Mak
Mankin Mak
Cover illustration:
© Science Photo Library.
Cover designed by Hart McLeod Ltd
Mankin Mak
Atmospheric
Atmospheric
Atmospheric Dynamics
Dynamics
Dynamics
Atmospheric dynamics is a core component of all atmospheric science curricula.
It is concerned with how and why different classes of geophysical disturbances
form, what dictates their structure and movement, how the Earth’s uneven surface
impacts with them, how they evolve to mature stage, how they interact with the
background flow, how they decay and how they collectively constrain the general
circulation of the atmosphere.
Mankin Mak’s new textbook provides a self-contained course on atmospheric
dynamics. The first half of the book is suitable for undergraduates, and develops
the physical, dynamical and mathematical concepts at the fundamental level.
The second half of the book is aimed at more advanced students who are already
familiar with the basics. The contents have been developed from many years of the
author’s teaching at the University of Illinois. The discussions are supplemented
with schematics, weather maps and statistical plots of the atmospheric general
circulation. Students often find the connection between theoretical dynamics and
atmospheric observation somewhat tenuous, and this book demonstrates a strong
connection between the key dynamics and real observations in the atmosphere,
with many illustrative analyses in the simplest possible model settings. Physical
reasoning is shown to be even more crucial than mathematical skill in tackling
dynamical problems.
This textbook is an invaluable asset for courses in atmospheric dynamics for
undergraduates as well as graduate students and researchers in atmospheric
science, ocean science, weather forecasting, environmental science and applied
mathematics. Some background in mathematics and physics is assumed.
Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:02

Atmospheric Dynamics

Atmospheric dynamics is a core component of all atmospheric science curricula. It is

concerned with how and why different classes of geophysical disturbances form, what

F
dictates their structure and movement, how the Earth's uneven surface impacts with them,
how they evolve to mature stage, how they interact with the background flow, how they
decay and how they collectively constrain the general circulation of the atmosphere.
Mankin Mak’s new textbook provides a self-contained course on atmospheric dynamics.
The first half of the book is suitable for undergraduates, and develops the physical,

OO
dynamical and mathematical concepts at the fundamental level. The second half of the
book is aimed at more advanced students who are already familiar with the basics. The
contents have been developed from many years of the author’s teaching at the University
of Illinois. The discussions are supplemented with schematics, weather maps and statistical
plots of the atmospheric general circulation. Students often find the connection between
theoretical dynamics and atmospheric observation somewhat tenuous, and this book
demonstrates a strong connection between the key dynamics and real observations in the
atmosphere, with many illustrative analyses in the simplest possible model settings.
Physical reasoning is shown to be even more crucial than mathematical skill in tackling
dynamical problems.
This textbook is an invaluable asset for courses in atmospheric dynamics for under-
graduates as well as graduate students and researchers in atmospheric science, ocean
PR
science, weather forecasting, environmental science and applied mathematics. Some back-
ground in mathematics and physics is assumed.

Mankin Mak is a Professor Emeritus in the Department of Atmospheric Sciences at the

University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, where he has taught and researched on
atmospheric dynamics for many years. He was born in Hong Kong, China, where he
completed his high school education, before moving on to undergraduate study in Engin-
eering Physics at the University of Toronto, Canada, and graduate study in Meteorology at
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA. He has published extensively in various
international journals of atmospheric sciences and served as an editor of the Journal of
Atmospheric Sciences.
Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:02

Praise for this book

‘Professor Mak’s new text provides a comprehensive and self-contained introduction to

atmospheric dynamics. The latter chapters provide invaluable material on a range of topics
not found together in other texts: baroclinic lifecycles, the dynamics of stationary waves,
and moist baroclinic instability. It presents a forceful case for the ability of dynamical
analysis to continue to clarify the atmosphere’s behavior.’
Dr Daniel Kirk-Davidoff, Department of Meteorology, University of Maryland
‘This book is a thoughtful distillation of decades of teaching. It includes figures from

