Mechanics: The oldest physical
science that deals with both stationary
Fluid Mechanics
Physics for Engineers
Fluid Statics
Basic Principles:
 Fluid is at rest : no shear forces
 Pressure is the only force acting
What are the forces acting on the
block?
 Air pressure on the surface - neglect
 Weight of the water above the block
 Pressure only a function of depth
Ideal fluid:
A fluid, which is incompressible and having no viscosity,
is known as an ideal fluid. Ideal fluid is only an imaginary
fluid as all the fluids, which exist, have some viscosity.
Real fluid:
A fluid, which possesses viscosity, is known as real fluid.
All the fluids, in actual practice, are real fluids.
Example : Water, Air etc.
Newtonian fluid:
A real fluid, in which shear stress in directly proportional
to the rate of shear strain or velocity gradient, is known
as a Newtonian fluid.
Example : Water, Benzine etc.
Non Newtonian fluid:
A real fluid, in which shear stress in not directly
proportional to the rate of shear strain or velocity
gradient, is known as a Non Newtonian fluid.
Example : Plaster, Slurries, Pastes etc.
and moving bodies under the influence
of forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics that
deals with bodies at rest.
Dynamics: The branch that deals with
bodies in motion.
Fluid mechanics: The science that
deals with the behavior of fluids at rest
(fluid statics) or in motion (fluid
dynamics), and the interaction of fluids
with solids or other fluids at the
boundaries.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is
also referred to as fluid dynamics by
considering fluids at rest as a special Fluid mechanics deals
case of motion with zero velocity. with liquids and gases in
1 2
motion or at rest.
What is a Fluid?
Fluid: A substance in the liquid or gas phase.
3 4
Ideal plastic fluid:
A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the yield value
and shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear
strain or velocity gradient, is known as ideal plastic fluid.
Incompressible fluid:
A fluid, in which the density of fluid does not change
which change in external force or pressure, is known as
incompressible fluid. All liquid are considered in this
category.
Compressible fluid:
A fluid, in which the density of fluid changes while
change in external force or pressure, is known as
compressible fluid. All gases are considered in this
category.
5 6
1
 Laminar versus Turbulent Flow Natural (or Unforced)
Laminar flow: The highly versus Forced Flow
ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth Forced flow: A fluid is forced
layers of fluid. The flow of to flow over a surface or in a
high-viscosity fluids such as pipe by external means such
oils at low velocities is as a pump or a fan.
typically laminar.
Natural flow: Fluid motion is
Transitional flow: A flow due to natural means such as
that alternates between the buoyancy effect, which
being laminar and turbulent.
manifests itself as the rise of
Turbulent flow: The highly warmer (and thus lighter) fluid
disordered fluid motion that and the fall of cooler (and thus
typically occurs at high
denser) fluid.
velocities and is
characterized by velocity In this schlieren image of a girl in a
fluctuations. The flow of low- swimming suit, the rise of lighter, warmer air
viscosity fluids such as air at adjacent to her body indicates that humans
high velocities is typically and warm-blooded animals are surrounded
turbulent. by thermal plumes of rising warm air.
Laminar, transitional, and turbulent flows
7 8
over a flat plate.

Steady versus Unsteady Flow

• The term steady implies no change at Properties of Fluids
a point with time.
• The opposite of steady is unsteady. 1. Density ( ) is defined as its mass per unit volume. It is
• The term uniform implies no change a measurement of how tightly matter is crammed
with location over a specified region. together.
• The term periodic refers to the kind of 1
unsteady flow in which the flow = = =
oscillates about a steady mean.
• Many devices such as turbines, • ρ = density (kg/m3, slugs/ft3)
compressors, boilers, condensers,
and heat exchangers operate for long
• m = mass (kg, slugs)
periods of time under the same • V = volume (m3, ft3)
conditions, and they are classified as
steady-flow devices. • = specific volume (m3/kg, ft3/slug)
1 slug = 32.174 lbm = 14.594 kg
1 kg = 2.2046 lbm = 6.8521x10-2 slugs
9 10

