World history at a glance

By
Manikant Singh

The article ‘world history at a glance’ will carry the reader through a brief
but long journey of nearly 2500 years starting from ancient world to
contemporary one. It will help the reader to develop a critical insight of
‘change’.
PART-I
(Antecedent)
Ancient and Medieval Europe
World, which is visible today, is completely different from what it had appeared to be thousand
of years earlier. We need to underline the elements of changes while going though years after
years, decades after decades and century after century while gouging the contours of world
history. Then a complete picture comes before us.
But before making a survey of world history we should be aware of the fact that more or
less world history is still obsessed with Euro-Centric approach. That’s why changes which
occurred in different parts of the world are generally viewed in relation to western world.
Moreover, the history of modern world starts with colonization of rest by west. Obviously, it is a
compulsion for us to observe the progress of world history while keeping Europe in the centre.
Therefore, story starts with the evolution of European society.
The story of civilization in Europe started with the rise of Greek civilization. This
civilization definitely lists a very strong intellectual legacy in the history of the world in the form
of philosophers like Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, mathematician like Pythagoras, physician like
Hippocrates etc. This civilization reached to its classical stage after 550 BCE. Although this
civilization was various bright spots but it was not as old as some other civilizations of the world
as Mesopotamian civilization in west Asia, Egyptian civilization in north-east Africa and Indus
valley civilization in India. It is unbelievable but true that presently one of the most unstable
regions of the world, Iraq and Egypt, nursed the earliest civilization in the world. Likewise, not
simply from the perspective of antiquity of civilization but also from the perspective of its
continuity both Indian and Chinese civilizations appeared to be unique and distinguished. A
great scholar and indologist A.L. Basham states that in respect of the length of continuity of
tradition China comes second to India and Greece makes a poor third. In this way during
ancient time some other parts of the world went ahead of Europe from the view point of
progress and civilization.

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 Then, after Greek civilization Roman civilization appeared to be the second one earliest
civilization in Europe but Greek civilization could not have reached up to the level of empire but
Roman civilization would came to this stage. After defeating and annexing the region of
Cartheze empire (based on North Africa), Roman Empire became formidable in size. Likewise,
earlier it had functioned under a republican government but later the republican government
was replaced by a powerful monarchy. Again unrestricted geographical expansion made it
unmanageable in size so it was divided into two parts -Western Roman Empire and Eastern
Roman Empire or Byzantine Empire. Political head-quarters of these two empires were Rome
and Constantinople respectively. In fact, even at that time empire-building was not simply a
European phenomenon rather the process of empire-building was visible in other continents as
well. Just after the decline of Alexander’s empire there emerged some big empires in east like
Mauryan Empire in India and Tang Empire in China.
In Europe in 5th century some significant changes could well be recorded. Due to
persistent barbarous German invasions Western Roman Empire broke to pieces up to 476 CE.
Then invaders were neither having inclination nor sagacity to revive the empire again therefore
different German tribal chiefs started to rule independently in different regions. Later, as a
result of internecine conflict and coordination a hierarchical political system was created under
different chiefs. At the same time with the disintegration of Western Roman Empire decline was
visible in long distance trade, money economy, urban centers as well. All these changes
combined together were characterized as feudal-formation in Europe. Feudalism is a system
that was marked by decline in the institution of monarchy, presence of lords as intermediaries
and the rise of regional economy.
Moreover, decline of Western Roman Empire presumably supposed to represent a phase
of transition from ancient to medieval age in Europe. It was during this period Europe
underwent not only a phase of political and economic change but also religious change. There
emerged Christianity under Jesus Christ. Earlier it was not enjoying a separate entity rather it
was indentified with Judaism. But later Christianity was recognized as a separate religious sect,
although Jesus Christ was believed to be linked to the tradition of Abraham (prophet of
Judaism) and he was also trusted as a prophet. When there was spread of Christianity in
Europe, some other influential religious sects were prevailing even in other parts of the world
i.e. Judaism in west Asia, Buddhism and Jainism in India, Confucianism in China. Very like
Christianity Buddhism could assume the status of a world religion albeit its spread could not be
ensured through the power of European capitalism or forcible conversion as we find in case of
Christianity.
After 8th century, even Christianity once again underwent mutation when it adopted
priesthood and rituals. Thus emerged Roman Catholic Church system or universal church
system. It was so-called as the head quarter of the Church was at Rome while its different
branches were spread to different parts of Europe.
Just in parallel to Europe, in 7th and 8th century even in Arab region and West Asia major
religio-political upheavals were going on. In 7th century prophet Muhammad introduced a new