F
illustrative computations that are custom-fitted to the mathematical development. Although
it is brisk and condensed, with so much material to cover, the book has a clear and
distinctive voice, and offers some unique treatments and insights.’
Dr Brian Mapes, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University
of Miami
OO
‘This text neatly and logically outlines atmospheric dynamics, from the fundamental
concepts in Chapter 1 and the development of the primitive equations in Chapter 2 to
wave dynamics in Chapter 5 and overturning circulations in Chapter 10. All the while,
walking the reader through the derivations and theory, yet referencing the physical
applications with maps and diagrams or model outputs. It would be a helpful reference
for any graduate student or scientist. Mak’s text would quickly educate someone new
to atmospheric science, but ready to jump in to the fray at the graduate level. … It really is
a nicely written text.’
Dr Teresa Bals-Elsholz, Department of Geography and Meteorology, Valparaiso
University
PR
Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:02

Atmospheric Dynamics

F
MANKIN MAK
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

OO
PR
Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:03

cambridge university press

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore,
São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo, Mexico City
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by

Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521195737

# Mankin Mak 2011

F
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

OO First published 2011

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Mak, Mankin, 1939–
Atmospheric dynamics / Mankin Mak.
p. cm.
ISBN 978-0-521-19573-7 (Hardback)
1. Atmospheric physics–Textbooks. 2. Meteorology–Textbooks. I. Title.
QC861.3.M335 2011
551.510 5–dc22
PR
2010029996

ISBN 978-0-521-19573-7 Hardback

Additional resources for this publication at www.cambridge.org/9780521195737

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or

accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to
in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such
websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:03

To the memory of my parents who made it possible for me to pursue my dreams

F
OO
PR

v
Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:04

Contents

Preface page xi

F
1 Fundamental concepts and physical laws 1
1.1 Basic notions 1
1.2 Laws of mechanics 3
1.3 Equations of motion in a rotating reference frame 5
1.4 Forces 14
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
OO
Conservation of mass
Thermodynamics and equation of state
Stratification and baroclinicity
Summary of the equations for a dry atmospheric model

2 Basic approximations and elementary flows

17
19
23
25

27
2.1 Sphericity of the Earth and thin-atmosphere approximation 27
2.2 Hydrostatic balance, implications and applications 28
2.3 Geostrophic balance 38
2.4 Thermal wind relation 40
2.5 Balanced flows 41
2.6 Kinematic properties of wind 49
PR
2.7 Divergent wind and vertical motion 53
2.8 Summary: z-, p- and y-coordinates and equations of balance 54

3 Vorticity and potential vorticity dynamics 55

3.1 Vorticity and circulation of a three-dimensional flow 55
3.2 Relationship between vorticity and circulation 57
3.3 Kelvin circulation theorem 60
3.4 Dynamics of sea-breeze from the circulation perspective 61
3.5 Tendency of relative circulation 63
3.6 General vorticity equation 64
3.7 Vorticity dynamics of a large-scale flow 65
3.8 Potential vorticity dynamics 70
3.9 Impermeability theorem and generalized potential vorticity 79

vii
Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:04

viii Contents

4 Friction and boundary layers 88

4.1 Scale and estimate of the frictional force 88
4.2 Concept of boundary layer 89
4.3 Reynolds averaging 90
4.4 Boussinesq approximation 91
4.5 Flux-gradient theory of turbulence 92
4.6 Types of boundary layer 93
4.7 Atmospheric Ekman layer 94
4.8 Oceanic Ekman layer 103
4.9 Surface layer 107

F
4.10 Mixed layer 108

5 Fundamentals of wave dynamics 111

5.1 Preliminary remarks 111
5.2 Physical nature of internal gravity waves 113
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
OO
Generic model of IGW
Properties of prototype IGW
Rudimentary characteristics of wave motions in large-scale flows
Physical nature of Rossby waves in a simplest possible model
Properties of prototype Rossby waves
Forced orographic Rossby waves in a shallow-water model
113
119
129
131
132
141
5.9 Some observed statistical properties of Rossby waves 147
5.10 Edge waves 149

6 Quasi-geostrophic theory and two-layer model 153

6.1 Observed features of a synoptic disturbance 153
6.2 Scale analysis 155
PR
6.3 Quasi-geostrophic system of equations 157
6.4 Diagnostic function of the QG theory 160
6.5 Prognostic function of the QG theory 165
6.6 Intrinsic wave modes in a QG model 168
6.7 Evolution of a baroclinic jet streak in a quasi-geostrophic two-layer model 172
6.8 Influences of the Earth’s sphericity in the QG theory 182