Properties of Fluids
2. Specific Weight ( ) is defined as weight per unit
volume. Weight is a force.
= = =
• = specific weight (N/m3, lb/ft3)
• ρ = density (kg/m3, slugs/ft3)
• g = acceleration of gravity (9.8 m/s2, 32.2 ft/s2)
Less dense fluids will float on top of more dense fluids, and
less dense solids will float on top of more dense fluids.
for water: = 62.4 lbs/ft3 or 9.81 kN/m3
Less dense will float. More dense will sink.
of water = 1000 kg/m3 = 62.4 lb/ft3
of mercury = 13590 kg/m3
of air = 1.2 kg/ m3 11 12

2
 Properties of Fluids Examples
3. Specific Gravity (relative density) (SG) of a material, 1. The density of titanium is 4507 kg/m3. The mass of 0.17
which is the ratio of the material's density to the density of kg. What is the volume of the titanium?
water. 2. A golden-colored cube is handed to you. The person
 An object with a specific gravity less than 1 will float in wants you to buy it for $100, saying that is a gold nugget.
water, while a specific gravity greater than 1 means it will You pull out your old geology text and look up gold in the
sink. mineral table, and read that its density is 19.3 g/cm3. You
measure the cube and find that it is 2 cm on each side, and
= =
weighs 40 g. What is its density? Is it gold? Should you buy
it?
SG of air = 1
SG of mercury = 13.55
13 14

Examples Properties of Fluids

1. A piece of unknown material has an intricate shape. It has a mass 4. Pressure is defined as force per unit area.
of 126 g. You submerge it to find it displaces 422 ml of water. What
is the specific gravity of the piece? Ans. 0.3
2. A board measures 2" x 6" x 5'. It weighs 15 lbs, 4 oz. Determine its
weight density and specific gravity. Ans. 36.6 lbs/ft3, 0.59 =
3. A rectangular block measures 2.3 x 5.1 x 7.8 centimeters. It has a
mass of 66 grams. Determine its density and specific gravity. Ans.
0.721 g/cc, 0.72
4. A cylinder of plastic is 100 mm long, and 50 mm in diameter. It has
a mass of 1 kg. Determine its specific gravity and indicate whether
it would float or sink in water. Ans. 5.09, sink • Units of pressure are N/m2 or Pascals (Pa) – 1 N/m2 = 1 Pa

• Atmospheric pressure = 1 atm = 101.3 kPa = 1 x 105 N/m2

15 16

Examples
Standard Atmospheric Pressure: 1. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is about 1.0x105
Pa. What is the force at sea level that air exerts on the
1 atmosphere (atm) = 14.7 lbs/in2 (psi) top of a desk that is 152 cm long and 76 cm wide? Ans.
1.2 x 105 N
= 760 Torr (mm Hg) 2. A lead brick, 5.0 cm 10.0 cm 20.0 cm, rests on the
= 1013.25 millibars ground on its smallest face. Lead has a density of 11.8
g/cm3. What pressure does the brick exert on the
= 101.3 kPascals ground? Ans. 23 kPa

17 18

3
 Properties of Fluids Properties of Fluids
5. Viscosity – the property of a fluid to resist 6. Surface tension - forces between 2
the force tending to cause the fluid to flow. liquids or gas and liquid - droplets on a
 Viscosity fluid deforms when acted on by windshield.
shear stress The surface of a liquid at rest
is not perfectly flat; it curves
m = 1.12 x 10-3 N-s/m2 either up or down at the walls
of the container. This is the
result of surface tension,
which makes the surface
behave somewhat elastically.
19 20