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religious sect at Mecca, Islam, (Submission) and its followers came to be known as Muslims
(Those who submitted). At Mecca prophet had to face unparallel hostility from rival religious
sects. Therefore, in order to survive Islam had to assume political role along with religious one.
Consequently, there was the foundation of Islamic state and Mecca as well as Medina became its
twin political centers. Therefore the role of religious head and that of political head had to be
combined together into a single person, Prophet, and after him Caliphs. Surprisingly, Islam
assimilated some democratic ideals in the form of Muslim millet (Muslim brotherhood). Then
propaganda of Muslim millet as well as power of sword both appeared very effective tools for the
spread of Islam. Old internal tribal conflicts were channelized externally in the form of
imperialist expansion and with overt objective of converting ‘Dar-ul-Harb’ (the land of idolaters)
into ‘Dar-ul-Islam’ (the land where Islamic law could prevail). Then under caliphs Islamic state
could take the form of a gigantic empire comprising the region of West Asia, central Asia, and
later even South Asia and East Asia. Originally, Arabian people were Muslims but later even
Turks, Mongols and others were converted to Islam swelling up the number of martial elements
under Islam. In true sense it was Islam which created a globalised system. Different regions of
Asia and Africa including India fell under Islamic occupation. Islam reached to the door step of
Europe as well. But Europe could exhibit unparallel resolve to fight against Muslim invaders.
That spirit reflected itself in holy war or crusade. Between 1095 and 1291 three crusades were
fought between Christian and Muslim powers. But the history of crusades can’t be completed
without the role of Holy Roman Empire.
In fact, among German tribes, which had become instrumental behind the
disintegration of Western Roman Empire, there was an important tribe, Franco tribe, and it
developed a very powerful dynasty named as Carolingian dynasty. The kings of this dynasty
created a big empire. Later, a very powerful king, Charlemang, came to grace the imperial post.
It was the time Pope of Rome was looking to Charlemang for promoting the Christian cause.
Thus he allotted to him a pompous title like ‘Holy Roman Emperor’. Right from that time his
empire came to be known as ‘Holy Roman Empire’. This empire played a significant role in holy
war and after holy war it started to work as a strong arm of Universal Church System. Earlier it
was the rulers of Carolingian dynasty who used to grace this post. After them the same role was
usurped by the rulers of Habsburg dynasty. Holy Roman Empire was much formidable in seize
with its expansion in northern central and southern parts of Europe. So, along with feudalism,
Universal Church System and even Holy Roman empire emerged to be a Pan-European
institution. They worked as the vanguard of medieval European order. It is only after demise of
these institutions Europe might have moved on to manifest modernization.

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 Disintegration or the decline of Roman Empire
(Medieval Institutions)

Feudalism Holy Roman Empire Emergence of Christianity

Universal Church System

Rise of Modern West

It is an irony in the history of Europe that whereas disintegration of one empire
(Western Roman Empire) culminated into the rise of medievalism in Europe, decline of another
empire (Byzantine Empire) prepared the way for the rise of modern age in Europe. In fact, a
group of Turks defeated Byzantine Empire and captured its capital, Constantinople in 1453. This
event is recorded in history as the decline of Constantinople.
Sea-Voyages
Decline of Constantinople meant blockade of almost all the routes between India and
Europe which had been frequented right from the time of Alexander. Christian merchants did
not dare to tread into the region for the fear of forcible conversion by Islamic power. Now power
and endurance of European countries were put to test. Europe was squeezed within the
boundary of its own continent. But Europe could survive trial and tribulation and through its
determined efforts could discover new routes to East. It was this prowess and perspicacity which
made Europe world leader for next five centuries. Two coastal countries of Europe - Spain and
Portugal opened new lanes though Atlantic to the East. It was in this context that a Spain
sponsored sailor Columbus discovered America and a Portuguese sailor Vasco-De-Gama
explored India in 1492 and 1498 respectively as the result of long distance sea voyages. The
events proved a major watershed in the history of the world. The discovery of America and India
transformed Europe and world both. In one sense these discoveries proved a mark of the end of
Islamic globalization. From Eastern Europe to South East and East Asia Islamic power was
ruling the roost. Arabian merchants used to control the major part of global trade. That’s why
the arrival of Vasco-De-Gama in Asia upset Arabian merchants so much so that they even made
an attempt on the life of Vasco-De-Gama but due to the protection given to him by the ruler of
Calicut, Zamorin, that Vasco-De-Gama could return to Portugal safely. Gradually more
advanced European ships armed with most sophisticated canons came to take care of important
sea-lanes and oceanic routes and laid the foundation of the so-called blue water policy. Then
Islamic globalization was replaced soon by a globalized system promoted by Christian powers of
Europe. This globalization was geographically more expanded as new world (America) was
added to the world cartography. Although discovery of America was an accidental phenomenon