7 Dynamic adjustment 187

7.1 Problem of rotational adjustment 187
7.2 Rossby problem of geostrophic adjustment 188
7.3 Complementary Rossby problem 196
7.4 Gradient-wind adjustment problem 201
Concluding remarks 207
Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:05

ix Contents

8 Instability theories 209

Part 8A Small-scale and meso-scale instability 209

8A.1 Static instability and the impact of damping 210

8A.2 Inertial instability and an application 213
8A.3 Symmetric instability and an application 220

Part 8B Purely barotropic and purely baroclinic instability 225

F
8B.1 Historical highlights of past studies 225
8B.2 Aspects of barotropic instability 227
8B.3 Optimal growth of barotropic disturbance 235
8B.4 Baroclinic instability in a two-layer QG model 240
8B.5 Modal growth 245
8B.6
8B.7
8B.8
OO
Transient growth
Optimal growth
Wave-activity density and general necessary condition for instability
Concluding remarks

Part 8C Instability of jets

256
259
262
264

265

8C.1 Nature and scope of the problem 265

8C.2 Barotropic-governor effect 267
8C.3 Instability of baroclinic jets 270
8C.4 Instability of a localized barotropic jet 276
8C.5 Instability of a localized baroclinic jet 282
PR
Concluding remarks 290

Part 8D Moist baroclinic instability 290

8D.1 Introductory remarks 290

8D.2 A particular instability analysis 292
Concluding remarks 308

9 Stationary planetary wave dynamics 309

9.1 Observed characteristics of stationary planetary waves 309
9.2 Introductory remarks about the dynamics of stationary waves 311
9.3 Impact of basic zonal flow on wave propagation 313
9.4 Thermally forced stationary waves 320
9.5 Orographically forced stationary waves 333
9.6 Illustrative application: mean Asian monsoonal circulation 341
Concluding remarks 348
Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:06

x Contents

10 Wave-mean flow interaction 350

10.1 Eulerian mean meridional overturning circulation 350
10.2 Lagrangian mean meridional overturning circulation 355
10.3 Linear theory for the overturning circulation 356
10.4 Non-Acceleration Theorem 373
10.5 Stratospheric sudden warming 375

11 Equilibration dynamics of baroclinic waves 382

11.1 Introductory remarks 382
11.2 Rudiments of geostrophic turbulence in a two-layer model 385

F
11.3 Life cycle of baroclinic waves 393
11.4 Symbiotic relation between synoptic and planetary waves 403
11.5 Relative intensity of the winter storm tracks 410

12 Nongeostrophic dynamics 419

OO
12.1 Surface frontogenesis
12.2 Hadley circulation
12.3 Non-supercell tornadogenesis

Appendix: Mathematical tools

References
419
428
443

458
476
Index 481
The color plates are situated between pages 370 and 371.
PR
Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:06

Preface

Atmospheric dynamics is the foundation for understanding the movement of air currents.
As such, it is a core component of all atmospheric science curricula. Atmospheric dynam-

F
ics is the discipline concerned with what different classes of geophysical disturbances are
made up of, how and why they form, what factors dictate their structure and movement,
how the Earth’s uneven surface impacts them, how they evolve to their mature stage, how
they interact with the background flow, how they eventually decay and, above all, how
they collectively constrain the atmospheric general circulation as a whole. An analysis of