Variation of pressure with The deeper you go, the higher

depth in a liquid the pressure
• Anybody does scuba
diving knows that the hypothetical volume
pressure increases of water inside a
as he dive to greater PTopA
larger volume.
depths
density = mass/volume
• The increasing water
pressure with depth r = mass/Vol
limits how deep a PBottomA W

submarine can go or mass = r  Vol

crush depth 2200 ft
21 22

Forces in a STATIC fluid (at rest) Variation of pressure with depth

• W is the weight = mg of this
volume FBOTTOM - FTOP = mg = (density x Vol) x g
FTOP
• FTOP is the force on the top of FBOTTOM - FTOP = r A H g rho
the volume exerted by the Since pressure is Force / area, Force = P x A
H
fluid above it pushing down
• FBOTTOM is the force on the PBottom A – PTop A = r A H g, or
FBOTTOM volume due to the fluid below
W
it pushing up
• For this volume not to move PBottom – PTop = r H g
(Static fluid) we must have
that The pressure below is greater
FBOTTOM = FTOP + mg than the pressure above.
23 24

4
 Pressure in a fluid increases Gauge Pressure, Absolute Pressure and
with depth h Atmospheric Pressure

The pressure at the surface is

atmospheric pressure, 105 N/m2
Po = Patm

Pressure at depth h
h
P(h) = Po + rgh
P(h)
r = density (kg/m3)
= 1000 kg/m3 for water

25 26

Atmospheric Pressure Gauge Pressure

Atmospheric Pressure (Pa) – is the pressure exerted by the Gauge Pressure ( ) is the excess pressure above atmospheric
atmosphere. pressure. It is measured with measuring instruments. It is above
atmospheric pressure.
 The atmospheric pressure varies with temperature and • is negative, if the pressure is the pressure is less than
altitude above sea level. atmospheric, partial vacuum.
 At higher altitude, less pressure. The deeper the height • is positive, if pressure is above atmospheric.
below sea level, greater pressure.
 As temperature increases, pressure increases. =
1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa
= 14.7 lb/in2 • Vacuum pressure – it is the negative pressure or pressure
= 760 mm Hg measured below atmospheric pressure.
= 760 torr
1 bar = 1.00 × 105 N/m2 27 28

Pressure is always perpendicular

Absolute Pressure
to the surface of an object
• Absolute Pressure ( ) – is the total
pressure measured from absolute vacuum.

= +

29 30

5
 Pressure increases
Pressure depends only on depth with depth, so the
speed of water leaking
from the bottom hole is
larger than that from the
higher ones.

31 32

Calculating Crush Depth of a Submarine Measuring atmospheric

Q. A nuclear submarine is rated to withstand a pressure pressure - Barometers
difference of 70 before catastrophic failure. If the
Inverted closed
internal air pressure is maintained at 1 , what is the The column of liquid is
tube filled with
maximum permissible depth ? held up by the pressure of
liquid
the liquid in the tank. Near
the surface this pressure
= 0 + ℎ is atmospheric pressure, so
PATM PATM the atmosphere holds the
− 0 = 70 = 7.1 × 106 ; = 1 × 103 / 3
liquid up.

− 0 7.1 × 106
ℎ= = = 720
1 × 103 × 9.8
33
Pliquid 34

Barometric pressure Measuring Pressure

Q. What is height of mercury (Hg)
Atmospheric pressure at 1 ?
can support a column
= 13.6 /
of water 10.3 m high,
or a column of = + ℎ→ℎ= /
0
mercury (which is
13.6 times as dense 1 × 105
ℎ= = 0.75
as water) 30 inches 1.36 × 104 × 9.8
high  the mercury
barometer
Today’s weather Atmospheric pressure can support a 10 meters high
35
column of water. Moving to higher density fluids = + ℎ36
allows a table top barometer to be easily constructed.