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but discovery of America proved indispensible for carrying oriental trade by European
countries. It was from precious metal of America that Europeans could procure the product of
India and China as it was a one sided trade between Asia and Europe. Even after the discovery of
America and alternative route to India sea-voyages continued till almost all the regions of the
world except Australia and the interior regions of Africa came to light up to 17th century. Then
European ships could ply all the seas and oceans and European nations could develop trade
network from Atlantic to pacific region.
Commercial Revolution
All the changes were known as commercial revolution as the result of which static
feudal and capitalistic economy of Europe could be converted into a mobile, capitalistic and
world economy. This worked as a major factor of ideological-social-political change in Europe.
Following diagram represents the phase of transition of Europe from medieval age to modern
age.

Commercial Revolution Renaissance

Decline of Feudalism
Reformation
Mercantilism
Rise of nation-state

While underlining the elements of change in Europe one is supposed to internalize the
following formula- economic change – changing class equation (social change) - ideological
change - political change so on and so forth. This formula amply shows that change is the
product of a complex process. If change is taking place, it means some force is working behind.
It has always been matter of debate whether it is either ideology or material factor which works
as a primary factor behind the change. Keeping aside this debate we have to gauge the whole
process of change in totality. Economic or material change intrudes the class structure
culminating in the rise of a dominant new class. The rise of a new class creates a congenial
atmosphere for a new ideology or political structure. In return new ideology or political
structure gives a direction to the change in material or economic structure. In this way both of
them give support to each other. For example, commercial revolution brought an upheaval in
material or economic structure. Then material change brought a tremor in class-equation
(aristocratic class and middle class). The power or position of the feudal or aristocratic class was
on the wane while mercantile class or the middle class came into the position of ascendency.
Then one can notice the rise of a new and forceful ideology that was known as renaissance. It is
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true that renaissance was the product of a complex process and a number of factors made a
contribution to it. For example, sea voyages made possible the exchange of ideas between
western world and oriental world. Likewise, the revival of Greek and Latin literature which was
full of humanism gave a strong impetus to new ideas. Moreover, introduction of printing press
ensured the fast movement of new ideas through multiplying the number of printed books.
Renaissance
But without the advent a new class a major ideological fermentation is not possible.
After all an ideology needs the strong support of a client and here emerging middle class worked
as a strong client of renaissance. Renaissance catered to the interest of emerging mercantile
class or the middle class. Commercial success and the rise of a mercantile class changed the
priority of life from religious to mundane and renaissance catered to this new demand. We find
one important ingredients of renaissance was rationalism. In other words, it tried to establish
that truth is not what Roman Catholic Church says but truth is what our rational mind verifiably
accepts. Likewise, humanism was another ingredient of renaissance. Humanism provides a
dignified position to man in relation to god while earlier Roman Catholic had represented man
as a sinful creature who always cried for the grace of god. Further, Humanism practiced
mundane and earthly in place of religious and spiritual. Another ingredient of renaissance was
secularism which stood for exposing religious orthodoxy. All of them formed the bedrock of
modernism which gave a new boost to European civilization. Apart from that renaissance
encouraged the process of scientific discovery and geographical discovery as well. It engendered
a sense of curiosity and a spirit of enquiry which proved major booster to science. Curiosity of
Newton’s inquisitive mind led to the discovery of gravitational theory. Likewise, renaissance
bred a spirit of adventure which inspired sailor to stake his life for the discovery of sea routes.
Protestant Movement
In this way renaissance, which itself was product of material change became the
basis for transformation of European culture as a whole. Rationalism and humanism started to
manifest itself in religious field. Thus emerged Reformation or Protestant movement. A German
priest Martin Luther, appeared to be a protagonist who raised the banner of revolt against
Roman Catholic Church system. He was followed by other rebels like Calvin in Germany,
Zyungali in Switzerland and many others in different regions. Protestantalism took different
form in different regions i.e. Puritans in Britain and Huguenots in France. The religious revolts
by Protestant reformers resulted into the breakdown of universal church system which was one
of the major institutions of medieval Europe and which had worked as a big barrier against the
change. In this way protestant movement worked as a major factor behind the rise of modern
west.
Other medieval institution was feudalism. Due to some internal and external
factors even this institution started to disintegrate during late middle ages. As the internal factor
we can cite the evidence of conflict between lords and peasants that was accentuated due to
surplus production. Likewise, as an external factor, the role of commercial revolution can be
cited. As a result of commercial revolution feudal structure crumbled due to cash nexus coming