OO
atmospheric dynamics can be process-oriented trying to address one or more of the
questions above. Its goal would be to establish quantitative understanding of the nature
of those processes. An analysis of atmospheric dynamics can be also phenomenon-oriented
with the objective of developing a feel for why a specific phenomenon is as observed. We
strive to cover both aspects of atmospheric dynamics in this book.
This book is mainly intended to serve students of atmospheric sciences. The goal is to
come up with a book distinctly different from but complementary to the existing pool of
texts on atmospheric dynamics. This book aims at being a resource valuable to instructors
and self-explanatory to students as much as possible. It would be a bonus if weather
forecasters as well as some practitioners in atmospheric science, ocean science, environ-
mental science and applied mathematics find this book to be a useful reference.
Progress in atmospheric dynamics would not have been possible without the introduc-
PR
tion of various insightful concepts and approximations. They greatly simplify the quanti-
tative investigations of atmospheric disturbances with analytical and numerical methods.
Computer graphics help visualize the structures and processes. For this reason, all of them
receive due emphasis in the discussions. We extensively use schematics to depict the
conceptual issues. We use different means to strengthen the connection between theoretical
dynamics and atmospheric observations. For instance, real-time weather maps are gener-
ated to illustrate the various dynamical characteristics of atmospheric disturbances. The
spatial and temporal statistical properties of various classes of disturbances are examined
as background information for related theoretical discussions of their dynamical roles.
Analyses with idealized models are used to highlight the essence of the phenomena under
consideration.
The first half of the book discusses the physical concepts of atmospheric dynamics as
well as the mathematical methodology at the fundamental level. The emphasis is to
elucidate the physical nature of dynamical processes. The materials are written with
undergraduates in mind who might have only cursory exposure to atmospheric sciences.
With the exception of several sections on the more advanced topics, the first five chapters
can be used in an introductory course on atmospheric dynamics. It would be helpful and/or
xi
Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:07

xii Preface

necessary for an instructor to elaborate on the more technical aspects of the materials for
the benefit of the uninitiated students. The more advanced topics are best reserved for a
follow-up course of atmospheric dynamics. A second undergraduate course may begin
with a review of the basic materials at a faster pace and proceed to cover a number of
additional topics selected from the first eight chapters.
The second half of the book is suitable for graduate students who are already familiar
with the basics. It is a collection upward of twenty-five illustrative model analyses of a
wide variety of dynamical issues manifested in different interesting phenomena. The
materials may be used as a graduate course sometimes called “Special Topics of Atmos-
pheric Dynamics.” The overriding objective is to show how one might tackle problems

F
concerning the dynamics of different types of disturbances with the use of simple models.
I show the merit of different approaches and mathematical methods dependent on the
nature of the problem under consideration. Through the sample analyses, I hope to convey
the idea that physical reasoning is even more crucial than mathematical skill in tackling
dynamical problems. The discussions of several topics extensively make use of published

OO
research articles. The other illustrative model analyses and computations are specifically
performed for this book. The physical meanings of the model results are discussed with
generous use of figures. I strive to present each model analysis in a self-contained manner,
so that they need not be read in sequence. The format of presentation in the second half of
the book is therefore quite different from that used in the first half. These analyses are
considerably more involved than typical homework assignments. They are more akin to
term projects. I would encourage students, either individually or in groups, to reproduce
some of the results as challenging exercises.
The book has twelve chapters starting with a synopsis in each:
• Chapter 1 introduces the basic concepts such as the continuum hypothesis of a fluid,
Lagrangian versus Eulerian descriptions, non-inertial reference frame, stratification and
PR
baroclinicity. It reviews all the laws of physics needed for investigating the dry dynamics
of atmospheric flows.
• Chapter 2 discusses the nature of different types of dynamical balance in atmospheric
flows. The governing equations in different coordinate systems for atmospheric analyses
are derived. We also elaborate on the general kinematic properties of atmospheric flows.
• Chapter 3 is a lengthy chapter focusing on the rotational properties of a geophysical flow.
We discuss the concepts of vorticity, circulation and potential vorticity in conjunction
with the related governing equations and mathematical theorems. The roles of different
physical factors are delineated. This chapter also contains a detailed discussion of some
advanced topics such as the impermeability theorem for potential vorticity and the notion
of generalized potential vorticity for succinctly representing the impact of boundary from
the perspective of vorticity dynamics.
• Chapter 4 discusses the impacts of small turbulent eddies on a background flow as a
frictional force. The effect of such turbulence is discussed in the context of a simple
parameterization. We introduce the notion of boundary layer. We analyze the structures
of several different types of boundary layers and their implications, especially the
atmospheric and oceanic Ekman layers.
Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:07

xiii Preface

• Chapter 5 discusses the fundamentals of wave dynamics concerned with internal gravity
waves and Rossby waves. The characteristics of those free wave modes about their
structure, propagation, dispersion and energetics are quantitatively examined. We also
delineate the dynamical nature of the forced wave modes with two illustrative analyses.
We examine some observed properties of Rossby waves in the format of general
circulation statistics. We finally discuss the dynamics of edge waves.
• Chapter 6 presents the quasi-geostrophic theory for large-scale atmospheric flows, which
heralded the major advances of dynamic meteorology. After showing some real-time
weather maps of a representative event, we discuss the formulation of this theory. The
particular form of this theory in a two-layer model setting is presented next. We illustrate

