to undergo at least one in-service training
course during every five years. In order to promote pre- service teacher education, all the
primary teacher training institutions and Normal Schools will be upgraded to college of
Elementary Teachers. The academy of Higher Education of the University Grants Commission
will provide pre-service and at least one in service training opportunity to allthe university and
college teachers every five years.(Govt.Of Pakistan, 1979)

The National Education Policy, 1992

This policy recognizes the need to improve the quality of educations at all levels, and
delivery of primary, middle and high school education through improvement of teacher
education programs and enhancement of instructional material and teaching aids. The policy
emphasized the need to motivate teachers to improve the effectiveness of teaching learning
process. For this purpose, the policy suggested to start a system of rewards, incentives, career
opportunities, teaching facilities and prominent status to the teachers in the society. (Govt. of
Pakistan,1992)

The National Education Policy, 1998-2010

 In order to strengthen the primary level teacher training programs. It is proposed to start
a 3-year Diploma in Education for matriculates. This enable them to pursue either
studies up to B.A, B.Sc and M.Sc level or continue to serve the teaching profession.
 Few institutions in the country offer an integrated program at B.ScPlusB.Ed level known
as B.S.Ed program. It enables the student to receive the qualifications of both the B.Sc
and B.Ed levels and enbles them to pursue their higher studies at M.Sc and M.Edlevels.
 This open ended facility to pursue either of the two programs has attracted a vast
number of talented students to the teaching profession. It is proposed to expand this
facility horizontally to those students who want to pursue general education as well as
obtain a B.Ed degree through an integrated B.A. plus B.Ed program at the college of
education
 Teacher Foundations shall be established in all provinces to provide financial assistance
to the spouse of the deceased teachers and scholarships to their talented children for
pursuing higher education. Children of teachers shall be exempted from payment of
tuition fee in the public sector educational institutions.
 In order to attract talented students to the teaching profession, a stipend scheme will be
started for studies at the intermediate and degree levels. These students will be
contracted to join the teaching profession on the completion of their studies.
 Good governance in educational institutions will be achieved by imparting intensive
training in management and supervision through provincial institutes of Teacher
Education(PITE) to all headmasters/headmistresses and personnel of supervisory cadres.
A National Institute of Teacher Education (NITE) will be set up at the national level to
improve the capability of academic staff in teacher training institutions. About 300
teacher educators will be enabled to improve their professional qualifications through
this institute every year.

References

 Angus, D. L. (2001) Professionalism and the Public Good: A Brief History of Teacher
Certification. Retrieved September 17, 2008 from Educational Resources Information
Center
 Government of Pakistan.(1947) Proceedings of Pakistan Educational Conference held at
Karachi from 27th Nov. to !st Dec. Ministry of Interior (Education Division)
 Government of Pakistan.(1959) Report of the commission on National Education,
Ministry of Education Karachi
 Government of Pakistan.(1972) National Education Policy (1972-80) Ministry of
Education. Islamabad
 Government of Pakistan.(1978) National Education Policy 1978 Ministry of Education.
Islamabad
 Government of Pakistan.(1992) National Education Policy 1992 Ministry of Education.
Islamabad
 Government of Pakistan.(1998) National Education Policy (1998-2010) Ministry of
Education. Islamabad

 Hamidi, M.A. 1962 Teacher Education in West Pakistan, Bureau of curriculum, Lahore.
 Ravitch, D. Strengthen Teacher Quality (2003, August 23). Retrieved from
http://www.ed.gov/admins/tchrqual/learn/preparingteachersconference/ravitch.html
 Aggarwal, J. C. (1995) Teacher and Education in a Developing Society, Vikas Publishing
House PVT LTD. New Delhi
 Mohanty, J.(2003) Teacher Education, Deep & Deep Publications PVT. LTD. New Delhi
 Clyde Chitty (2002). The Right to a Comprehensive Education.Second Caroline
Benn Memorial Lecture.http://www.socialisteducation.org.uk/CB2.htm.
 Newsam, Peter. "Diversity and Admissions to English SecondarySchools",
Secondary Heads Association, 28 June 2002, revisedand reprinted in Forum 45:1
(2003)
 Brighouse, Tim. "Comprehensive Schools Then, Now and in theFuture: is it time
to draw a line in the sand and create a newideal?", Forum 45:1 (2003)
 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher_education) 9.5.13
 http://www.china.org.cn/top10/2011-12/08/content_24105530_9.htm (9.5.13)
 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_school 9.5.13)
 (http://www.pbs.org/onlyateacher/timeline.html)
 http://beta.dawn.com/news/776648/teacher-training-teacher-education-in-transition