6
 Examples Examples
1. Water stands 12.0 m deep in a storage tank whose top is open to the 1. A manometer tube is partially filled
atmosphere. What are the absolute and gauge pressures at the bottom of the with water. Oil is poured into the left
tank? Ans. 31.8 lb/in.2, 17.1 lb/in.2 arm of the tube until the oil-water
2. A mercury barometer reads 747.0 mm Hg on the roof of a building and 760.0 interface is at the midpoint of the tube.
mm Hg on the ground. Assuming a constant value of 1.29 kg/m3 for the Both arms of the tube are open to the
density of air, determine the height of the building. Ans. 137.1 m
3. A barrel contains a 0.120-m layer of oil floating on water air. Find the height of the oil if the
that is 0.250 m deep. The density of the oil is 600 kg/m3(a) What is the gauge height of water is 12 cm. density of oil
pressure at the oil–water interface? (b) What is the gauge pressure at the is 850 kg/m3. Ans. 0.14m
bottom of the barrel? 705.6 Pa, 3155.6 Pa
4. A 1.00-m-tall container is filled to the brim, partway with mercury and the 2. The atmospheric pressure above a swimming pool changes
rest of the way with water. The container is open to the atmosphere. What from 755 to 765 mm of mercury. The bottom of them pool is a
must be the depth of the mercury so that the absolute pressure on the rectangle 12m x 24 m. By how much does the force on the
bottom of the container is twice the atmospheric pressure? Ans. 0.74 m
bottom of the pool increase? Ans. 3.8 x 105 N

37 38

Pascal’s principle
An external pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is
Pascal’s Principle transmitted to every point within the fluid.
• If you apply pressure
to an enclosed fluid, Hydraulic lift
that pressure is
transmitted equally to
all parts of the fluid
• If I exert extra
F1 / A1 = P = F2 / A2
pressure on the fluid
with a piston, the
pressure in the fluid
increases everywhere
by that amount

39 Assume fluid is “incompressible” 40

Pascal’s principle

Hydraulic lift
Example
1. A hydraulic system is used to lift a 2000-kg vehicle in an
auto garage. If the vehicle sits on a piston of area 0.5
square meter, and a force is applied to a piston of area
F1 / A1 = P = F2 / A2
0.03 square meters, what is the minimum force that must
be applied to lift the vehicle?

Are we getting “something for nothing”?

Assume fluid is “incompressible”

41 42
so Work in = Work out!

7
 Example
The barber raises his customer’s
chair by applying a force of 150N to a
hydraulic piston of area 0.01 m2. If the
chair is attached to a piston of area
0.1 m2, how massive a customer can
the chair raise? Assume the chair
itself has a mass of 5 kg. ans. 1500
N, 148 kg

= 153 − 5 = 148

43 44

Buoyancy Archimedes’ Principle

A fluid exerts a net upward force on any object it
surrounds, called the buoyant force.
This force is due to the
increased pressure at the
bottom of the object
compared to the top.
Archimedes’ Principle: An object completely immersed
in a fluid experiences an upward buoyant force equal in
magnitude to the weight of fluid displaced by the object.
Buoyant Force When a Volume V is
Submerged in a Fluid of Density ρfluid
Fb = ρfluid gV

Consider a cube
with sides = L
Q: Does buoyant force
depend on depth?
a) yes
b) no

45 46

Will it float? Floating objects

• The object will float if the buoyant force is
enough to support the object’s weight
• The object will displace just enough water lighter object heavier object
so that the buoyant force = its weight
• If it displaces as much water as possible
and this does not match its weight, it will
sink.
• Objects that have a density less than
water will always float.
47 48

8

Apparent weight: the weight of a body as
affected by the buoyance of a fluid in which
it is immersed.
= −
True weight: is the actual weight of a body
Examples
1. A balloon having a volume of 5.000 L is placed on a sensitive
balance which registers a weight of 2.833 g. What is the "true
weight" of the balloon if the density of the air is 1.294 g L–1?
9.303 g
2. A wooden raft has a density of 0.500 × kg/m3 and
dimensions of 3.05m x 6.1m x 0.305m. How deep does it sink
into the water when unloaded? What is the maximum number
of 70 kg people can the raft carry before it sinks? Ans. 0.153
m, 40 people.