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to country-side. Decline of feudalism meant the demise of second one medieval institution
which had so far worked as an impediment in the way of modernization.
As we have observed earlier, feudalism implied political hierarchy. In this
system there was the hierarchy of feudatories as intermediaries between the king and the
people. Naturally, in this system, position of the king was weak but when the system
disintegrated, the aspiration of the monarch was aroused and he nourished the ambition to
revive his power and position. For that, he required enforcement of modern taxation system
with the support of which he could have established a standing army and professional
bureaucracy to boost his power. The monarch could amass sufficient amount of wealth through
taxation only in the condition of economic prosperity of the state. Therefore, in order to give a
boost to economy ambitious monarchs of Europe started to channelize trade and production.
Mercantilism
Consequently, commercial revolution was converted into mercantilism.
Mercantilism was an economic programme guided by a political motive. Its objective was to
strengthen the position of monarchy and the nation-state. Now European governments came to
intervene in trading activities directly in order to maintain the balance of trade in their own
favour. It was essential for maintaining prosperity within the nation. In fact, during this period a
dangerous economic ideology appeared in the form of mercantilism. This tried to establish that
the volume of international trade was limited therefore the surplus of one country depends over
the deficit of the other. So each country should have tried to maintain the balance in its favour
artificially otherwise its rival would be in an advantageous position while it would be a looser.
Later Adam Smith rejected this view but since then overtly or covertly in international trade
many countries tried to apply this system in their own advantage. Therefore, in practice it
always existed. Presently ‘Trumpism’ can be taken as the sophisticated form of mercantilism.
Treaty of Westphalia and International System
The changes mentioned above prepared the base for nation-state. Monarchs
demarcated their national boundary, established standing army, professional bureaucracy and a
centralised administrative structure. But this process was completed with and after Thirty Years
War and Treaty of Westphalia. As we know third important medieval institution still existed and
that was Holy Roman Empire. It covered a vast area of Europe including Germany. For the rise
of individual nations the demise of this institution was essential. Then Thirty years war soaked
away the vitality of the empire. Therefore, Holy Roman Empire declined making the way for
modern state system in Europe. It was in the treaty of Westphalia in 1648 that a Pan European
order emerged. International laws came into existence and after the exit of Holy Roman Empire
the concept of balance of power appeared to be a broad base in European order. In fact with the
end of Universal Church as the ultimate source of legitimacy and the weakening of the Holy
Roman Emperor, the ordering concept for Europe became the balance of power. Whenever the
balance of power was thrashed due to the rise of a formidable power a European coalition under
Britain was formed for creating a new equilibrium. On this basis in one sense even the First
World War and the Second World War were fought for maintaining balance of power. This

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concept was based on that of nation-state with a clear geographical boundary and a fully
sovereign status. After the Second World War and the liberation of colonies Westphalia system
expanded to Afro-Asian regions as well. The system became so much entrenched that neither
communism, which believed in world system, nor capitalism supported globalization could
uproot it.

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