F
all the dynamical concepts with an analysis of a baroclinic jet streak. The influences of
the Earth’s sphericity in the QG theory are finally discussed.
• Chapter 7 discusses how and why the velocity and pressure fields of a large-scale
atmospheric flow would rapidly adjust towards a new balanced state whenever their
existing balance is upset by unspecified causes. We analyze the adjustments from two

OO
canonical forms of initial imbalance.
• Chapter 8 is a lengthy chapter divided into four parts for clarity. It covers a potpourri of
instability theories for disturbances of widely different sizes arising from different
classes of shear flows. The first part deals with the instability of small-scale and meso-
scale disturbances. The second and third parts discuss the transient and modal dynamics
of cyclogenesis in the extratropics for basic flows of increasing structural complexity.
The fourth part discusses the large-scale moist instability arising from self-induced
condensational heating.
• Chapter 9 discusses the observed characteristics and the dynamics of stationary planetary
waves. We examine the propagation of such waves through a weak horizontal or vertical
background shear flow. The similarities and differences in the responses to large-scale
thermal and/or topographic forcing are then delineated. An analysis of the summer mean
PR
Asian monsoon as a forced circulation serves to illustrate the dynamical properties of this
important class of wave disturbances in a recognizable setting.
• Chapter 10 addresses the dynamics of interaction between a zonal mean flow and large-
scale waves in the context of two intriguing phenomena. We begin by examining the
mean meridional overturning circulation in both Eulerian and Lagrangian senses
deduced from a global dataset. We perform a linear model analysis of them with the
use of empirical forcing. Wave-mean flow interaction is then discussed in the context
of stratospheric sudden warming.
• Chapter 11 discusses the equilibration dynamics of nonlinear baroclinic waves. We begin
with a discussion of the rudiments of geostrophic turbulence in a two-layer model
setting. It serves as background information for three specific analyses. The first analysis
delineates the dynamics of life cycle of baroclinic waves. The second analysis brings to
light a symbiotic relation between synoptic-scale waves and planetary-scale waves of
a forced dissipative system. The third analysis looks into the dynamical nature of the
relative intensity of the two major winter storm tracks.
• Chapter 12 discusses the nature of nongeostrophic dynamics in the context of three very
different phenomena: surface frontogenesis, Hadley circulation and non-supercell
Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:08

xiv Preface

tornadogenesis. We present three illustrative model analyses of them using very different
mathematical methods.
• An appendix summarizes the mathematical tools used in the book as a quick reference
for some readers who might not have used them for a while.
• Problems and exercises are posted online in the website of the Cambridge University
Press with the intention of updating them periodically in future. See www.cambridge.
org/9780521195737
• Only the research articles and books that readily came to mind during the writing of this
book are included. I have made no special effort to comprise a comprehensive bibliog-
raphy. There is no doubt that the resulting list of references is quite incomplete.

F
The framework of this book has been gradually taking shape over the course of many
years of teaching and research at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois,
USA. Zhenhua Li, Xian Lu, Sara T. Strey, Lantao Sun and Andy Vanloocke provided me
with feedback on a number of chapters in the first half of the book from the students’

OO
perspective. Professors Ming Cai, Yi Deng and Lin Wang at different universities kindly
gave me feedback on three chapters from the instructors’ perspective. A number of
anonymous reviewers solicited by the publisher provided some valuable suggestions. All
this feedback has prompted significant revisions of the draft and for that, I am most
appreciative. Joseph Grim and David Wojtowicz helped produce the high-resolution real-
time weather maps. Lusheng Liang made the diagnosis of a five-year global dataset and
wrote the code of model calculation that produces the figures in Chapter 10. Their technical
contributions are indispensable and gratefully acknowledged. Finally, I would like to thank
the editorial staff of Cambridge University Press – Matt Lloyd, Chris Hudson, Laura Clark
and Sabine Koch – for their inputs and suggestions that helped make writing this book
a wonderful experience of going through the maze of publication protocol.
PR