49 50

Fluid Flow and Continuity

Continuity tells us that whatever the mass of fluid in a CONTINUITY PRINCIPLE
pipe passing a particular point per second, the same mass → the rate of flow into an area must equal the rate of flow out of
must pass every other point in a second. The fluid is not
accumulating or vanishing along the way. an area.

RATE OF FLOW
Volume Flow Rate – is a measure of the volume of fluid
passing a point in the system per unit time. The volumetric
flow rate can be calculated as the product of the cross
Volume per
unit time sectional area (A) for flow and the average flow velocity (c).
̇= =Av=constant
̇ =volume flow rate (m3/s) ̇ = ̇
A=cross sectional area (m2)
This means that where the pipe is 1 1 = 2 2
v=velocity of the fluid (m/s)
narrower, the fluid is flowing faster
51 52

Mass Flow Rate – is a measure of the mass Example

of fluid passing a point in the system per unit
time. The mass flow rate is related to the 1. A pipe with an inner diameter of 4 inches contains water
volumetric flow rate. that flows at an average velocity of 14 feet per second.
Calculate the volumetric flow rate of water in the pipe.
̇ = ̇ ̇ = Ans. 1.22 ft3/sec.
=
1 1 = 2 2 :for compressible fluid
1 1 = 2 2 :for incompressible fluid

• ̇ =
• ρ = density
• ̇ = volume flow rate 53 54

9
 Example
2. The water in the pipe had a density of 62.44 lbm/ft3 and
a diameter of 4 inches. Calculate the mass flow rate. 76.18
lbm/s
Example
1. Water enters a typical garden hose
of diameter 1.6 cm with a velocity of 3
m/s. Calculate the exit velocity of water
from the garden hose when a nozzle of
diameter 0.5 cm is attached to the end
of the hose.

55 56

Example
2. A piping system has a “Y”
configuration for separating
the flow. The diameter of the
inlet leg is 12 in, and the
diameters of the outlet legs
are 8 and 10 in. The velocity
in the 10 in. leg is 10 ft/sec.
The flow through the main
portion is 500 lbm/sec. The
density of water is 62.4
lbm/ft3. What is the velocity
out of the 8 in. pipe section?
57
Ans. 7.33 ft/sec. 58

Example
3. A water hose 2.5 cm in diameter is used by a gardener
to fill a 30 L bucket. The gardener notes that it takes 1.00
min to fill the bucket. A nozzle with an opening of cross-
sectional area 0.5 cm2 is then attached to the hose. The
nozzle is held so that water is projected horizontally from a
distant point 1.00 m above the ground. Over what
horizontal distance can the water be projected?

59 60

10
 Conservation of Mass: The Continuity
Eqn.
Q. A river is 40m wide, 2.2m deep and flows at 4.5 m/s. It passes
through a 3.7-m wide gorge, where the flow rate increases to 6.0
m/s. How deep is the gorge?

2 = 2 2

1 = 1 1

∶ 1 1 = 2 2 → 1 1 1 = 2 2 2

1 1 1 40 × 2.2 × 4.5
61 2 = = = 18 62
2 2 3.7 × 6.0

Bernoulli’s Equation Bernoulli’s Equation

When a fluid moves from a wider area of a pipe to a narrower
Bernoulli’s Principle states that fluids moving at
one, its speed increases; therefore, work has been done on it.
higher velocities lead to lower pressures, and fluids
moving at lower velocities result in higher pressures.

The kinetic energy of a fluid element is:

Equating the work done to the increase in

kinetic energy gives:
Where fluid moves faster, pressure is lower 63 64

Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation

Bernoulli’s Equation
If a hole is punched in the side of an open
The general case, where both height and speed container, the outside of the hole and the top of
may change, is described by Bernoulli’s equation: the fluid are both at atmospheric pressure.

Since the fluid inside

the container at the
ℎ1 ℎ2 level of the hole is at
higher pressure, the
This equation is essentially a statement of fluid has a horizontal
conservation of energy in a fluid. velocity as it exits.

65 66

11
 Torricelli’s theorem Conservation of Energy: Bernoulli’s
Eqn.
Q. Find the velocity of water leaving a tank through a hole in the
Torricelli’s law, Torricelli’s principle, or Torricelli’s side 1 metre below the water level.
equation:
+ 2 + =
”statement that the speed, v, of a liquid flowing
under the force of gravity out of an opening in a tank is ℎ : =1 , = 0, =1
proportional jointly to the square root of the vertical
distance, h, between the liquid surface and the centre of ℎ : =1 , =? , =0
the opening and to the square root of twice the acceleration
caused by gravity, 2g". + = + 2

= = 2 = 2 × 9.8 × 1 = 4.4 /

67 68

Example
1. Water enters a house through
a pipe with an inside
diameter of 2.0 cm at an
absolute pressure of 4.0 x 105
Pa. (about 4 atm). A 1.0-cm-
diameter pipe leads to the
second-floor bathroom 5.0 m
above. When the flow speed at
the inlet pipe is 1.5 m/s, find the
flow speed, pressure, and
volume flow rate in the
bathroom.
69 70

Example
2. Water at a gauge pressure of 3.8 atm at street level
flows in to an office building at a speed of 0.6 m/s through a
pipe 5.0 cm in diameter. The pipes taper down to 2.6 cm in
diameter by the top floor, 20 m above. Calculate the flow
velocity and the gauge pressure in such a pipe on the top
̇ floor. Assume no branch pipe and ignore viscosity. Ans.
̇ 2.22 m/s, 1.9 x 105 Pa
Given: Req’d:
1 = 3.8 2 =?
1 = 0.6 / 2 =?
1 =5 2 = 2.6
ℎ=0 ℎ = 20
71 72

12
 = =
4
1 1 = 2 2 1 1
+ 2 + ℎ1 = + 2 + ℎ2
1 1 1 1 2 2
= 2 2 2
2 2
1 2
1 2
1 1 + 1 + ℎ1 − 2 − ℎ2 = 2
1 2 2
= 4
1 1
2 = 2 1 2
1 2
2 2 2 = 1+ 1 + ℎ1 − 2 − ℎ2
4 2 2
2
1 2
1 2
1 1 1 2 = 1 + 1 − 2 + ℎ1 − ℎ2
2 = 2
= 1 2 2
2 2 1 2 2
2 = 1 + 1 − 2 + (ℎ1 − ℎ2)
1 2
2 = 1 1.013 × 10 1
2 2 = 3.8 × + 1000 0.62 − 2.222 + 1000(9.8)(0 − 20)
1 2
5 2 = 190669.8 Pa
2 = 0.6
2.6 2 = 1.9 × 10 Pa
2 = 2.22 /
73 74

Example = 2 ℎ
= 2(9.8)(0.6)
= 3.13 /
3. A nearsighted sheriff fires a cattle rustler
3m
with his trusty six-shooter. Fortunately for the = 3.13 /
cattle rustler, the bullet misses him and x =0
penetrates the town water tank and causes a 1
= +
leak. If the top of the tank is open to the 0
2
1
atmosphere, determine the speed at which the 3= 0 + (9.8)
2
water leaves at the hole when the water level 3 = 4.9
is 0.5 m above the hole. If the head of the 3
=
cattle rustler is 3m below the level of the hole = 4.9
in the tank, where must he stand to get doused = = 0.782
with water? 3.13 m/s, 2.45 m/s from the water = 3.13 0.782
tank = 2.45

75 76

13